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BIOLOGY
• It is defined as the study of living organisms.

• Living organisms are classified into five major groups called kingdoms, namely:
Animals

Plants

Fungi

Protoctists

Prokaryotes (bacteria) 2
 UNIT 1
CHARACTERISTICS & CLASSIFICATION OF
LIVING ORGANISMS

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

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 Characteristics of living things
• There are seven (7) characteristics of living things, namely;

Movement
Sensitivity
Growth
Reproduction
Excretion
Respiration
Nutrition

• These are at times referred to as life processes. 5

 Movement

• All living things move.

• Movement is observed when:
Organisms move themselves around (i.e. whole body movement)
Organisms move parts of themselves into new areas or change position.

• Movement is obvious with most animals, but not with plants.

• Movement in plants occurs as:
Observed under a microscope
They grow
Their leaves and stems move upwards towards sunlight e.g. sunflower
Their roots move down the soil in search for water, minerals & nutrients.
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 Sensitivity

• All living things respond to stimuli (pl. / sing. stimulus).

• They have the ability to detect or sense changes (stimuli) that occur in their
internal & external environment.

• The combined abilities of detecting & responding to stimulus by all living

organisms is referred to as sensitivity.

• Animals use sense organs for detecting & responding to changes in light
intensity, sound, touch, pressure and chemicals in the air and in food.

• Plants detect & respond to changes in the direction of “movement of the sun”
[Does the sun move?] e.g. sunflower. 7
 Growth

• All living things are capable of growing.

• Growth of an organism can be measured:

By the permanent increase in size and weight;

Due to the increase in cell number, cell size, or both within an organism.

• Growth occurs as substances are being taken into the organism in a process
called nutrition.
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Reproduction
 All living organisms increase in numbers as a result of reproduction.
 Reproduction is the making of new individuals.
 Divided into sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
• Involves two parent organisms (male & • Only one parent organism is involved.
female).
• They produce gametes i.e. sex cells
(male-sperm; female-egg). • There are no gametes involved.
• The gametes fuse (join) together to
make an offspring (new organism). • E.g. growing sweet potatoes, cassava, etc.

• Offsprings may show variation i.e. they • The new organisms (offsprings) produced are
are not identical to each other or to their often identical to each other and to the parent
parents. (Not parents!). 9
 Excretion
• This is the removal of toxic materials (poisonous, e.g. uric acid in urine),
substances in excess of requirements, & waste products of metabolism from the
bodies of living organisms.

• Metabolism – all the chemical processes or reactions that occur within the body
of an organism.

• E.g. Respiration
• Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

CO2 – waste product removed by exhaling.

H2O – excess removed in urine.
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 Respiration
• Living things require energy to move, reproduce, replace worn-out structures or
tissues, etc.
• This energy comes from respiration.

• Respiration – it is the breaking down of glucose into CO2 and H2O to release
energy in all living cells of organisms.
• We have aerobic respiration & anaerobic respiration.

1. Aerobic respiration
• Here, oxygen is used to burn glucose to produce CO2 and H2O with the release
of energy.
• Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
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 2. Anaerobic respiration
• Glucose is broken down without the use of oxygen.

• Glucose → lactic acid + energy

• This process transfers energy quickly from glucose to cells where it is urgently
needed.

• For instance, when sprinting in a 100M race, energy is transferred to your

muscles very quickly.

• Consequently, lactic acid instead of CO2 and H2O are produced.

• Lactic acid can cause fatigue i.e. painful muscle cramps.

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Differences between aerobic respiration & anaerobic
respiration in humans

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Oxygen is necessary Oxygen is not necessary

Large amounts of energy is produced Less amounts of energy is produced

Products are carbon dioxide & water Product is lactic acid 13

 Nutrition
• It is the obtainment of organic substances and mineral ions from which
organisms gain their energy & raw materials for growth and repair of worn-out
tissues.
• These organic substances and mineral ions are called nutrients.

