MADE ERS Power Systems 25

3. Supports at different levels

B
2Th
S= and , =l+
8T Wi
where, = Span of complete parabola T -----X
0
Remember:
Theformulas are also valid if two supports Aand C fallon the same

side of origin ie. if I<

VI Balanced and Unbalanced Faults
Per Unit System
" The ratio of the quantity (in some unit) to its base value (in same unit).
Per unit value =
Actual value (in some units)
Base or reference value (in same units)
Note:
In transformer primary side p.u. reactance is always equal to
secondary side p.u. reactance.
Remember:
Out of 4-system quantities (KVA, KV, current and impedance) only
two are independent. It is convenient to select the base value of
kVA and kV and calculate the base values of other two.
Ratio of 2-base unit give another base quarntity
Vbase =Znase
Ihase
In transformer primary side p.u. reactance is always equal to
secondary side p.u. reactance.
Base kVA
Base current = A (in 3-¢ system)
V3 x Base kV
Line to neutral value of base voltage
Base impedance= Base current
(Base kVj²
Base impedance = Base MVA
26 AHandbook for Electrical Engineering
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Per unit impedance, Zpu = Zactual or
Xpu = actual
Zbase Zpase
Per unit impedance referred to new base
[Per unit impedance | Base kVold Base
referred to old base | Base kVnew Base kVAold
Short circuit kVA = Rated or base kVA x 100
%Z

100
EIS =EI× %Z

where, E’Rated voltage;I-’Rated current; Z Internal impedance

Symmetrical Components
Apositive sequence, set of three symmetrical voltages (i.e. all numerically
equal and all displaced from each other by 120°) having the same
sequence 'abc' as the original set and denoted by Va1 Va and V:
Anegative sequence, set of three symmetrical voltages having the phase
sequence opposite to that of the original set and denoted by Va V
and V
A zero sequence, set of three voltages, all equal in magnitude and in
phase with each other and denoted by V Vo and Vco
Va =Vat Va2 t Vao
V, =Vb1 t Vb2 + Voo
Ve=Vot Vo2 +Veo
Sequence Component Vectors
Vet Va2
120°

120°

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

where, V,, V, V,are the three-phase voltages
MADE EASY Power Systems 27

Vo =aVa Ve=aVa
Vh =aV2
Vso =Vao Veo = Vao
1-1200
where, Operator a= 12120, a² =
matrix form
Phase voltages in
Va [1 1 1
Va0
Vb=1 a? Va
a

[Vabc]=[Al[Vo12) [Vove]-[A'Vebc]
[1 11 1] [1 1 11
1
where, A=|1 a? and A 3
|1 a a
Complex Power
Total complex power in a 3- circuit
nbe S=[Vabcl Vabe] =3[Vor2l Vo12l
where, [Vo12l’Symmetrical component matrix
[Vabel’Unsymmetrical phasor matrix

Zo12l=[A |Zabc ||A]p oneS

Remember:
For almost all power system components the matrix (Zabel is not
diagonal but possess certain symmetries. These symmetries are
such that [Zo1] is diagonal either exactly or approximately.

Sequence Impedances
Sequence Impedances of Star Connected Loads

Z,
V,o 000
Zm
Zn N
Z
Vo
28 A Handbook for Electrical Engineering
mADE ERS
The load has self and mutual impedances Z and Zm
star point is grounded through impedance Zn
respectively y and

Zs+ Zn m t En Zm + Zn]
(Zabe]=Zmt Zn Zs+ Zn ZmtZn
ZmtZn ZmtZn Z, +Zn
Z,+2 Zm +32, 0
(Zo12]= Z,-Zm 0
oo Z-Zm
Remember:
For a balanced load, the three sequences are independent. The
Current of one sequence produces voltage of only that sequence
Current flowing through Z, is 31a0 Thus in all zero sequence networks
the neutral impedance Z, appears as 3Z
Positive and negative sequence impedance are equal, i.e., Z, =Z
= Xs-Xm) for Z = jX, + 2X), for full transposed line.
The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear and
symmetricalstatic circuits do not depends on the phase sequence and
are, therefore, equal.

