Experiment Ⅱ: Young’s Modulus of a Metallic Wire

II.Preparation Guide
1. What is the physical significance of Young's modulus and what is its International System of Units?
2. What is the principle of the optical lever method, and how does it amplify small displacement? (Draw
the optical path diagram of the measurement principle).
3. Which physical parameters must be measured to indirectly obtain the Young's modulus in this
experiment?
III.Objectives and Tasks
1. Learn the principle of measuring small displacement with optical levers
2. Learn the measurement of Young's modulus of metallic wire by the tensile method.
3. Master the use of the difference-by-difference method to analyze experimental data.
IV. Principle
1. Young's Modulus
Taking the simplest example of deformation, consider a cylindrical object with an original length L.
When a force is applied along its length, the change in length of the rod is ΔL, and ΔL/L is defined as the
strain. If the cross-sectional area of the rod is S, and the tensile force increases from F to F′, resulting in
an elongation of ΔL, according to Hooke's law, we have:
F' − F L
=E (2-1)
S L
where (F'-F)/S is the change of stress, and the coefficient E is the Young's modulus or the elastic
modulus. In the International System of Units, the unit of E is N/m2.
For a steel wire with a diameter d, the Young's modulus is expressed as:
4 ( F' − F ) L
E= (2-2)
 d 2 L
Typically, the ΔL is small, and how to accurately measure the small displacement in length is the
key. In this experiment, we will use an optical lever to measure the tiny elongation of the length.
2. The Principle of Optical Leverage
The structure of the optical lever is shown in Figure 2-1(a). It consists of a bracket equipped with a
rotatable plane mirror. The lower part of the bracket features three legs. The line connecting the two front
legs is parallel to the mirror surface, while the rear leg is in contact with the steel wire clamp. The steel
wire clamp is designed to move vertically as the wire experiences elongation or contraction. When the
rear leg moves upward or downward by a small distance Δ𝐿 due to the change in the length of the metal
wire, the normal of the mirror rotates through an angle 𝜃, as shown in Figure 2-1(b). When the angle 𝜃
is very small, we can use the following approximation:
L
tan     (2-3)
D

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where D is the arm length of the light lever, defined as the vertical distance from the rear leg to the two
front legs. When the mirror rotates by an angle 𝜃, the reflected light beam rotates by 2θ. Therefore:
x
tan 2  2  (2-4)
H
In the equation, Δx is the change in the ruler reading, and H is the distance from the mirror to the ruler.
Combining the equation (2-3) and (2-4) together, then we can get:
2H
x =  L (2-5)
D
Therefore, the magnification principle of the optical lever is to utilize the rotation of the plane mirror
to convert small angular displacements into large linear displacements, and then enable the measurement
of small length changes. This process converts the small elongation ΔL, which is difficult to measure

directly, into a more easily measurable scale difference Δx. 2H is the magnification factor.
D

(a)

(b)
Figure 2-1. Magnification principle of the optical lever
V. Operation
1. Adjust the Experimental Stand
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 Before the experiment, it is crucial to ensure that the upper and lower clamps tightly grip on the wire
to prevent the wire from slipping relative to the clamps during the application of force, and to ensure that
the reflector can rotate freely.
(1) Wiring: Connect the signal line of the force sensor to the signal interface of the digital force gauge,
and use a DC cable to connect the power output port of the digital force gauge to the power socket of the
backlight source.
(2) Power On: Turn on the power switch of the digital force gauge and allow it to warm up for 10
minutes. The backlight source should illuminate, and the scale markings should be clearly visible. The
panel of the digital force gauge will display the force currently applied to the metal wire.
(3) Initialization: Rotate the force application nut to apply a predefined load f0 (3.00±0.02 kg) to the
metallic wire, straightening any initial bends in the wire.
2. Adjust the Telescope:
(1) Position Adjustment: Move the telescope closer and align it directly with the platform base, ensuring
that the distance between the front of the telescope and the platform board edge is within the range of 0
to 30 cm. Adjusting the telescope to ensure that the rotation axis of the mirror is approximately along the
centerline of the telescope tube when viewed from the side of the experimental setup. Simultaneously,
adjust the three screws on the bracket until a bright light from the backlight source is clearly visible
through the eyepiece.
(2) Fine Adjustment: Adjust the eyepiece knob to make the crosshair lines clearly visible. Then, use the
focusing wheel to ensure that the image of the scale within the field of view is also distinctly visible.
(3) Initialization: Adjust the screws on the bracket (this can also be combined with adjustments to the
angle of the plane mirror) to align the horizontal crosshair with the scale lines, ensuring they are parallel
and aligned with the scale line ≤ 2.0 cm to avoid exceeding the range of the scale during the experiment.
Finally, move the bracket horizontally to align the vertical crosshair with the center of the scale.
3. Data Measurement
(1) Select Appropriate Measuring Instruments to Measure 𝐿, 𝐻, 𝐷, and 𝑑, respectively.
Use a tape measure to determine the original length L of the metallic wire. Place the starting end of
the tape measure on the lower surface of the wire clamp, which corresponds to the upper surface of the
crossbeam, and align the other end with the upper surface of the platform base.
Use a tape measure to measure the vertical distance H from the rotation axis of the mirror to the
scale. Place the starting end of the steel tape measure on the upper surface of the scale board, and align
the other end with the upper surface of the vertical holder, which is at the same height as the rotation
axis.
Loosen the locking screw on the movable foot of the optical lever, and adjust the movable foot to
an appropriate length to ensure that the tip of the movable foot is as close as possible to, but not touching,
the metal wire, and the two front feet are placed in the same groove on the platform base. Use the three-
foot tips to press shallow marks on a sheet of paper on, and draw fine lines connecting the two front foot
marks to determine the height of the connecting line, which represents the optical lever constant. Then,

