Q5 (a) - Rules to Convert Infix to Postfix Using Stack

To convert an infix expression to a postfix expression using a stack, follow these rules:

1. Operands are added directly to the output.

2. Left Parenthesis ( is pushed onto the stack.

3. Right Parenthesis ) causes pop operations until a left parenthesis is encountered.

4. Operators are pushed onto the stack based on precedence and associativity.

o Higher precedence operators are pushed first.

o Operators of the same precedence follow associativity (left-to-right for +, -, *, /; right-to-left

for ^).

5. At the end, pop all remaining operators from the stack.

Example Conversion

Convert (A * B – (C + D * E) ^ (F * G / H)) to postfix:

1. Convert C + D * E:

o D * E → DE*

o C + DE* → CDE*+

2. Convert F * G / H:

o F * G → FG*

o FG* / H → FG*H/

3. Convert exponentiation:

o CDE*+ ^ FG*H/ → CDE*+FG*H/^

4. Convert A * B - (...):

o A * B → AB*

o AB* CDE*+FG*H/^ - → AB*CDE*+FG*H/^ -

Final Postfix Expression:

AB*CDE*+FG*H/^ -
Q5 (b) - Three Types of Recursion

1. Direct Recursion:
A function calls itself directly.

Example:

2. Indirect Recursion:
Two or more functions call each other in a cyclic manner.

3. Tail Recursion:
The recursive call is the last operation in the function.

Example:

Q6 (a) - Infix, Prefix, and Postfix Expressions

1. Infix Expression: Operator appears between operands.

Example: (A + B) * C

2. Prefix Expression: Operator appears before operands.

Example: * + A B C (equivalent to (A + B) * C)

3. Postfix Expression: Operator appears after operands.

Example: A B + C * (equivalent to (A + B) * C)

Evaluation of Postfix Expression

Consider the expression: 2 3 + 5 *

(Assume + is addition, * is multiplication)

Steps:

1. 23+→5

2. 5 5 * → 25

Final Result: 25
Explain priority queue and state its Application :

A Priority Queue is a special type of queue where each element has a priority, and elements are served based
on their priority rather than the order of arrival (FIFO).

1. Higher Priority Elements are Served First

o Unlike a normal queue (FIFO), elements with a higher priority are dequeued before lower-
priority elements.

2. Equal Priority Elements Follow FIFO Order

o If two elements have the same priority, they are dequeued based on the order in which they
were inserted.

Applications of Priority Queues

1. CPU Scheduling in Operating Systems

o The OS schedules processes based on priority (e.g., real-time tasks get higher priority).

2. Dijkstra’s Algorithm (Shortest Path in Graphs)

o It uses a Min-Priority Queue to process the closest unvisited node first.

3. A Algorithm (Artificial Intelligence & Game Pathfinding)*

o A* search algorithm prioritizes paths based on cost and heuristic values.

4. Huffman Coding (Data Compression in Files, ZIP, MP3, etc.)

o Huffman coding uses a priority queue to construct optimal prefix codes.

5. Job Scheduling in Printers

o Documents with a higher priority (e.g., urgent reports) get printed before others.

6. Network Routing (Load Balancing & Bandwidth Allocation)

o Data packets with higher importance (like video streaming) are sent before less important
packets.

Q One type of priority in detail :

Min-Priority Queue (Ascending Order Priority Queue) - Detailed Explanation

Definition:

A Min-Priority Queue is a type of priority queue where the element with the smallest value (highest priority)
is always removed first.

How it Works:

1. Insertion: Elements are added with their respective priority.

2. Deletion: The smallest element (highest priority) is dequeued first.

 3. Processing: If two elements have the same priority, they follow FIFO order.

Example Scenario: Task Scheduling in an Operating System

Imagine an operating system (OS) scheduler where processes have a priority based on their
execution time (shorter jobs get executed first).

Example: Process Scheduling

Consider 4 processes with different execution times:

Process Execution Time (Priority)

P1 15 ms
P2 5 ms
P3 25 ms
P4 10 ms

Operation Time Complexity

Insertion (push) O(log n)

Deletion (pop) O(log n)

Access Minimum (top) O(1)

Q Advantages of Circular Queue over Normal (Linear) Queue:

1. Efficient Memory Utilization

In a Circular Queue, the rear pointer wraps around when it reaches the end, allowing efficient reuse of empty
spaces.

2 Avoids "Queue Full" Condition Unnecessarily

Circular Queue allows insertion at the front if there is space available.

3 Faster Insertions and Deletions

Insertions and deletions are always O(1) due to rear and front pointers

4 Suitable for Real-Time Applications

Q What is backtracking algorithmic Strategy

Backtracking is a systematic and recursive algorithmic technique used to solve problems incrementally by
trying possible solutions and discarding those that fail to meet the required conditions.

Example of Backtracking: N-Queens Problem

Applications of Backtracking

Solving Puzzles – Sudoku, Crossword, N-Queens

Graph Problems – Hamiltonian Cycle, Graph Coloring
String Generation – Generating all valid parentheses
Combinatorial Optimization – Subset Sum, Knapsack