• A nutrient is a substance that provides nourishment essential for growth and

maintenance of life i.e. success (survival & reproduction!).
• NB: Lack of nutrients → malnourishment
• Overall lack of nutrition → malnutrition
• Examples of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, calcium, iron, iodide,
etc.
• Nutrition in green plants involves photosynthesis i.e. the reverse of respiration.
• NB: Animals are unable to photosynthesize, they feed on plants & other animals
to gain energy & nutrients. 14
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

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 Classification
• In biology, classification is a scientific procedure (i.e. stepwise process) that involves
the grouping or sorting of living organisms based on their morphological and
anatomical structures.

• Morphology: deals with form (i.e. shape & size). It is the outward appearance of an
organism, e.g. skin colour, fur, feathers, wings, legs, etc.

• Anatomy: deals with internal structure (through dissection & separation of parts of the
organism).

• There are millions and millions of organisms that exist.

NB: Studying these large numbers would not have been easier had it not been for
classification.
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• Living organisms are classified into five major groups called kingdoms:

Prokaryotes (bacteria)

Protoctists

Fungi

Plants

Animals
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 Background
• A Swedish scientist, Linnaeus, pioneered the work on classification.
• He grouped animals based on similarity of morphological features.
• He called these groups species.

• Species: are groups of organisms which have a lot of features in common, can be
distinguished from other organisms (i.e. from other species), & do not normally
interbreed with other species in nature.

• Species of similar characteristics are grouped into genera (pl.; sing. genus);
• Several genera are then grouped into family;
• A group of families form an order;
• Orders form classes;
• Classes are grouped into phyla;
• Finally, a group of phyla form a kingdom. 18
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 The Binomial System
• Bi – two
• -nomial – name
• Hence binomial means two names.
• This is a system of naming organisms that has been adopted by scientists.

• Biologists have adopted only one language, i.e. Latin, in naming of organisms,
for reasons:
1. To allow the name of a particular organism to be recognized & used all over
the world irrespective of language.
2. To avoid confusions arising from use of different names as a result of
differences in languages.

• NB: For scientific communication, it is important to have one standard set of

names. 20
 Binomial System cntn’d
• In the binomial system, the first part of the name is the genus name.

• The second part is the species name to which the organism belongs to.
• E.g.

NB:
The genus name starts with a capital letter, whereas the species name starts with
a small letter.
The scientific name (i.e. genus & species) is underlined or written in Italic.
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THE FIVE KINGDOMS
1. Prokaryotes (bacteria)
2. Protoctists
3. Fungi
4. Plants
5. Animals

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 Kingdom Prokaryote/Monera (e.g. Bacteria)
Characteristics

• Unicellular (i.e. single-celled)

organisms.

• Have no nuclear membrane.

• Have no nucleus (i.e. chromosomes

(DNA) not enclosed in nucleus
membrane).

• Cell membrane surrounded by cell wall. 23

 Kingdom Protista
Characteristics
• Unicellular organisms (like Kingdom
Monera).

• Unlike Monerans, these have a

nucleus & nuclear membrane.

• i.e. Chromosomes are bound in a

nuclear membrane (nucleus).

• E.g. Chlamydomonas, Euglena,

Amoeba & Paramecium.

• NB: Chlamydomonas contain

chlorophyll i.e. can photosynthesize.
 Kingdom Fungi
Characteristics
• Range from unicellular (e.g. yeast) to
multicellular (e.g. mushroom) organisms.
• Consists of non-green plants.
• Have multinucleate hyphae (i.e. thread-
like structures called filaments).

• Have many nuclei throughout the

cytoplasm of the hyphae.
• Have cell wall, but no chlorophyll.