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 measure the length of the optical lever constant D using a vernier caliper. Place the optical lever on the
platform base with the tip of the movable foot close to the metal wire, ensuring the tip is directly in front
of the wire.
The above-mentioned physical parameters are single measurement values and should be recorded
in the experimental data.
Measure the diameter dj of the metallic wire at various positions and directions using a micrometer
screw gauge (at least six positions). Prior to measurement, take note of the zero error d0 of the micrometer
screw gauge. Record the experimental data in the table and calculate the arithmetic mean of the measured
diameters 𝑑𝑗 . Subsequently, calculate the average diameter of the metallic wire using 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑗 ± 𝑑0 .
(2) Measurement of Scale x and Force f.
Initially, press the "Zero" button on the digital force gauge and record the corresponding scale value
x1 when the horizontal line of the crosshair is aligned with the scale.
Slowly rotate the loading nut to gradually increase the tensile force in the metallic wire. Record the
scale readings x+ every 1.00 (±0.02) kg increment until the predetermined maximum force is reached.
Then, record one additional data under an increment of approximately 0.5 kg (not exceeding 1.0 kg) of
applied force.
Subsequently, reverse the rotation of the loading nut to the set maximum value and record the data.
-
Similarly, gradually decrease the tensile force in the metal wire, recording the scale reading xi every 1.00
(±0.02) kg, until the force reaches 0.00 (±0.02) kg.
Record the experimental data.
(3) Upon the completion of the experiment, loosen the force loading nut to allow the metallic wire
to freely extend, and then turn off the digital force gauge.
Ⅴ. Precautions
1. Following the initial adjustment of the telescope, no further adjustment should be made during
subsequent experimental steps. To ensure stability, avoid any vibrations on the experimental table.
2. The experimental apparatus has a maximum force restriction mechanism, and the maximum actual
force applied during the experiment should not exceed 13.00 kg.
3. The position of the limit nut must not be changed under any condition to prevent the maximum force
restriction mechanism from failing.
4. During both the force applications and force release processes, the force loading nut must not be
rotated in reverse.
5. Upon the completion of the experiment, the force loading nut should be loosened to allow the
metallic wire to freely elongate, and the digital force gauge should be turned off.
Ⅵ. Report Requirements
1. Analyze the data using the difference-by-difference method.
2. Calculate Young's modulus and its uncertainty, and present the complete expression of the
measurement results.
3. Answer the following discussion questions.

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Ⅶ. Questions
1. For two metal wires made of the same material but with different diameters and lengths, are their
Young's modulus values the same?
2. From the perspective of error analysis, why is it necessary to use different measuring instruments for
length measurements?
3. During the experiment, why is it prohibited for the loading nut to undergo reverse rotation during the
processes of loading force and releasing force?
4. What are the advantages of using the difference-by-difference method for data analysis? What issues
should be considered while employing this method?

Measurement tools and their related parameters required for the experiment
Error
Instrument Name Measuring Range Resolution
Limit
Ruler (mm) 80.0 1 0.5
Micrometer (mm) 10.0 0.1 --
Tape Measure (mm) 3000.0 1 0.8
Vernier Caliper (mm) 150.00 0.02 0.02
Micrometer Screw Gauge (mm) 25.000 0.01 0.004
Digital Force Gauge (kg) 20.00 0.01 0.005

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