Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore

Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

UNIT-II
LASERS & OPTICAL FIBERS

2021-22
Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore

UNIT-II LASERS

Overview

Unit II consists of 5 lessons in LASERS. In lesson 1 you will be introduced to

properties, principle of Laser & important requisites for Laser action. The lesson 2
will give you the idea of conditions of a laser system. The lesson 3, gives the idea of
thermal equilibrium, Einstein’s constants and based on these knowledge there is a
derivation of energy density equation. In lesson 4, you will be introduced to
principle, construction and working of semiconductor laser and Co2 laser system. In
lesson 5, you will learn important applications of lasers.

Objectives:

At the end of this unit-II, you should be able to know:

➢ What is laser?
➢ Understand the properties of laser.
➢ Explain the requisites of laser emission
➢ Conditions for laser actions
➢ Principle of laser action
➢ Understand the dependency of energy density for laser system
➢ Production of laser beam by different methods
➢ Important applications of laser

Introduction

The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation. It is basically opto-electronic device. In the year 1916, the
theory behind laser was established by Albert Einstein and he got the Nobel Prize in
the year 1921.

Albert Einstein framed a theory that if an electron in an exited state is collided

by a photon of the light energy, then the exited electron would drop down to a lower
energy state and emit a photon of the same energy and wavelength that would move in
phase and direction as that of the colliding photon. Such coherent sources are known
as lasers. The light beam from laser source with coherence lengths up to 10 14 Hz will
make many applications and experiments possible. Prior to Einstein’s theory, the light
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sources of coherence length available was up to 107 only, which would not possible to
discover the new era applications.

Lesson-1 Properties & Principle of Laser

Objectives:

At the end of this lesson you will be able to:

➢ Understand what is laser

➢ Know how laser beam is different from other light sources
➢ Understand the concept of absorption & emission of energy
➢ Understand atomic excitation

2.1 Introduction:

Interaction of radiation with matter requires certain conditions. When radiation

interacts with matter, the energy state or atomic state of the matter gets disturbed. It
leads to the change in its energy state. If the transition is from lower state to higher
state, it absorbs the incident energy of the transition. In reverse direction, such as
higher state to lower state, it emits its energy by the way of photon.

2.1.1Properties of Laser

Laser is a light beam which is

• Monochromatic
• Coherent in nature
• Highly directional
• Low convergence
• Travel as a narrow beam
• Spreads very little
• Does not fade even after long distance

2.1.2 Requisites of a laser system

There are three requisites for a laser system:

• A source of pumping energy in order to establish a population inversion.

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• An active medium with a suitable set of energy levels to support laser action. A
medium in which light gets amplified is called an active medium. The
medium may be solid liquid or gas. Out of the different atoms in the
medium only small fraction of the atoms are responsible for stimulated
emission and consequent light amplification.
• An optical cavity or resonator to introduce optical feedback and so maintain
the gain of the system overcoming all losses.

That means: an excitation source for pumping action, an active medium which
supports population inversion, a laser cavity.

The process of achieving a large number of atoms in excited state than

ground state is called “Population Inversion”.

The number of atoms in the higher (excited) energy state must be greater
than in lower (ground) state (i.e., N 2 > N 1 ) and the process by which population
inversion is achieved is called “Pumping”. Excitation of atoms from lower
energy state to a higher energy state by supplying energy from an external
source is called pumping. There are various types of excitation or pumping
mechanisms available, the most commonly used ones are optical, electrical,
thermal or chemical techniques. For example, Solid state lasers usually employ
optical pumping from high energy xenon flash lamps (e.g.Ruby, Nd:YAG). Gas
lasers use an AC or DC electrical discharge through the gas medium , electron
beam bombardment or a chemical reaction. The DC electrical discharge is most
common for 'small' gas lasers (e.g., Helium-neon, Argon ion).

