with

Ranjeet Yadav Sir

INDIAN HISTORY CHART

1. Pre Historic Period 2. Proto History 3. Historical Period

Palaeolithi Mesolthich Neolithic

Age (from early age (8000 BC Age (4000 BC
period to (8000 BC to 4000 BC) to 2500BC)

Indus Valley Civilization Vedic Age

(2500 BC to 1500 BC) (1500 BC to 600 BC)

Vedic Age

Rig Vedic Age Later Vedic Age

(1500 BC to 1000 BC) (1000 BC to 600 BC)

Ancient India Modern India

(600 BC to 712 AD) Medieval India
(1707 AD to till
712 AD to 1707 AD)
Present)

Mahajanapadas Magadha Mauryan Post Gupta Harsha

Age (sixth Empire Empire Mauryan Empire Vardhana
Century BC) 600 BC to (323 BC to Empire (319 AD to Period (606
300 BC) 184 BC) 184 BC 550 AD) (AD to
& Sangam to 319 AD 647 AD)
Age (Cheras,
Pandyas,
Cholas)

Pre Medieval Post Medieval

8th­13th Century 13th­18th Century

North India Deccan South India North India Deccan South India
Cheras Rajputs Vijayanagar Pandyas
Delhi Sultanate Chalukyas
Chauhan Rashtrakutas Pandyas Delhi Bahmani Hoyasala
Cholas Sultanate Maratha
Pallava Mughal
Palas/Sen/Pratiharas/Rajputs
1 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
Pre Historic Period­ It is the history of human culture prior to writ­ten records.
The humans of this period were not civilized. The history of this period is studied
by Archaeological evidences.
This period is divided into 3 parts —
(1) Palaeolithic Age (from early period to 8000 B.C.)
(2) Mesolithic Age (8000 B.C. to 4000 B.C.)
(3) Neolithic Age (4000 B.C. to 2500 B.C.)
Protohistory ­ It is the period between prehistory and history , during which
a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing, but other cultures have
already noted its existence in their own writings, Duration of this period is 2500
B.C. to 600 B.C.
Historical Period ­ The historic period whose information is available in written
records is considered as Historical Period. Human of this period were civilized
and historical activities after 600 B.C. are included in this Period.