Sequence Impedances of Transformers

Zo = Zero sequence impedance of
transformer. a
000 b

’ Switch 'a' is closed when primary

winding is star connected with
neutral grounded.
’ Switch'c is closed when primary
winding is Aconnected.
’ Keep both 'a and'c open when primary
with neutral isolated (not winding is star conneoto
grounded).
’ Switch 'b' is closed when secondary winding is star Connect with
neutral grounded.
Switch'd' is closed when secondary
windingwinding
’ Keep both 'b'and 'd' open when secondary is AConnecled
iss star connected
with neutral isolated.
 Power Systems 29
MADE E R S

R e m e m b e r :

Onlv positive sequence network contains voltage.

For a synchronousgenerator, Z,>Z,>Z,(sequence impedances)
For transmission line, cables, transformer, static loads, positive and
negative sequence are the equal.

Unsymmetrical Faults
(SLG fault) Va0
Single line to ground fault
Terminal conditions (at the fault point)
V,=1Z6=l, =0
Vat |3Z,|
3

where, I¡o ¡1a2 are

the sequence currents
+
at the fault point. n
Va2
Fault current
opato
3E
I, =l, =¡o +a1 ta2Z,+Z, +Z% +3Z =3la0
Z,: Fault impedance
Note:

For solidly grounded, Z,= 0.

Line to line fault (LL fault) a

b
Terminal conditions Vat
I,=0,I, =-, C
E0

V= VtZg
Fault current
-N3E Va2
I;=lp=-le =Z+Z +Z
a
30 AHandbook for ElectricalEngineering
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Double line to ground fault (LLG fault) 3Z
Terminal conditions
Zo Vao
1,=0, V, = V=U, +JZ
E

Z +
Z,(Z +3Z,) a

Z, +Zo +3Z, b
Va
Fault Current
I, =I, + Ie I2

V
Va2

Comparison to Three-Phase
Fault and Line-to-Ground a

30, fault, Ip Ea
Z
LG fault, IG= Z,+Z, 3Ea
+Zo +3Z,
where, E, =Generator voltage c

IfZ,< Z-Zo) then ILG >Is (Z= Z)

1
IfZ,Z-Zo) then ILG = 3
1
If Z, > (Z, -Zo) then InG < Ii34
Note:
M Forsolidly grounded, (Z, =0), InG 1.51,38
VII Load Flow Study
Load flow studyhelp us to determine of the best location as well as optimal
capacity of the proposed generating stations, substation and new
'Bus =YBUs X Veus (YaUs= Bus admittance matrix)
[Y1 YzYn
where, Y21 Ya2...Yen
YBus =
Ynt Yne..n oxn
 MADE ERSY Power Systems 4 31

Assuming number of buses, n= 4, we have

Y,, = Y1 + Y2 t Y3 + Yy4
= Total admittance connected to bus-1
Yp =-Y12= Negative value of series admittance
connected between bus-1and bus-2
Ya =-Ya = Negative value of series admittance
connected between bus-1 and bus3
Y, =-Y4 = Negative value of series admittance
connected between bus-1 and bus-4
Similarly, other elements of RIUS are foundout.
. Static load flow equations (SLFE)can be written as

P= Real (S)=M|2V|Yalcos(0, +ô; -8,) (i =1, 2,..)

k=1

and Q= -Imag1S; }= -|M| 2|a sin(., +8, -8,)

k=1

" Voltage at an ith bus is given by

|P-iQj(Y,
Vk=1
V) (where, i=1, 2,.., n)
k#i

YBus Matrix
Properties of Y
YRus 0S a sparsity matrix and also a symmetric matrix.
Diagonal element of Ya gives the self-admittances.
OFF-diagonal elements of Ye gives transfer admittances.
Diagonal element =Total admittance connected to respective bus.
" Transfer element = Negative value of series admittance connected
between two bus.
" The inverse of Y matrix is afull matrix, i.e.,ZBus'