The process which leads to emission of stimulated photons after

establishing the population inversion is referred to as lasing. The transition
from the metastable state back to the ground state is the ‘lasing’ transition,
induced by a passing photon. In order to sustain laser action, one has to
confine the laser medium and the pumping mechanism in a special way that
should promote stimulated emission rather than spontaneous emission. This is
achieved by bounding the laser medium between two mirrors as shown in figure
below. On one end of the active medium is the high reflectance mirror (100%
reflecting) or the rear mirror and on the other end is the partially reflecting or
transmissive mirror or the output coupler. The laser emanates from the output
coupler, as it is partially transmissive. Stimulated photons can bounce back
and forward along the cavity, creating more stimulated emission as they go. In
the process, any photons which are either not of the correct frequency or do not
travel along the optical axis are lost.
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2.1.3 Basic principles

The interaction of radiation with atoms leads to the following three distinct processes
in the medium.

1. Absorption 2. Spontaneous Emission 3. Stimulated Emission

Absorption: When an atom in the state E1 absorbs an incident photon of energy

hν (= E2- E1) and makes a transition to higher energy state E2, the process is
known as induced absorption or simply absorption.

A + hν = A*

Where A is an atom in the lower state and A* is the excited state of the atom.
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Spontaneous Emission: The excited state is highly unstable and atoms always seek
out the least available energy state. When atom in the excited state E2 comes down to
a lower energy state E1 by emitting a photon of energy hν (= E2- E1) without the aid of
any external agency, the process is termed as spontaneous emission.

A* A + hν

The direction of the emitted photons is random and radiation is incoherent.

Stimulated Emission: When a photon of right energy is incident on an atom in the

excited state, the incident photon stimulates the atom to make downward transition.
The photon thus emitted will have same phase and energy as that of the incident
photon. This process is known as stimulated emission.

A* + hν A + 2hν

The importance of this interaction is that the two photons emerging out will travel in
the same direction, with exactly same energy and perfectly in phase. This is the
interaction responsible for the generation of laser beam. This is the basic principle of
laser system.

Self test questions

1. Explain the properties of laser.
Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore

2. Explain the principle of laser system.

3. Define the term induced absorption.
4. Define the term spontaneous emission.
5. Define the term stimulated emission.

Lesson 2
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
➢ Understand two important conditions for laser
➢ Understand the term population and population inversion
➢ Familiar the term metastable state
➢ Understand the term 3 level & 4 level atom interaction

2.2 Introduction
In this lesson, first we will go through conditions for laser emission. That is
population inversion and metastable state. These two conditions are unusual
for a atom in the thermal equilibrium conditions.

2.2.1 Conditions for laser action

The lasing action does not work easily for two reasons.

1. It is difficult to maintain the atoms in their excited states until they are
stimulated to emit the photon. The excited atoms have a natural tendency to
drop back to their ground state due to the spontaneous emission.
2. Atoms in their ground state undergo absorption by using photons from the
beam that is being built, there by hindering the process of continuous
stimulation and emission.

For continuous laser beam emission these two problems are to be solved. The
conditions for continuous laser action are the population inversion and metastable
state.

2.2.2 Population inversion

The term population means the number of atoms available at a given energy state. For
good lasing action to take place, the population of atoms must be more in an excited
state than in the ground state. Under normal thermal equilibrium conditions, the
population is more in the lower energy state than in the excited state. This condition is
to be reversed and it is known as population inversion. Population inversion is an
unusual situation but very much essential for lasing action. This can be achieved by
some artificial means known as pumping [the process of raising the energy level using
an external source of energy] energy in to the active medium.
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2.2.3 Metastable state

There are two types of metastable state. They are

1. Three energy level atom

2. Four energy level atom

2.2.3.1 Three energy level atom transition

The second important condition for lasing action is to retain the excited atom in a
metastable state. Metastable state is a lower excited energy state in which atom stays
more time than the excited state.