• Mode of nutrition: Absorption

• i.e. Saprophytic nutrition: Absorption of
nutrients from dead/ decaying matter. 25
 Kingdom Plants
Characteristics
• Their cells have cell wall made of cellulose.
• Some of their cells contain chloroplasts (root cells may not necessarily contain
chloroplasts).
• They synthesize their own food by photosynthesis.

• Their roots spread out through the soil to access water & mineral salts.
• Their stems grow many leaves to absorb sunlight.
• Recall: Light is essential for photosynthesis.

• The kingdom includes seed-bearing plants (Angiosperms & Gymnosperms) &

non seed-bearing plants.
• Angiosperms are divided into monocotyledons & dicotyledons. 26
 A comparison between Monocots & Dicots
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Seeds with one cotyledon (mono - one) Seeds with two cotyledons (di - two)

Leaves with more or less parallel veins Leaves with a network of veins

Cambia (pl.) present Cambium (sing.) present

Groups of vascular tissue scattered Groups of vascular tissue in rings

Pollen grains mostly with one aperture Pollen grains mostly with three or more aperture

Flower parts mostly in three or multiples of three Flower parts mostly in fours or fives or multiples
of four or five

• NB: A cambium is a cylindrical layer of tissue found in the stems and roots of many seed-bearing plants, consisting of
cells that divide rapidly to form new layers of tissue.

• An aperture is a thin and soft area on the walls of a pollen grain where the pollen tube is able to break through the
pollen wall.
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 Kingdom Animals
Characteristics

• This kingdom is made up of multicellular organisms.

• Their cells lack cell wall and chloroplasts.

• i.e. Animals do not photosynthesize, but obtain their food by eating plants and/or
other animals.

• Mode of nutrition: Digestion- this is a heterotrophic type of nutrition i.e. animals

depend on other organisms for their food requirements.

• Animals are divided into Vertebrates and Invertebrates. 28

VERTEBRATES

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 Vertebrates
• These are animals that have a vertebral column or backbone.

• The vertebral column is an internal skeleton made of bone or cartilage.

• There are five major groups of vertebrates, namely; Fish, Birds, Amphibians,
Reptiles & Mammals.

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 Fish
Characteristics
• These permanently live in water.
• There are only a few that are capable of spending
shorts periods of time off water e.g. the mud
skipper (an amphibian fish).
• Have scaly skin.
• Have gills (i.e. fine filaments of tissue rich in
blood vessels) for breathing.
• NB: Fish breathe oxygen dissolved in water.
• Have fins for swimming and balance
• Have eyes and lateral line for detecting pressure
changes in water.
• Examples: Shark, Catfish, etc.
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 Amphibians
Characteristics
• These are vertebrates that live in water, even though
adults live on land.
• i.e. adults have developed a protective skin and lungs.
• Otherwise the have a smooth, moist skin with fewer
scales (hence prefer to remain in water).
• They all return to water to breed.
• Lay large eggs in water.
• The eggs are then fertilized while in the water. This is
called external fertilization.
• Larva lives in water while adult lives on land.
• Larva has gills while adult has lungs.
• Examples: frogs, toads, etc.
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 Reptiles
Characteristics
• Are characterised by having a dry, scaly skin that
prevents water loss.
• They can live in dry regions i.e. they do not need
to return to water to breed, unlike amphibians.

• Fertilization takes place inside the female’s body.

This is called Internal fertilization.
• They lay eggs with a waterproof shell which
protects them from drying out.
• They breath through lungs.
• Examples: Crocodiles, lizards, snakes, etc.

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 Birds
Characteristics
• These are the most diverse of all terrestrial i.e. land
(forests, grasslands, deserts, shorelines & wetlands)
vertebrates.
• Diversity: refers to the total number of different
species in an ecosystem.
• Have feathers & beak adapted to deal with different
types of food.
• Their forelimbs (front limbs) are modified into wings.