Properties of Zgus Matrix

ZBus matrix is generally used for fault studies.
The diagonal element are short circuit driving point impedance.
OFF diagonalelements are short circuit transfer impedance.
Note:
M When a shunt element is connected to the existing system then
only diagonals at YoBus willbe affected.
32 AHandbook for Electrical Engineering
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Comparison between Gauss-Siedel and
Newton-Raphson Method
Gauss Seidal Method Newton Raphson Method
1. Load-flow equation are non-linear in 1. Load-flow equation are
rectangular coordinate. polar coordinate. non-linear in
2. It has linear convergence 2. It has
characteristics. quadratic convergence
characteristics.
3. Less memory required. 3. More memory required.
4. Computation time per itera-tion is
less.
4. Computation time per itera-tion is
more.
5. Require large number of iteration. 5. Require less number of iteration,
6. Number of iteration is directly 6. Independent upon bus.
proportional to number of buses.
7. As the selection of slack bus is 7. Independent upon selection of slack
changed, the convergent criteria also bus.
change.
8. Unreliable convergent, less accurate 8. Reliable convergent, more accurate,
and used for smaller system. it can be use for large power system.
Remember:
Theaccuracy of any iterative technique depends upon the tolerance
(t)specified, it does not depends on the format of improvement and
hence with same tolerance both NRand FDLF willgive same resut.
Due to assumptions used in FDLF method, fast convergence
characteristics of NR-method is lost in FDLFmethod, i.e., with same
tolerance, FDLF method willgive same result as obtained with NH
method, but FDLF method will use less time per iteration, more
number of iterations and hence more overall time as compareuu
NR-method.

Note:
resut
approximate
In special sitatuions where extremlyfast although
is required, then FDLF method with fixed number of iterations wi
used.
used with fixed
FDLF method gives approximate result because it is assumptions

number of iterations; and NOT because it uses several

are used in this method.

VIII Power System Stability disturbance.

afterthe
The ability of alternators to maintain synchronism
which are working parallel.
MADE E R S Y Power Systems 33

Power system stability problem is appearing in power system due to

large variation in inertia of electricalmachine.
Stability Limit
The maximum amount of power that can be transfer to the point of
disturbarnce, to maintain the stability is known as stability limit.
Note:
Steady state stability limit is always more than transient stability
limit.
Transient stability limit can be improved maximum upto steady state
stability limit.
A
system with high steady state stability limit is not guarantee for
high transient stability limit, however a system with high transient
stability limit is guarantee for high steady state stability limit.

Generator Power Output

Complex Power Output of Generator

X
dy State Stoblig X
000

EZ8() oioo VZ0(~) Infinite bus

For
where, X’Direct axis synchronous reactance of synchronous
machine

Seod to le E Eô=voltage behind direct axis synchronous

reactance of generator
po V Terminal Voltage of generalo

Real Power Output of Generator : P= oEMsinô

Xd
=P, sinò
nurtoMclugn
Reactive Power Output of Generator : Q, = ElMcos8 -
Synchronising Power Coefficient P-cosô
34 A
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Note:
Maximum value of S for successful operation is 90
Rememnber:
Power can be transferred only if itransfer reactance ((X) is
case X=0then transfer of power willnot be possible. present. In

Swing Equation
The equation describing the relative motion of the rotor (load angle 8
W.r.t. to the stator field as a functionof time is called "swing equation

=Pa =Pn -Pe ...Swing equation

|Hf8
f d2 = (Pn-Pe); in pu
where, M-’ Io = Angular momentum
Pn’ To= Mechanical power input
P’ T= Electrical power output
Pa’Pm-Pe=Accelerating power
T’ Mechanical input torque
T’ Electromagnetic output torque
I ’ Moment of inertia