E3 Spontaneous emission

E2

Pumping of energy lasing action (stimulated emission)

E1

E3------- short lived state E2-----------------Metastable state E1------ground state

In a lasing material, the atoms originally in the ground state are pumped in to
the excited state using an external source of energy. However, this is a short lived
state [about10-8 sec] and due to spontaneous emission, the excited state decays
rapidly to the lower excited state. This lower excited state is referred as metastable
state. In metastable state, the atom stays longer time [about 10-3 sec] than the excited
state. Stimulated emission can occur by passing a photon of right energy during the
transition of atoms from metastable state to the ground state. This is basically a three-
level atom lasing action and used in a ruby laser system. The laser produced from this
lasing action is a pulsed laser.
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2.2.3.2 Four energy level atom transition

Short lived state E4

Meatstable state E3

pumping of energy lasing action

Intermediate short lived state E2

Ground state E1

In this lasing action, the atoms from ground state are pumped to an excited
state. As described in the three level atoms, here also it decays rapidly to the
metastable state. Now the lasing transition proceeds from the metastable state to an
intermediate short-lived excited state, from where it decays rapidly to the ground
state. Since the intermediate short-lived state decays rapidly, its population is much
less than that of the metastable state, thus maintaining the population inversion
which is essential for lasing action. This type of lasing action is used in He-Ne gas
laser system. The output of this type of laser is continuous laser.

Self test questions

1. What are two conditions for laser action?

2. What is meant by population?
3. What do understand from the term population inversion?
4. Explain metastable state of energy.
5. What is active medium?
6. What is meant by pumping?

Lesson 3 Energy Density

Objective:

At the end of this lesson you will be familiar with what is energy density, thermal
equilibrium, Einstein’s coefficients for energy absorption, emission. There is an
energy density derivation based on Einstein’s coefficients at thermal equilibrium.
Based on the final equation you can solve few problems.
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2.3 Introduction

Consider two energy levels E1 and E2 of a system having population densities N1

and N2 respectively. A radiation of energy density Eν is incident on the system.

Rate of absorption R12 ∝ EνN1

R12 = B12EνN1 ---------------------- (1)

B12 is proportionality constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of absorption of

radiation.

Rate of spontaneous emission R21 ∝ N2

R21 = A21N2 ---------------------- (2)

Where A21 is called Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission radiation.

Rate of stimulated emission R*21 = B21EνN2 ------------------ (3)

where B21 is called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation.

In thermal equilibrium state, the populations of different energy states E1, E2 etc.
are fixed by the Boltzman factor.

The population ratio is given by the equation

where k is the Boltzmann constant. The negative exponent in the above equation
indicates N2 << N1 at equilibrium. This means more number of atoms is in the
lower energy level than excited energy level. This state is known as normal state of
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energy. Atoms in the lower energy level E1 occasionally absorb radiation and make
a transition to upper energy level E2. Similarly atoms in the upper energy level will
occasionally emit radiation and make a transition to the lower level. In order to
maintain N1 & N2 constant, the number of upward transition must be equal to the
number of downward transitions. Thus total absorption is equal to total emission.

2.3.1 Expression for energy density at thermal equilibrium using Einstein’s

coefficients

Let us consider an assembly of atoms at temperature T in thermal equilibrium

with radiation frequency ν and energy density E (ν). Let N1 and N2 be the number
of atoms in lower energy state E1 and higher energy state E2 respectively at any
given instant.

In thermal equilibrium,

Rate of upward transition = rate of downward transition.

R12 = R21 +R*21

Ie B12 N1E (ν) = A21 N2 + B21N2 E(ν) ---------------- (4)

where E(ν) is the energy density.

This relation was predicted by Einstein and the coefficients B12, B21, and A21 are
known as Einstein’s coefficients of induced absorption, spontaneous emission and
stimulated emission respectively.

N1 B12 E(ν) = N2 [A21 + B21E(ν)] ------------- (5)

E (ν) [N1 B12 - N2 B21] = N2 A21 ------------ (6)

E (ν) = -------------------- (7)

Multiplying equation (6) by 1/N2 B21 we get,

E (ν) = ---------------------- (8)

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Thermodynamically it was proved by Einstein that the probability of stimulated

absorption must be equal to the probability of stimulated emission. Thus,

B12 = B21 ------------------------- (9)

E (ν) = ------------------- (10)

Boltzmann has shown that the atomic population at different energy levels at a given
temperature T is given by the equation,

------------------- (11)

The negative sign in the exponent indicates that N1 << N2 under equilibrium condition.