• Like reptiles, birds lay eggs with a waterproof hard

shell
• Like reptiles, birds have scales on their legs.
• Fertilization is internal.
• Most birds are able to fly, even though the likes of
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penguins & ostriches can not.
 Mammals
Characteristics
• These are vertebrates with a well-developed cerebral
hemisphere (i.e. brain).
• Their bodies are covered in hair or fur.
• Fertilization & development are both internal i.e. they
give birth to live young already developed.

• They feed their young on milk from their mammary

glands.
• Their heart is made up of four chambers (i.e. right
atrium, Right ventricle, Left atrium & Left ventricle).
• Mammals have well-developed teeth (Types:
Incisors, Canines, Premolars & Molars).
• They are homeothermic i.e. they are capable of
homeostasis – The ability to maintain a constant
internal body temperature, for instance, the average
human body temperature is 37°C.
• Examples: Rats, Humans, Dolphins, etc.
INVERTEBRATES

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 Invertebrates
• These are animals that lack a vertebral column or backbone.

• Arthropods form the largest group of invertebrates.

• They are also the largest group in the whole animal kingdom.

• There are four different types of arthropods, namely; Insects, Crustaceans,

Myriapods & Arachnids.

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 Insects
Characteristics
• About 90% of all arthropods are
insects.
• Their bodies are divided into three
parts: Head, thorax & Abdomen.
• Have three pairs of jointed legs.
• Have waterproof exoskeleton to
prevent water loss.
• Breath through a well-developed
tracheae.
• Have two pairs of wings i.e. insects
can fly
• Examples: Locust, beetles, flies,
cockroaches, etc.
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 Crustaceans
Characteristics
• These are arthropods that live in
wet places.
• Their bodies are divided into two
parts: cephalothorax (head-thorax)
& abdomen.

• Have more than four pairs of

jointed legs.
• Breathe through gills.
• Have two pairs of antennae &
compound eyes.
• Examples: Crabs, Lobsters, prawns,
etc. 39
 Arachnids
Characteristics
• Like crustaceans, the bodies of
arachnids are divided into two
parts: cephalothorax &
abdomen.
• Have four pairs of jointed legs.
• Have no wings.
• Have several pairs of simple
eyes.
• Have no antennae.
• Breathe through gills.
• Have poison fangs to paralyse
their prey.
• Examples: Spiders, Scorpions,
ticks, etc.
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 Myriapods
Characteristics
• These are centipedes and millipedes.

Centipedes
• Are carnivores i.e. have powerful jaws and
can paralyse their prey

Millipedes
• Are herbivores i.e. feed on leaf litter

• Myriapods have long segmented bodies

with a pair of appendages on each segment.
• Have a head with one pair of antenna. 41
 Dichotomous key
• Once characteristics of living organisms are known, a systematic plan can be made
that can help in identifying these organisms.

• Scientists (i.e. Biologists) make use of the dichotomous key to identify living
things.

• Dichotomous: means dividing into two branches.

• In this key, two descriptions of organisms are given at each stage, & one has to be
chosen.

• The chosen description leads to another pair of descriptions.

• This continues until the name of an organism is arrived at.

 Classification of viruses, bacteria, fungi, & their adaptation to the
environment
Bacteria
• These are very tiny organisms.
• They are unicellular (i.e. single-celled)
organisms
• Their cell membrane is surrounded by a cell
wall.
• They have no distinct nucleus.
• They have a single chromosome consisting of a
circular strand of DNA.
• Some bacteria have flagella which assist in
movement.
• Bacteria are present in different shapes i.e. some
are spherical (coccus), rod-shaped (bacillus) &
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Spirally twisted (spirochaetes).
 Feeding in bacteria
• Some bacteria have chlorophyll i.e. they can make their own food by
photosynthesis.
• However, most bacteria secrete enzymes that digest the food outside, then
absorb the liquid products of digestion.
• These are called saprophytic bacteria.
• They require moisture in the surrounding, for dissolving food during digestion.

