Department of Education

QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”

Quarter 2 WEEK 5 – General Chemistry 1

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Describe the different functional groups.
Describe structural isomerism; give examples.

Introduction
Confusion can arise in organic chemistry because of the variety of names that have been applied to compounds;
common names, trade names and systematic names are prevalent. For example, a compound of formula, C6H6O has
variously been known as phenol, carbolic acid, phenic acid, phenyl hydroxide, hydroxybenzene, phenylic acid and
oxobenzene!
To help eliminate the proliferation of many names for a compound, a systematic IUPAC naming system has been
derived to uniquely name the several million organic different compounds based on considerations of their
structure.
This hand-out will address the naming of simple organic compounds and is by no means complete, for instance
the compound, hexahydroazepinium-1-spiro-1'-imidazolidine-3'-spiro-1''-piperidinium dibromide may be regarded as being
too complicated for this course!
In general compounds are classified and named by consideration of:
a) the number and types of atoms that are present,
b) the bond types in the molecule, and
c) the geometry of the molecule.

Formulae
Prior to setting out the rules for naming compounds it is pertinent to review some aspects of formulae. The
molecular formula of a compound gives no explicit information about the structure of the compound. The formula C 2H6O
makes no mention as to how the various atoms are arranged, indeed two different compounds share this formula but have
different structures and vastly different properties.

By writing their formulae in a structural form we can differentiate between these two compounds.

In writing these formulae the atoms after a carbon indicate the elements or groups, attached to that carbon. It
must be remembered that all C atoms in organic compounds must be involved in four bonds.

Note: C6H5 invariably refers to a benzene ring (minus a hydrogen atom).

COOH or CO2H invariably refers to an acid group

In these examples the bond angles in many instances are drawn as right angles and the molecules appear
planar. It should be emphasized that we are drawing 2-dimensional representations of 3-dimensional molecules and that

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 Department of Education
QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
the actual bond angles are rarely of 90 degrees. Configurational structures are sometimes used if the absolute geometry
is of importance.

where dashed lines represent bonds behind the plane of the page and solid lines are are bonds coming out from
the page. All other lines are in the plane of the page and all bond angles are 109°.

Nomenclature
As indicated previously, compounds are classified in terms of their structure and are named accordingly. The
simplest classification is that of the hydrocarbons, compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons are further
identified as being aliphatic or aromatic (nothing to do with smell). The aliphatics may be alkanes, alkenes or alkynes;
aromatic hydrocarbons contain one or more benzene rings. It is important that students get a good grasp of the
convention used in naming the simplest class, the alkanes, as the naming of other classes is an extension of alkane
nomenclature.

Alkanes
• contain only C, H
• are saturated, i.e. contain only single bonds
• straight chain (normal) alkanes are named according to the number of C atoms present.
• normal alkanes form a series, a homologous series of formula C nH2n+2 where n is an integer.

• these names should be memorized

• complications set in when branching occurs. The compound below also has the formula C 4H10

• compounds of the same formula are called isomers

• structural isomers have the same formula but different groupings branch from the main carbon chain.
The following few structures show only the carbon atoms, this is an unacceptible method of drawing structures
and marks will be lost in exams or quizes if this format is used. It is only shown here to simplify the structures so that you
can clearly see the differences. The preferred method of drawing structures (line format) is shown below. Structural
isomers of C6H14 (hexane)

• each of these compounds needs to be identified by having a unique name, they can't be all be called hexane!
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 Department of Education
QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
• hexane is applied to the normal (straight chain) structure, thereafter the following rules apply:
1) Name the longest continuous carbon chain in the molecule as the parent name.
2) Identify the side groups attached to this chain and place them before the parent name in alphabetical order. In
general, a side group can be regarded as an alkane that is deficient in a hydrogen atom,

A table of common side groups appears at the end of this section on naming alkanes.
3) If several groups of the same kind are attached to the main chain, list the groups only once using the
appropriate numerical prefix di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca etc. to indicate how many times
that side group appears.
4) Assign a number to each of the side groups to indicate where the group is attached to the main chain. Start
the numbering of the main chain from whichever end of the main chain will give the lowest set of numbers. The
lowest set of numbers is selected on the basis of the lowest number at the first point of difference.