------------------- (12)

------------------- (13)

where h = (E2 - E1) and ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant, h is the Planck’s constant and ‘ ’
is the frequency.

Therefore equation (10) becomes,

E( )= ------------------- (14)

This is the formula for energy density of photons in equilibrium with atoms in energy
states E1 and E2 at temperature T and frequency .

We know from Planck’s radiation formula,

E(v) = --------------------(15)
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While comparing equation 14 & 15 we get,

------------------------------- (16)

The equation (16) is the ratio between spontaneous emission & stimulated emission
coefficients. The ratio is proportional to 3. This shows that the probability of
spontaneous emission increases rapidly with the energy difference between the two
states.

Solved Examples

1. For the given laser system, calculate the difference in energy between
metastable state and ground state electron. The wavelength of the ruby laser
beam is 6493 Å.
Given data λ = 6493 Å
Constant h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js
Constant c = 3 x 108 m/s

Solution:

The difference in energy between any two states is given by the relation

ΔE = hc

ΔE =

ΔE = 3.06 x 10-19 J

To convert into electron volt divide the value by charge of the electron,

ΔE = 3.06 x10-19/1.6 x10-19

ΔE = 1.91 eV

-----------------------------------------------------------

2. A He – Ne laser is emitting a laser beam with an average of 4.5mW. Find the

number of photons emitted per sec by the laser. The wavelength of emitted radiation is
6328 A˚.

Wavelength of the emitted light,  = 6328 A˚ = 6328 x 10-10 m

Power output = 4.5mW

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No of photons emitted/sec = ?

We know that the energy difference,

E = h = hc/ Joule

= 6.63x10-34 x 3 x 108/6328x10-10

This energy difference becomes the energy of each of the emitted photon. If N is the
number of photons emitted per sec to give a power of 4.5mW, then

N x E = 4.5mW = 4.5 x10-3 J/s

Hence N = 4.5x10-3/3.143x10-19

= 1.43x1016.

-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----------------------

Self test question

2. What are Einstein’s coefficients?

3. Derive an expression for energy density at thermal equilibrium using Einstein’s
coefficient.
4. Write plank’s radiation formula.
5. Which type of emission is independent of energy radiation?

Lesson 4

Objectives

After end of this lesson you will able to:

➢ Know the working of semiconductor laser with energy level diagram.

➢ Know the working of Co2 laser with energy level diagram.

2.4 Introduction

Lasers are classified into 4 types. They are 1.Solid state lasers, 2. Gas lasers 3.

Liquid dye lasers and 4. Solid state diode laser (semiconductor laser). In this lesson
you will understand the construction and working of two types of laser system, namely
Co2 laser and semiconductor laser. First one is based on gas and second one is based
on solid state diode laser.

2.4.1 CO2 Laser:

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Introduction: It is a molecular gas laser which operates in the middle IR region

involving a set of rotational and vibrational transitions. It is a four level laser
producing continuous wave (cw) or pulsated output. It was discovered by CKN Patel in
1964.

Modes of vibration of a CO2 molecule:

1. In the symmetric stretching modes, both the oxygen atoms oscillate along the
axis of the molecule simultaneously approaching and departing the carbon
atom which is stationary. Fundamental frequency ν1= 1337 cm-1.

2. In the bending mode, atoms move perpendicular to the molecular axis. The
bending vibration is doubly degenerate; it can occur in the plane of the figure
and the plane perpendicular to it.

Fundamental frequency ν2= 667 cm-1

3. In the asymmetric stretching mode, all the three atoms oscillate along the
molecular axis; but while both oxygen atoms move in one direction, carbon
atom moves in the opposite direction.