INDIAN HISTORY AT A GLANCE

(B.C.)
6000 ­ Earliest evidence of agricul­ture and animal domestication
in India is from Mehargarh and Burzahom.
5000­4000 ­ Earliest evidence of sheep­goat domestication at Bagor and
Adamgarh.
4000­3000 ­ Spread of Civilizations based on agriculture and animal
domestication.
2500­1750 ­ Time period of Harappan Civilization on the basis of Radio
Carbon dating.
1500 ­ Rigvedic Period, coming of Aryans in India.
1000 Later Vedic Period, spread of Aryans in the Gangetic plain.
950 ­ Mahabharata (Kurukshetra War)
877 ­ Birth of Parshvanatha (23rd Tirthankara of Jainism)
600­550 ­ Emergence of Sixteen Mahajanapadas, composition of the
Upanishads.
563 ­ ­ Birth of Gautama Buddha Founder of Buddhism
540 Birth of Mahavira Real Founder of Jainism
540­468 ­ Life Period of Vardhamana Mahavira
2 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
544­412 ­ Haryanka Dynasty (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Udayin)
516 ­ Irani ruler Darius­I invasion of India.
483 ­ Buddha attained Nirvana, First Buddhist Council in
Rajagriha.
563­483 ­ Life Period of Gautama Buddha.
468 ­ Mahavira attained Nirvana
412­344 ­ Foundation and expansion of Nag Dynasty
383 ­ Second Buddhist Council in Vaishali
362 ­ Nanda Dynasty came to power in Magadha
327­325 ­ Alexander’s invasion of India.
323 ­ Death of Alexander in Babylon.
321 ­ Chandragupta Maurya’s accession to the throne of Magadha.
305 Defeat of Seleucus at the hands of Chandragupta Maurya.
298 ­ Bindusara became king.
273­232 ­ Ashoka’s reign.
261 ­ Conquest of Kalinga.
257 ­ Ashoka became follower of Buddhism.
251 ­ Third Buddhist conference in Patliputra.
230 ­ Establishment of Satvahanas.
200 ­ Greece’s invasion of India.
185 ­ Establishment of Sunga dynasty.
75 ­ Foundation of Kanva Dynasty
58 ­ Beginning of Vikram era
30 ­ Satvahanas dynasty in Deccan, Pandyan dynasty in South.
22 ­ Trade relations of Cholas and Pandayas with the Romans.
(A.D.)
14­15 ­ St. Thomas came to India.
40 AD ­ Sakas in power in Indus Valley and Western India
50 AD ­ The Kushans and Kanishkas
65 ­ Chinese King Sent representative in India for collecting
infor­mation about Buddhism.
77 ­ Plini wrote book Natural History.
78AD ­ Saka Era begins
3 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
78­100 ­ Regime of Kanishka.
86­128 ­ Resurgence of Satvahana dynasty by Satkami and Pulumavi.
130­150 ­ Emergence of Rudradamana in West India.
225 ­ Foundation of Vakataka dynasty.
226 ­ Emergence of Sasaniyan dynasty in Parsia.
250 ­ Decline and disintegration of Satvahana dynasty.
240­280 ­ Foundation of Gupta dy­nasty.
280­319 ­ Regime of Ghatotkacha.
320 AD ­ Chandragupta I establishes the Gupta dynasty
360 AD ­ Samudragupta conquers the North and most of the Deccan
375 ­ Death of Samudra Gupta, Ram Gupta Became Successor.
380 AD ­ Chandragupta II comes to power; Golden Age of Gupta
Lit­erary Renaissance
405 AD ­ Fa­hein begins his travels through the Gupta Empire
415 AD ­ Accession of Kumara Gupta­I
415 ­ Establishment of Nalanda Uni­versity.
467 AD ­ Skanda Gupta assumes power
476 AD ­ Birth of astronomer Aryabhatta
500­532 ­ Emergence of Hun dy­nasty by Tormana and Mihirkula.
532 ­ Yashovardhan defeated Mihirkula.
606 AD ­ Accession of Harshavardhan
609 ­ Pulakeshin­II became king.
622 AD ­ Era of the Hejira begins
629 645 ­ Hiuen­Tsang came to India
636 ­ First invasion of Sindh by Ara­bians.
711 AD ­ Invasion of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim
725 ­ Nagbhatta founded Pratihara dynasty
753­973 ­ Regime of Rashtrakuta dynasty in deccan.
760­1142 ­ Regime of Pala dynasty in Eastern India.
770­810 ­ Regime of great Pala king Dharmpala, Establishment of
Vikramshila University.
783­1036 ­ Regime of Gurjar­ Pratihara dynasty in Northen In­dia by
Vatsraja of Raj as than.
4 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
788­820 ­ Period of Shankarachaiya, philosopher of Advaita.
835­885 ­ Arab trader Suleman came to India, during the regime of
Gurjar ­ Pratihara dynasty.
836 ­ Mihirbhoj became king.
850 ­ Vijayalaya defeated Pandya, became the king of Tanjore
(Thanjavur).
851 ­ Arab Traveler wrote book over India.
860 ­ Sumatra’s king Balputra estab­lished Buddha Vihar in
Nalanda.
871­1173 ­ Regime of Chola dynasty in Tanjore.
883­1026 ­ Hindushahi in Punjab and Kabul.
892 AD ­ Rise of the Eastern Chalukyas
907 ­ Coronation of Chola king Parantak­I.
915­925 ­ Arab traveler Al­Masudi came to India, during the regime of
great Rashtrakuta’s king Indra­ III.
916­1205 ­ Regime of Chandel dynasty in Jejakbhukti, establish­ment
of temples in Khajuraho by chandel dynasty.
950­1195 ­ Regime of Tripuri’s kalachuri in central India.
973­1238 ­ Regime of Solanki in Anhilwada (Kathiyavad).
977 ­ Invasion of Subuktageen in India.
985 AD ­ The Chola Dynasty : Ac­cession of Rajaraja, the Great
1001 AD ­ Defeat of Jaipal by Sul­tan Mahmud
1026 ­ Mahmud Ghazni sacks Somnath Temple
1027 ­ Last invasion by Mahmud Ghazni.
1030 ­ Death of Mahmud Ghazni, Albruni came to India.
1191 ­ Prithviraj Chauhan routs Muhammad Ghori: the first battle
of Tarain
1192 ­ Ghori defeats Prithviraj Chauhan : the second battle of Tarain
1194 ­ Jayachanda of Kannauj was defeated in battle of Chandavar
by Muhammod Ghori.
1206­1210 ­ Qutubuddin Aibak es­tablish Slave dynasty.
1210­1211 ­ Aram Shah came to the throne.
1211­1236 ­ Iltutmish