Stored Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Body

|KE. 2 o-Mo
2
Inertia Constant
Kinetic energy stored MJ/MVA
H=
Rating of machine
Angular Momentum
GH MJ-sec
M=
nf Elec-rad
GH MJ-sec
M=
180°f Elec-degree
 4 35
MADE ERSY Power Systems
For Multi-Machine System

G, H,(n)
G,H, =G, H +G, H, + G,H,tG, H,
If G, = Gbase
GH.9,y...9,H,
++
then, Helpu)Ge
Cbase Gpase Gpase
Ifn MachineSwing Together, Meg=M+ M+ Mt+M,
1 1 1 1
. Ifn Machine Do Not Swing Together, Mon +
M M, M3
+
t**M,
Steady StateStability Limit (PseE)
EV
PsssL = y
Xeq
Note:
For better steady state stability margin a power system maintain
8=30 to 40°.

Method to Improve Steady State Stability

Operate system at high voltage. A400 kV line has highest steady state
power limit.
Reduce the transfer reactance (e) by
using parallel lines
using bundle conductor
using series capacitor
Transient Stability
" The ability of synchronous machine to deliver maximum power to the
Oad,without losing synchronism for sudden and large disturbance, which
IS characterised as 3f S.C. fault for few cyclesS.
36 A
Handbook for Electrical Engineering
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Transient Stability Evaluation Using Equal AreaCriteria
Equal area criteria is a graphical method.
It gives absolute stability of the machine.
It can applied onlyfor single machine connectedto infinite bus system.
It can not use for multi machine system.
For stability : Accelerating area= Decellerating area
Method to Improve Transient Stability
Higher inertia constant of machine
By using high speed circuit breakers
By using single pole switching
By using autoreclosing units
By using AVRs
Note:
A power system can not have steady state stability beyond 8 = 90°,
however it can have transient stability beyond 8 =90° as long as the
condition of equal area criteria is satisfy.odcd erisa
Critical ClearningAngle :
4Pe
P max

A
Pm

A4

er Omax
Der =cos [(-28,,) sin S, -cos &.1hot bo
" Critical Clearning Time:

ter = 2H(6Cr -S)

1 nÍPa
where, P, = Accelerating power
P, = PnPe
" Natural Frequency of Oscillation of the Rotor
On =

1 rad/sec
M
42 A
Handbook for ElectricalEngineering
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Capacitance of Three-Core Belted Type Cables
where C, = Core-earth capacitance
= Core-core capacitance
Case I: Three core are bunched together
and capacitance is measured between bunched
Cores and the sheath.

Case ll: Two core are bunched with the sheath and capacitance between
them and third one.

Case lll: Capacitance betweenthe two cores orliness with the thirdd
connected to sheath. core
1 1
Cea =(3C, +C,) =on
2

XI Protective Relays
Relays are sensingdevice, which detect abnormal conditions in electric
circuit like faults and send signal to operate circuit breaker to isolate
faulty equipment from the system as quickly as possible.
Types of Relay
Based on Time of Operation
Instantaneous Relay : Operating time s0.1 sec
time 4

Definite Minimum Time

(DMT) Relay : DMT

Inverse Relay :

Inverse
Inverse Definite Minimum
Time (IDMT) Relay :
IDMT
 Power Systems 4 43
MADEERSY

Based on Construction

Electromagnetic attraction type:

. Balanced beam type " Moving plunger type " Attracted amature type.
Electromagnetic induction type:
" Shaded pole type" Induction cup type Wattmeter type
Gas operated relay: Buchholz relay.
Thermal relay: For over load protection.
Static/microprocessor based relay.
Pickup Value
Itis the minimum value of operating quantity at which the relay is at the
verge of operation.
Reset Value
" Itis the maximum value of operating quantity at which the relay is at the
verge of non-operation.
Note:
For Well-design relay the ratio of reset to pickup value is unity.
Ø For induction type relay the ratio of reset to pickup value is 0.98.