Fundamental frequency ν3= 2349 cm-1

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Construction of CO2 Laser:

Brewster window

Brewster window POWER SUPPLY

LASER
Quartz tube
Semi transparent mirror Fully reflecting mirror

Inlet gases Outlet gases

It consists of a long tube of length 5 cm and diameter 2.5 cm. The ends of the tube
are closed with alkali halide (NaCl) Brewster windows (for plane polarized waves).
Outside the ends of the tube, silicon mirrors coated with aluminum are arranged.
This forms the resonant cavity. Active medium consists of a mixture of CO2, N2 and
He gases. The pressure of gases in the mixture is PHe = 7 Torr, PN2 = 1.2 Torr and
PCO2 = 0.33 Torr (1m bar = 0.76 Torr). When a high DC voltage is applied to the
mixture, pumping mechanism based on electric discharge is used to create
population inversion. The electric discharge breaks down CO 2 into O2 and CO. If
water vapor is present in the mixture, then CO2 is regenerated from CO. The rear
mirrors act as optical feedback resonators providing the necessary feedback for the
emitted photons. The Brewster angle windows are provided to give polarized
output.

Working:
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Energy level diagram for CO2 Laser

When electric discharge takes place in the gas mixture both N2 and CO2 atoms
absorb energy and are excited to higher energy level. This energy level matches
with one of the vibrational-rotational level of CO2, shown by C5 (001) in the figure.
More CO2 atoms are raised to level C5 by colliding with N2 molecules. There is an
efficient transfer of energy between a N2 excited level and CO2 excited level. This is
called resonant energy transfer creating a population inversion between the levels
C5 and C4 and also between C5 and C3. The transition from C5 to C4 (100) produces
10.6 m and C5 (001) to C3 (020) produces 9.6 m both lying in the IR region. Other
transitions from C3 and C2 (010) to C1 (000) are accomplished through inelastic
collision with Helium atoms. Helium atoms are used to deplete the lower energy
levels. Also due to high thermal conductivity of He, the heat is conducted away
from the laser cavity.

Transitions:

N1 – N2 excitation; and C1 – C5 excitation

C5 – C4 laser 10.6 m and C5 – C3 laser 9.6 m

C3 – C2 and C2 – C1 inelastic collision.

The laser output is 100 kW in CW (continuous wave) mode. CO2 lasers are more
efficient compared to other lasers, efficiency is also high.

Self test questions

1. Explain the construction and working of Co2 laser with energy level diagram.
2. What is the function of Brewster window in Co2 gas laser?

Lesson 5 Applications of Laser

Objective

At the end of this lesson we will be able to know about the important
applications of laser in general.

2.5 Introduction

Laser finds applications in almost all fields of life like engineering,

entertainment, defense, medical, communication etc. The other important applications
are laser welding, laser drilling, laser cutting of metals and alloys, fiber optic
communication, creation of holography, laser scanning, laser printing, read & write on
CD, DVD etc., accurate measurement of distances, laser shows, navigation of
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aircrafts, eye-retina surgery etc. Out of these applications we will see some of these in
detail.

Applications:

In industry: Cutting

Welding

Drilling

2.4.1 Laser welding

Lasers are widely used in metal welding operations. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and
YAG lasers are used for laser welding. CO2 lasers generate 10.6 μm wavelength laser
beams with continuous wave with high power densities. The intense beam from the
source melts the metal at the surface and enters deep into the metal which causes
welding action. Laser welding can be used to weld dissimilar metals with widely
varying physical properties. Metals with different sizes and masses at high electrical
resistance can be successfully welded. Temperatures as high as 10,000 ˚C can be
attained easily with laser welding.

Advantages:

1. Very small parts say few micron thicknesses can be welded.

2. No contamination on base metal.

3. Welding can be done in side glass chamber

4. Localized heating which will not spread the heat.

2.5.2 Laser drilling

The principle of laser drilling is to heat the metal to its boiling point and
vaporize it or remove it by high pressure vapor. Drilling is done by high power pulsed
laser of the order of 10-4 s to 10-3 s duration. The spot to be drilled is focused by a
laser beam. The metal vapor interacts with laser beam and electrons get accelerated
by electromagnetic radiation. The molten metal get ejected from the hole there by
forming drilling operation. Nd-YAG laser is used for metals while CO2 laser is used for
both metallic and non-metallic materials.