You may wish to attach the following names to the C 6H14 isomers mentioned previously: 2,2- dimethylbutane; 3-
methylpentane; 2,3-dimethylbutane; 2-methylpentane; hexane.
5) a) hyphens must separate numbers and letters
b) commas must separate numbers
c) the di, tri, tetra etc. are not included in the alphabetizing process.
d) n, s, and t are not included in the alphabetizing process, but iso is (see next paragraph).
e) the prefix 'cyclo' is used for cyclic alkanes.

In identifying the longest chain in a molecule, and hence the parent name, do not be deceived by the 2-
dimensional representation of the molecule. For instance, 2,5-dimethylheptane could have be drawn in the following ways
(and several more).

Alkenes
• hydrocarbons having at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C).
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 Department of Education
QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
1) Select as the parent structure the longest continuous carbon chain that contains the carbon double bond
(C=C). Replace 'ane' with 'ene'.
2) Number this chain from the end that will give the C atom starting the double bond the lowest number. Prefix the
name with this number.
3) Treat side-groups as for alkanes.
4) Dienes contain two double bonds, trienes have three, etc.

Configurational Isomerism
Structural isomerism deals with the possible different ways in which the carbon atoms are attached to each other.
Configurational isomerism deals with the different arrangements in space the atoms can take in one structural isomer.
This type of isomerism shows up in some alkenes and is due to the lack of free rotation about a double bond (or
of the cyclic bonds in a cycloalkane).

A and B are configurational isomers. In both A and B, the two groups attached to the carbon atom on the left side
of the double bond have the same orientation in space (the methyl is up and the hydrogen is down). Now consider the two
groups attached to the carbon atom on the right side of the double bond, A has a different arrangement in space than B
(in A the methyl is up and in B the methyl is down). A and B are not superimposable on one another.
To name the two isomers, the left side of the double bond is considered first and the two groups are prioritized
based on atomic number (the largest atomic number at the first point of difference has the highest priority). Then
the two groups on the right side of the double bond are prioritized. If the two highest priority groups (left and right side of
double bond) are on the same side of the double bond (top or bottom) then the double bond has the Z configuration
(zusammen, German for together) and if they are on opposite sides the configuration is E (entgegen, German for
opposite).
A was once called cis and B trans and this form of nomenclature is still used occasionally for simple compounds.
C is a different structural isomer; A and B are the same structural isomer but different configurational isomers. These
three compounds are named: A: (Z)-2-butene, B: (E)-2-butene, C: 2-methyl-1-propene

Alkynes
• hydrocarbons having at least one carbon-carbon triple bond
1) The nomenclature and numbering is the same as alkenes, except replace 'ene' with 'yne'.
2) They do not exhibit configurational isomerism due to the linear nature of the carbon triple bond.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• based on the presence of benzene-like rings.

• substituents are treated as in cyclic alkanes.

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 Department of Education
QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”

Alkyl halides
These are important compounds in organic synthesis reactions. For the purposes of nomenclature the halogens
F, Cl, Br, I are treated as fluoro (not flouro), chloro, bromo and iodo side groups.

Functional Groups
Having covered alkanes, alkenes and alkynes it is now time to consider other classes of organic compounds, in
particular the common classes that contain oxygen and nitrogen. A summary of these functional groups is tabulated
below.

• a compound is thus classified by the presence of one or more of these functional groups.

Alcohols
• contain the hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to an sp3carbon atom.
1) Select as the parent structure the longest continuous carbon chain that contains the carbon attached to the
alcohol group. Replace 'ane' with 'anol'.
2) Number the chain from the end such that the -OH is attached to the carbon with the lowest number. Prefix the
name with this number.
3) Treat side groups as before.

• compounds such as alcohols may be classified as being primary (1°), secondary (2°) or tertiary (3°) depending on the
number of alkyl groups bonded to the carbon attached to the -OH group.

Ethers
• contain an oxygen bridge (R-O-R')
• treat the shortest (R-O-) group as an alkoxy side group on the longest carbon chain

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 Department of Education
QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
Aldehydes
• contain a carbonyl group at the end of a carbon chain

1) Select as the parent structure the longest continuous carbon chain containing the terminal aldehyde group.
Replace 'ane' with 'anal'
2) Number the chain such that the aldehyde carbon is atom number one.
3) Treat side groups as before.
• The number '1' for the 'al' group need not be included in the name.