Time Multiplier Setting (TMS)

" By setting different value of TMS, for the same operating current, we
get different time of operation.
required
TMS(equired) =tTMS=1)
where, tequired ’Required time of operation
STMS= 1)- Timeof operation when TMS =1
TMS2
TMS,
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM)
POMgives additional feature to the same relay, so that itcan operate for
diferent pickup current
Fault current
PSM =
Current setting x
C.T. secondary) x C.T.ratio
rated current
44 AHandbook for ElectricalEngineering
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Torque Equation
Universal Relay Torque Equation
T= K,/² +KzV² + K,VI cos(0 -) +K
where, 1’ RMS value of current in current coil
V’ RMS value of voltage fed to the voltage coil circit
0’Angle between IandV
T’The maximum torque angle
K’Restraining torque including spring and friction.
K,, Ky, Kg’ Relay constant
Torque Equation for Different Type of Relays8
Over current relay Toc relay = K,i-K
Directional relay T = KsVI cos(0 -)-K
Impedance relay T = Kj² - K,v?
V
For relay to operate, Z =

Reactance relay T= K˲-K,VI sine; = 90 oi

For relay to operate, sin = X<K4
Kg
Mho relay T= KzVI cos(0 -)- K,V²
V
-= Z. Kcos(0 -t)
For relay to operate,=

Operating Characteristic of Relays

4X 4X
4Xooi Block
A
Block
Zset R
(0, X) Trip Trip
Trip
-R R
Block
Reactance Relay Impedance Relay Mho Relay

Note:
Relay used for phase fault on restrained.

Short line: Reactance relay, i.e., O.C. relay with directional

O.C. relay
Mediumn line: Impedance relay, i.e., voltage restrained
MADE ERSY Power Systems 45

Long line:Mho relay, i.e.,directional restraint O.C. relay.

For earth fault generally reactance relay are used.

XII Circuit Breakers

" Restriking voltage

R L Circuit breaker

1
E Fault V=E| 1-cos JLC

where, L, C’ Inductance and capacitance per phase of the system

upto the point of circuit breaker location.
toeo o E’System voltage at the instant of arc interruption
enko V’Restriking voltage
" The maximum value of restriking voltage =2XEpeakoilsl
where, Eneak = Peak value of the system voltageaovovdud
1 1
" Natural frequency of oscillation,
2r VLC
" Rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRRV) RRRV = o,Esino,t
" The maximum value of RRRV = 0,Epeak
Resistance Switching
" Frequency of damped oscillation
R
W

Fault
V |f=111
2r VLC 4PC
 A
Handbook for Electrical Engineering
46 ImADE ERSY
Note:
If value of the resistance connected across the Contacts of
1
circut
breaker, is equal to or less than 2 7 then there will be no transi
Oscillation.

Transient Oscillation for Different Values of R

R=oo Voltage Across

the Gap

(i) (i) (ii)

Transient oscilations for different values ofR

" If R> There will be oscillation.oubnk

1
" R= is known as critical resistance. There will be no oscillation.
34 circuit breaker capacity = V3xIpreak x Vrated
Making capacity of C.B. = 2.55 x (Symmetrical Breaking Capacity)
" Duty cycle of circuit breaker is given by:
O-30 sec -CO 90 sec - CO-3min - CO
(Here, O stands for open and C stands for closing of C.B.).

XIII Generating Power Stations

0.736
" Water Power, P= 75
Qntw kW
where, Q’ Discharge; m/sec; H’ Water head; m
n ’ Overall efficiency of turbine alternator set
W’ Specific weight of water in ka/m= 1000 kg/m turbine
model of
Specific speed of a turbine is the speed ofa scale
which develops 1metric h.p. under a head of 1metre.
Specific Speed, Ns =
NP
where, N,’ Specific speed in metric units in
metrich.p.

N’Speed of turbine in rpm; iP’Outputt

H’ Efective head in metres