Advantages:
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1. Holes can be drilled in close vicinity.

2. Drills with high precision.

3. Drill in any direction.

4. No wear of laser tool.

5. Ceramic materials can also be drilled without breaking.

2.5.3Laser cutting

Laser cutting can be done by melting and blowing out molten metal. For
blowing out of metal a high velocity gas jet of inert gas is used. Such a process of
cutting is termed as gas assisted laser beam machining.

Advantages

1. No need of coolant for cutting.

2. Cutting operation is clean and fast.

3. No mechanical stresses are induced.

4. No problem of wear and tear tools.

5. The heat affected zone is limited.

Self test questions

1. What are the industrial applications of Laser?

2. Give few advantages of laser being used for welding, cutting and drilling?

UNIT-II Optical Fiber

Objective

➢ Know total internal reflection.

➢ Know principle of Optical Fiber.
➢ Know construction of optical fiber.
➢ Understand acceptance angle.
➢ Understand numerical aperture.
➢ Know fractional refractive index change.
➢ Describe types of optical fibers and its mode of propagation.
➢ Know what attenuation is.
➢ Describe point-to-point communication.
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Lesson 5 Optical fibre-Principle and Mechanism

Objective

At the end of this lesson we will be able to:

➢ Understand how total internal reflection takes place in optical fibre.
➢ Know the parts of optical fibre and its functions.
➢ Know acceptance angle and numerical aperture.

2.5 Introduction

Optical fibers are very thin about 5-50 μm thickness, flexible and are made up of
pure silicon glass. They act as light guide or optical wave guide in the medium of
communication using light rays. Optical fibers are dominating the communication
world with their capacity to carry a large volume of data, with negligible loss, over
the long distances. Optical communication makes use of visible and infrared
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to transmit digital data. It operates with
high frequency/short wavelength electro-magnetic transmission. Frequency of
operation is 1012 to 1015 Hz; hence a large volume of data/information can be
transmitted through a single channel.

2.5.1 Construction of optical fibre.

Optical fibers are made up of highly pure silica glass thin cylinder called core at
the centre, surrounded by a hollow cylinder called cladding, which is also made up
of glass but with a lower refractive index than the core material. The cladding is
protected by a poly urethane jacket. The core is the transfer medium, while the
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cladding reflects the light medium inward, while the jacket protects the fiber from
the environment.

2.5.2. Total internal reflection

The basic principle of optical fibre communication is based on total internal reflection.
The core has a slightly higher refractive index (n1) than the cladding (n2). Consider a
set of two mediums, having refractive indices n 1 and n2 whose interface is a plane
surface. Let n1 > n2. When a ray of light R1 is incident on the interface through the first
medium at an angle θ1, a part of the beam R’1 gets reflected at the same angle θ1, while
the other part of the beam is transmitted through the second medium at an angle θ 2.
Now by snell’s law,

= ---------------- (1)

According to snell’s law, θ2 is greater than θ1, when n1 is greater than n2. The values
of θ2 will reach its physical limit of 90˚ for some incident angle θ1 < 90˚. This value of
incident angle at which θ2 = 90˚ is called critical angle θc. For this condition, equation
1 becomes,

= 90˚

= /

= -1( / )
For incidence angles greater than the critical angle (θ1 ≥ θc), there is no transmitted
beam, and the energy of the beam or rays R3 is completely reflected back into the first
medium at an angle θ1. This is termed as total internal reflection. For absorption
losses to be zero, the purity of the medium has to be very high. Hence the core used in
optical fibers is of the highest purity.
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2.5.3 Acceptance angle

Let n0 be the refractive index of the medium (air) from where light is launched into the
fiber. The light ray refracts at an angle θr and strikes the core-cladding interface at an
angle θ1. If the angle θ1 is greater than critical angle θc, the light ray undergoes total
internal reflection at the interface since n1 > n2. According to snell’s law, we have