Ketones
• contain a non-terminal carbonyl group

1) Select as the parent structure the longest continuous carbon chain containing the carbonyl group carbon atom.
Replace 'ane' with 'anone'
2) Number the chain such that the carbonyl carbon has the lowest number. Prefix the name with this number.
3) Treat side groups as before.

Organic acids
• contain the carboxylic acid group

1) Select as the parent structure the longest continuous carbon chain containing the carboxylic acid group.
Replace 'ane' with 'anoic acid'
2) Number the chain such that the carboxylic acid carbon is atom number one.
3) Treat side groups as before.
• The number '1' for the acid group need not be included in the name.

Esters
• may be regarded as a carboxylic acid derivative

• contain R and R' being alkyl or aryl (benzene-like) groups

1) Locate the carboxylic acid portion of the molecule and name as the parent carboxylic acid. Replace 'anoic acid'
with 'oate'. Name the rest of the molecule (alcohol portion) as a radical, placed in front of the parent name (not a
prefix).
2) Carbon atom number '1' is the ester carbonyl.

Amines
• contain nitrogen attached to sp3carbon atoms

• I.U.P.A.C. nomenclature is still in a state of flux (alias confusion)

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 Department of Education
QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
1) Primary Amines
Simple primary amines are named either by
a) adding the suffix amine to the name of the alkyl group bonded to the nitrogen atom of the amine. The name
of the amine in written as one word.

2) Secondary and Tertiary Amines

a) Symmetrical secondary and tertiary amines are named by adding the prefix di or tri to the name of the alkyl
group.

b) Unsymmetrically substituted secondary and tertiary amines are named as N-substituted primary amines.
The largest of the alkyl substituents is chosen as the parent chain. The use of the letter N indicates that the
alkyl groups are attached to the nitrogen atom and not to a carbon atom of the parent alkyl chain. The names
of the alkyl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom are listed alphabetically.

c) The –NH2 group whose structures are more complicated is called an amino group and is treated as any
other substituents.

Amides
• contain the group

• named like esters, treat as a carboxylic acid derivative and use 'amide' ending (instead of oic acid). Name the
amine portion of the molecule as a radical placed in front of the parent name (same as the alcohol portion in
esters). There is no space between the alkyl group attached to the nitrogen and the parent name. The N-alkyl
groups are listed alphabetically

Aromatics
• the various functional groups that we have encountered may also be present in aromatic compounds. In many instances
common names are still used.

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 Department of Education
QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”

Compounds with more than one functional group.

Compounds of this type are classified by the principle group (the main functional group) that is highest on the
following hierarchy scale. The parent name is derived from the principle group.
carboxylic acid > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine > alkyne = alkene > alkane
• A compound containing an alcohol and an aldehyde functional group is named as an aldehyde with an alcohol side
group.
• A compound containing an alcohol, ketone and an acid is named as an acid with alcohol and ketone side groups.
• The numbering system is that for the principle group.
• An alcohol is regarded as a hydroxy-side group, an amine as an amino-side group and a carbonyl as an oxo-side group.

Configurational Isomerism revisited - optical isomerism

An sp3 carbon atom that is asymmetric, that is a carbon atom bonded to four different groups, shows two different
ways of arranging the four groups in space and hence displays configurational isomerism.
• Such carbon atoms are called chiral
• In compounds of this type, the molecule and its mirror image (isomer) are non-superimposable.
• As an analogy, your right hand when viewed in a mirror becomes a left hand. Your two hands are not superimposable on
each other (at least when both palms are facing up). Each hand is chiral.

An isomer of this type is found to twist a beam of monochromatic polarized light either to the right or left, the other
isomer twisting the light in the opposite direction. The Latin names being 'dextro' (to the right) and 'laevo' (to the left), were
originally applied to these compounds. i.e., d-lactic acid and l-lactic acid. A different naming system, analogous to the E &
Z system for alkenes, has replaced the d and l labels; take Chemistry 212/222 and learn of further exciting developments
in this area.