5 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1221 ­ Invasion of Changej Khan in India.
1236­1240 ­ Raziya Sultan
1240­1242 ­ Bahram Shah
1242­1246 ­ Masud Shah
1246­1266 ­ Nasiruddin
1266­1287 ­ Ghiyasuddin Balban
1279 ­ Revolt by Tugaril Khan in Bengal.
1287­1290 ­ Kaikubad
1290­1296 ­ Jalaluddin Khalji estab­lishes Khalji dynasty.
1296­1316 ­ Alauddin Khalji
1309 1313 ­ Deccan mission by Malik Kafur.
1315 ­ Returning of Malik Kafur from Deccan.
1316­1320 ­ Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji
1320­1325 ­ Ghiyasuddin Tughluq founded Tughlaq dynasty
1325­1351 ­ Muhammad bin Tughlaq
1333­1342 ­ Ibn Battuta travaled in India.
1336 ­ Foundation of Vijayanagar Empire by Harihar and Bukka
1347 ­ Bahmani dynasty founded by Bahamanshah.
1351 ­1388 ­ Firoz Shah Tughlaq
1390­1394 ­ Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah
1393 ­ Foundation of Jaunpur king­dom.
1394­1412 ­ Mahmud Shah Tughlaq
1398 ­ Taimur invades India
1414­1421 ­ Khizr Khan, power in the hands of Sayyids, emergence of
Sayyid dynasty.
1421­1434 ­ Mubarak Shah
1434­1443 ­ Muhammad Shah
1443­1451 ­ Alauddin Alam Shah
1451­1489 ­ Bahlol Lodhi, establish­ment of Lodi dynasty
1455 ­ Birth of Sant Kabir
1469 ­ Birth of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikh religion.
1472 ­ Birth of Sher Shah Suri
1483 ­ Birth of Jahiruddin Babur in Fargana.
6 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1489­1517 ­ Sikandar Lodhi rule
1490 ­ Nizam Shahi dynasty at Ahmednagar
1498 ­ First voyage of Vasco da Gama
1509 ­ Krishnadev Raya became king.
1510 ­ Portuguese captures Goa
1517 ­ Coronation of Ibrahim Lodi
1518 ­ Kutub Shahi dynasty at Golkunda
1519 ­ Entry of Babur in India
1526 ­ Establishment of the Mughal Dynasty; First Battle of Panipat:
Babur defeats Lodhis
1526­1530 ­ Reign of Babur
1527 ­ Battle of Khanwa, Babur de­feated Rana Sanga.
1529 ­ Ghagara battle Babur de­feated Afgani invaders.
1530 ­ Humayun succeeds Babur
1532 ­ Birth of Tulsidas.
1538 ­ Death of Guru Nanak
1539 ­ Sher Shah Suri defeats Humayun and becomes Emperor of
Delhi
1555 ­ Humayun recovers the throne of Delhi
1556 ­ Death of Humayun; Accession of Akbar;
1562 ­ End of slavery system by Akbar
1563 ­ Abolishment of tax on pilgrims.
1564 ­ Akbar abolishes Jizya, a poll tax on Hindus
1565 ­ Battle of Talikota : Muslim rulers in Deccan defeats and
destroys Vijayanagar Empire
1568 ­ Fall of Chittor
1569 ­ Birth of Jahangir
1571 ­ Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar
1572 ­ Akbar annexes Gujarat
1 373 ­ Surat surrenders to Akbar
1575 ­ Battle of Tukaroi
1576 ­ Battle of Haldighati : Akbar defeats Rana Pratap; Subjugation
of Bengal
7 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1577 ­ Akbar troops invade Khandesh
1579 ­ Akbar introduces Mahjarnama
1 580 ­ Accession of Ibrahim Adil Shah II in Bengal; Rebellion in
Bihar and Bengal
1581 ­ Akbar’s march against Muhammad Hakim and reconciliation
with him
1582 ­ Divine Faith promulagated
1586 ­ Annexation of Kashmir
1591 ­ Mughal conquest of Sindh
1592 ­ Annexation of Odisha
1595 ­ Siege of Ahmednagar; Annex­ation of Baluchistan
1597 ­ Akbar completes his con­quests
1600 ­ Charter to the English East India Company
1602 ­ Formation of the United East India Company of Netherlands
1605 ­ Death of Akbar and Acces­sion of Jahangir
1606 ­ Rebellion of Khusrav; Execu­tion of the Fifth Sikh Guru, Arjan
dev by Jahangir
1607 ­ Sher Afghan first, husband of Nur Jahan, killed
1608 ­ Malik Ambar takes Ahmednagar
1609 The Dutch open a factory at Pulicat
1611 ­ The English establish a factory at Masulipatnam
1611 ­ Marriage of Jahangir and Nuijahan
1612 ­ The Mughal Governor of Bengal defeats the rebellious Afghans;
Mughals annex Kuch Hajo
1615 ­ Submission of Mewar to the Mughals; Arrival of Sir Thomas
Roe in India
1616 ­ The Dutch establish a factory at Surat
1620 ­ Capture of Kangra Fort; Malik Ambar revolts in the Deccan
1622 ­ Shah Abbas of persia be­sieges and takes Qandahar
1623 ­ Shah Jahan revolts against Jahangir
1624 ­ Suppression of Shah Jahan’s revolt
1626 ­ Rebellion of Mahabat Khan
1627 ­ Death of Jahangir; Accession of Shah Jahan