Respiration in bacteria
• Some bacteria use oxygen for respiration.
• These are called aerobic bacteria.
• Others produce their energy without the use of oxygen.
• These are called anaerobic bacteria. 44
 Reproduction in bacteria
• Reproduction is by asexual means i.e. they reproduce by cell division
in a process called binary fission.
• During this process, the bacteria will divide into two daughter cells &
each daughter cell becomes an independent bacterium.
• Some bacteria cause diseases. They are called parasites.
• Disease causing parasites are called pathogens.

• These live in cells of organisms & obtain food from the cytoplasm of
cells of these organisms called hosts.
• A host is an organism in which a parasite lives & reproduce.
• Bacteria are destroyed by antibiotics.
• An antibiotic is a medicine (e.g. penicillin or its derivatives) that
inhibits the growth & replication of a bacterium, or simply kills the
bacterium.
• NB: Not all bacteria are harmful. Others are very useful, for instance,
decomposers i.e. are useful in the decomposition of organic matter
• Rhizobium bacteria found in soil supplies ammonia, a compound
crucial for plant growth.
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 Viruses
• Viruses are not cells.
• They are sub-microscopic particles composed of RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid.
• Viruses have no nucleus, no cytoplasm or cell organelles (i.e. ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ER, etc.).
• They are unable to carry out metabolic activities of their own until they infect a host cell.
• Once in the cell, they use materials provided by the host cell for their own use.
• Metabolic activities: are the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms that facilitate the conversion
of food to energy to carry out cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks; and the elimination of
metabolic waste materials.
• These are enzyme-catalysed reactions that allow organisms to grow & reproduce, maintain their structures, & to
respond to their environments.

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 Viruses cnt’d
• Viruses are parasites & can only reproduce within the host cell.
• Outside the host cell, viruses do not show living properties.
• There is a whole debate as to whether viruses can be classified as living organisms. What are
your thoughts?
• Viruses cause diseases both in plants & in animals.

• Examples of diseases caused by viruses:

• In men: Influenza (flu), small pox, measles, COVID-19 & AIDS.
• In plants: leaf mosaic diseases (i.e. curled, stunted, & yellow leaves).

• There are many types of viruses & they vary both in shape & structure.
• Since viruses do not have cells, their classification is based on the type of genetic material
(i.e. RNA or DNA) & the protein coat they have. 47
 Fungi
• These vary in size, from unicellular to multicellular.
• They include moulds (that grow on bread & fruit), mushroom
& bracket fungi (that grows on barks of trees).
• Structurally, fungi are made up of microscopic threads called
hyphae.
• Hyphae are composed of cellulose cell walls, a thin
cytoplasm, & large vacuoles.
• Fungi are decomposers i.e. they obtain their food from dead
or decaying remains of plants & animals.

• The tips of hyphae secrete extracellular enzymes (secreted by

a cell & functions outside that cell).
• These digest the organic material on which the fungi are
growing.
• The digested food products are then absorbed & the hyphae
grow branching & spread trough the organic material,
forming a network of hyphae called mycelium. 48
 Fungi cntn’d
• NB: Fungi do not have chlorophyll & thus can not carry out photosynthesis

• Fungi require moist conditions for their growth & so appear in tropics where there are humid
conditions.
• They can either be saprophytic or parasitic.
• Saprophytic fungi: decompose dead organisms through enzyme digestion processes. Hence
are used as decaying agents.
• Parasitic fungi: are disease causing agents in both plants and animals.

Reproduction in fungi
• It is by asexual reproduction.
• However, most fungi undergo a stage of sexual reproduction in their life cycle.
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 Differences between bacteria & fungi
Bacteria Fungi

Unicellular (i.e. single-celled) Unicellular or multicellular

organism organism
No true nucleus Several nuclei are present

Reproduce by binary fission Reproduce by means of tiny spores

Undergo asexual reproduction Some fungi undergo sexual

reproduction
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THE END!

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