=( / ) -------------- (1)

For the reflected ray at the core/cladding interface, we know that from Snell’s law,

( )= [ = for total internal reflection]

= / -------------------- (2)

By rewriting equation (1) we get

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Substituting the value of c , we get

----------------(3)

Assuming the surrounding medium is air then, =1

Hence equation (3) becomes,

The maximum angle is called the acceptance angle or acceptance cone half angle of
the fiber. Acceptance angle may be defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can
have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate through the fiber. The light rays
contained within the cone having a full 2 are accepted and transmitted to the far
end. Therefore, the cone is called the acceptance cone. Larger acceptance angles make
easier launching.

2.5.4 Fractional refractive index change

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It is defined as the ratio of difference between the refractive indices of the core,
cladding to the refractive index of the core in an optical fiber. The fractional difference
‘Δ’ between the refractive index of the core and the cladding is known as fractional
refractive index change Δ.

It is given by Δ = ( – )/

Δ is always positive since is always greater than for total internal reflection. In
order to guide light rays effectively through a fiber, Δ <<1. Typical value of Δ is 0.01.
Larger value of Δ will not be useful for optical communication since multi-path
dispersion will take place.

2.5.5 Numerical Aperture

Numerical Aperture is defined as the sine of the maximum acceptance angle. It is a

measure of its light gathering power.

Numerical Aperture (NA) =

Therefore,

NA =

NA =

NA =

NA =
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Since ~ ,( + )=2

NA =

NA =

Numerical aperture is a measure of the amount of light that can be accepted by a

fibre. Numerical aperture is dependent only on and . Its value ranges from 0.13
to 0.50 for good optical communication.

Self test questions

1. What is total internal reflection?

2. What is Snell’s law equation for different medium?
3. Describe the principle of optical fibre.
4. Explain the construction optical fibre.
5. What is acceptance angle?
6. Explain fractional refractive index change and its typical value for good
propagation?
7. Explain numerical aperture and its typical value for good communication?
8. Derive an expression for acceptance angle for the optical fibre.
9. Derive an expression for numerical aperture in terms of fractional index change.

Lesson 6 Types of Optical Fibers and modes of propagation

Objective

At the end of this lesson we will able to:

➢ Know different types of optical fibres.
➢ Know different types of propagation modes.
➢ Important application of optical fibre.

2.6 Introduction

All the types of optical fibres and the modes of propagations depend upon the
refractive indices of the core and the cladding materials. The refractive index of the
cladding is generally kept constant, while that of core may be fixed or varied radically
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to achieve a suitable propagation mode. Based on the above factors, they are classified
into three categories.
1. Single Mode Step-Index fibre.
2. Multi Mode Step-Index fibre.
3. Multi Mode Graded-Index fibre.

2.6.1 Single Mode Step-Index Fiber

The construction geometry, the refractive index profile, the propagation mode and the
waveform for a step-index single mode fiber are illustrated in the above diagram. This
fiber is made up of a small core say about 5-10 μm diameter with a thick cladding say
about 40-100 μm and a suitable protective sheathing. Both the core and the cladding
have uniform, but different refractive indices. Since the profile forms a step due to
sharp change in the refractive index between the core and the cladding, it is termed as
step-index fiber. This design can transmit only one mode of wave propagation. Most
single mode telecommunication fibers are manufactured with a diameter ~4 μm. Since
there is only one mode of wave propagation, it eliminates the effect of intermodal
dispersion and hence there is no pulse broadening effect. Hence the output pulse
closely resembles the input pulse without any change in its shape or intensity (no
distortion). Such a fiber with large and fully definable bandwidth is most suitable for
long distance, high data rate communication. Also due to small core diameter, only
lasers are suitable to effectively couple the light signals into the core of such fibers.