8 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1628 ­ Shah Jahan proclaimed Em­peror
1631 ­ Death of Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal; The construction
of Taj Mahal
1632 Mughal invasion of Bijapur; Grant of the “Golden Firman” to
the English Company by the Sultan of Golkunda
1633 ­ End of Ahmednagar Dynasty
1636 ­ Aurangzeb appointed Viceroy of Deccan
1639 ­ Foundation of Fort St. George at Madras by the English
1646 ­ Shivaji captures Torna
1648 ­ Construction of Shahajanabad started by Shahjahan.
1656 ­ The Mughals attack Hyderabad and Golkunda; Annex­ation
of Javli by Shivaji
1657 ­ Invasion of Bijapur by Aurangzeb; Aurangzeb captures Bidar
and Kalyani
1658 Coronation of Aurangzeb
1659 ­ Battles of Khajwah and Deorai
1659 ­ Shivaji kills AQal Khan
1661 ­ Cession of Bombay to the En­glish; Mughal capture of Cooch
Behar
1664 ­ Shivaji sacks Surat and as­sumes royal title
1664 ­ Francis East India Company established.
1665 ­ Treaty of Purandar between Shivaji and Mughals
1666 ­ Death of Shah Jahan; Shivaji’s visit to Agra and his escape
1670 ­ Shivaji again sacks Surat
1674 ­ Shivaji assumed the title of Chhatrapati
1675 ­ Execution of Guru Tegbahadur by Aurangzeb
1678 ­ Marwar occupied by the Mughals
1679 ­ Aurangzeb imposes Jazia tax on non­Muslims
1680 ­ Death of Shivaji; Rebellion of Prince Akbar
1685 ­ British Shift’s company head­quarters to Mumbai from Surat.
1686 ­ English war with the Mughals; Fall of Bijapur
1689 ­ Execution of Sambhaji
1690 ­ Peace between the Mughals and the English

9 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1691 ­ Aurangzeb at the zenith of his power
1698 ­ The new English company trading to the East Indies
1699 ­ First Maratha raid on Malwa
1700 ­ Death of Rajaram and regency of his widow Tara Bai
1702 ­ Amalgamation of English and the London East India
Companies
1707 ­ Death of Aurangzeb; Battle of Jajau
1708 ­ Death of Guru Govind Singh in Nanded (Maharashtra)
1712 ­ Death of Bahadurshah­I, Jahand became king
1713 ­ Balaji Vishwanath became Peshwa.
1714 ­ Husain Ali appointed Viceroy of the Deccan; The treaty of the
Marathas with Husain Ali
1715 ­ Execution of Sikh Leader Bandabahadur.
1717 ­ Farukh Siyyar Permits East India Company for free trade.
1720 ­ Accession of Baji Rao Peshwa at Poona
1739 ­ Nadir Shah conquers Delhi; The Marathas capture Salsette
and Bassein
1740 ­ Accession of Balaji Baji Rao Peshwa; The Marathas invade
Arcot
1740 ­ Aliwardi Khan becomes king of Bengal.
1742 ­ Marathas invade Bengal
1747 ­ Ahmad Shah Abdali invades India
1748 ­ First Anglo­French war
1750 ­ War of the Deccan and Carnatic Succession; Death of Nasir
Jung
1751 ­ British wins Arcot
1751 ­ Treaty of Alivardi with the Marathas
1756 Siraj­ud­daulah captures of Calcutta
1757­63 ­ Third Anglo­French war
1757 ­ Battle of Plassey ; The Brit­ish defeat Siraj­ud­daulah
1758 ­ Francis wins Fort Saint David.
1760 ­ Battle of Wandiwash ; The British defeat the French
1760 ­ Mir Kasim becomes Nawab of Bengal.

10 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1761 ­ Third battle of Panipat : Ahmed Shah Abdali defeats the
Marathas; Accession of Madhava Rao Peshwa; Rise of Hyder Ali
1762 ­ Madhava Rao takes power in his own hands. Raghunath Rao
approaches Nizam for help.
1763 ­ Expulsion of Mir Qasim. Re­instatement of Mir Jafar.
Raghunath Rao recaptures power and keeps Madhava Rao
in confinement.
1764 ­ Battle of Buxar. The English defeat Shah Alam, Shuja­ud­
daula and Mir Qasim.
1765 ­ Grant of the Diwani’ of Ben­gal, Bihar, and Odisha to the
East India Company by Shah Alam II under Treaty of
Allahabad. Clive, Company’s Governor in Bengal. Death of
Mir Jafar.
1765­1767 ­ Clive’s second Gover­norship.
I 766 ­ Nizam cedes Northern Sarkars to the English.
1767 ­ Departure of Clive. Verelst, Company’s Govenor in Bengal.
767­1769 ­ The First Mysore War. Hyder Ali advances on Madras and
forces the English to enter into a defensive alliance.
1770 ­ The Great Bengal Famine
1771 ­ Marathas attack Hyder Ali. Marathas occupy Delhi and restore
Shah Alam who was till then under English protection at
Allahabad.
1772­1785 ­ Warren Hastings, Governor of Fort William.
1772 ­ Marathas invade Rohilkhand.
1772­1833 ­ Raja Rammohan Roy.
1773 ­ The Regulating Act passed, bringing the Comapny partially
under Parliament’s control and the Presidencies under
Calcutta’s control.
1774 ­ The Marathas again invade Rohilkhand. Nawab of Awadh
assists Rohillas. Marathas withdraw but Rohillas refuse to
pay Rs. 40 lakhs to Awadh as agreed upon. Establishment of
Supreme Court, at Calcutta. Rohilla War between Rohillas
and Nawab of Awadh as­sisted by the English. Rohilla Chief
Hafiz Rahmat Khan killed. Rohilkhand annexed by Awadh.