2.6.2 Multi-mode Step-index Fiber

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This type of fiber is made up of a thick core about 50-100 µm with a thin
cladding about 20-40 µm and a suitable protective plastic sheathing. Here both core
and cladding have uniform but different refractive indices. Since it has a large core
size, it can transmit a number of modes of wave propagation. The rays travel in a
zigzag manner, in which the high angle modes travel a longer distance as compared
to the low angle modes, causing intermodal dispersion. Due to this reason a sharp
input pulse broadens as it travels long distances in the fiber and the output pulse
will be widened pulse resulting with a waveform of distortion. In such fiber, the
scattering and absorption losses are more; it is suitable for low bandwidth, short
distance communications only. Both Lasers and LEDs can be used as source to
input the optical signals into such fibers.

2.6.3 Multi-mode graded-index fiber

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The construction of this fibre is similar to that of the multimode step-index fibre,
except the refractive index of the core. The refractive index of the core varies across the
core diameter (radially graded), while the refractive index of the cladding is fixed. In
this type, a number of modes can be transmitted. The rays move in a sinusoidal path
through the core. Light travels at a lower velocity in the high index region of the core
than that of lower index region. Since the fastest components of the rays take the
longer path, and the slower components take the shorter path in the core, the travel
time of the different modes will be almost same. This reduces the effect of inter-mode
dispersion. Due to this, the losses are minimum, with little pulse broadening. These
fibres are most suitable for medium distance communication with large bandwidth.
Either Laser or LED’s can be used as the source.

Self test questions

1. What is a step-index profile?

2. What is a graded –index profile?
3. What is single mode propagation?
4. What is multi mode propagation?
5. Explain different types of optical fibres and its mode of propagation with neat
diagrams.

Lesson 7 Attenuation

Objective

At the end of this lesson we will be able to:

➢ Explain what attenuation is.
➢ Know how effectively the light rays are propagated in point to point
communication
2.7.1 Introduction to attenuation

Attenuation is also known as fiber loss is an important parameter in the design of

optical fibers for communication systems. Attenuation is the loss of intensity as it
travels in the fiber due to the increasing distances, which reduce the average power
reaching at the receiving end. A minimum amount of light intensity is required at the
receiving end to recover the signal accurately. In fact the transmission distance is
desired by the attenuation property of the fiber. The fiber losses are measured in unit
of dB/Km which will vary with the wavelength of the optical signal transmitted. The
typical losses in the 0.8 to 1.8μm wavelength range, is of the order of 0.2 to 5 dB/Km.
The fiber loss is more for shorter wavelengths which is about 5 dB/Km in the visible
region of the light spectrum. The fiber losses may be due to various reasons like
scattering, absorption, dispersion and extensive fiber bends. The net attenuation is
calculated by the equation,
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Where ‘ ’ is the attenuation coefficient,

‘L’ is the length of the fiber,

‘Pin’ is the power input of signal sent into the fiber,

And ‘Pout’ is the power output at the receiving end.

Solved Examples

1. An optical fiber has a clad of R.I 1.498 and numerical aperture is 0.446. Find
its R.I of the core and the acceptance angle.
Solution:

Given = 1.498, N.A = 0.446

We know NA =

The R.I of the core is 1.562.

The angle of acceptance

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26.48o

2. Calculate the numerical aperture of an optical fiber. Given the R.I of the core
is 1.623 and cladding is 1.522 and also find out the angle of acceptance.

Solution:

The numerical Aperture

NA =

= 0.0563

The angle of acceptance,

34.30o

2.7.2 Applications of optical Fibers

Optical fibers have many applications in the field of data transfer, medical,
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engineering, entertainment, audio-video transfer, communications etc. One of the

most important applications is point to point communication which will be discussed
below.

Advantages

1. The materials used for making optical fibers are dielectric in nature. So it
does not produce or receive any electromagnetic and RF interferences.
2. Not affected by corrosion and moisture.
3. It does not get affected by nuclear radiation.
4. It is easily compatible with electronic devices.
5. No sparks are generated because the signal is optical.
6. It carries very large amounts of information in either digital or analog form
due to its large band width.