11 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1775 ­ Trial and execution of Nanda Kumar who alleged that Warren
Hastings had taken bribe from the Begums of Awadh.
1775­1782 ­ The First Anglo­ Maratha War.
1776 ­ The Treaty of Purandhar be­tween the English and Poona’s
Ministers, who were opposed to Raghunath Rao.
1777 ­ Birth of Kunwar Singh
1779 ­ Convention of Wadgaon stipulating that all acquisitions of
Maratha territory, made since 1773 by the Company, be
restored and the advance of English force from Bengal be
stopped.
1780 ­ Capt. Popham’s capture of Gwalior.
1780­1784 ­ Second Mysore War, Both parties agree to give up their
conquests under the Treaty of Mangalore.
1781 ­ Deposition of Chait Singh of Banaras. Calcutta Madrasa
founded by Warren Hastings to conciliate the Mohammedans
of Calcutta.
1782 ­ Asaf­ud­daula exports money from the Begums of Awadh
with the English help. The Treaty of Salbai between the English
and the Marathas, Death of Hyder Ali.
1782­1798 ­ Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore.
1783 ­ Fox’s India Bills give more powers to Parliament and to the
Governor­General.
1784 ­ Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu and the English who
promise not to assist enemies of Tipu, in return for Tipu giving
up En­glish territory. Pitt’s Act passed, setting up Board of
Control for East India Company. Asiatic So ciety of Bengal
founded.
1786­1793 ­ Lord Cornwalis, Gov­ ernor­General.
1786 Marathas and Nizam raid Mysore.
1787 ­ Treaty between Tipu, Marathas and Nizam, Marathas the
gainers.
1788 ­ Ghulam Kadir Rohilla seizes Delhi and blinds Shah Alam II.
Bedar Bakht put on Delhi’s throne.
1788­1795 ­ impeachment of Warren Hastings. It was a failed attempt.

12 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1789­1803 ­ Marathas control Delhi.
1789 ­ Tipu attacks Travancore.
1790­1792 ­ Third Mysore War fol­lowing Triple Alliance’ between English,
Marathas and Nizam against Tipu.
1792 ­ Tipu surrenders half his kingdom. Ranjit Singh succeeds his
father as leader of a Sikh Misl. Sanskrit Collegt founded at
Varanasi by English resident, Jonathan Duncan “for
endearing our Government to the native Hindus”.
1793­1798 ­ Sir John Shore, Governor­General.
1793 ­ The Permanent Settlement of Bengal.
1794 ­ Death of Mahadavji Sindhia at Poona.
1795 Battle of Kharda between the Nizam and the Marathas.
1796 ­ Baji Rao II Peshwa.
1797 ­ Jacobin club sets up by Francis in Shrirangpattanam.
1797 ­ Zaman Shah, grandson of Ahmad Shah Abdali, takes Lahore.
Death of Asaf­ud­daula of Awadh and succession of Wazir Ali.
1798 ­ Wazir Ali deposed and suc­ceeded by Sa’dat Ali at Awadh.
1798­1805 ­ Wellesley, Governor­ General.
1799 ­ English attack Tipu without provocation. Fourth Mysore War.
Fall of Shrirangpattnam. Death of Tipu. English restore
previous Hindu dynasty in Mysore. Partition of Mysore. Shah
Zaman appoints Ranjit Singh as the Governor of Lahore.
William Carey opens Baptist Mission at Serampore.
1800 Death of Nana Phadnavis. Establishment of the College of
Fort William.
1801 ­ Annexation of the Carnatic and part of Awadh by the English.
1802 ­ Holkar defeats combined forces of Sindhia and the Peshwa
at Poona, Peshwa Baji Rao flees to Bassein and signs the
Treaty of Bassein with the English.
1803 ­ Treaty of Surji Aijun Village
1803 ­ Occupation of Delhi by lx)rd Lake, War with scindia.
1803­1805 ­ Second Anglo­Maratha War.
1804 ­ Emperor Shah Alam places himself under British protection.
Lake’s war with Holkar.
13 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1805 ­ Siege of Bharatpur fails and Lake makes peace with the Raja.
1805­1807 ­ George Barlow, Governor­General.
1806 ­ Mohd, Akbar II succeeds his father Shah Alam II.
1807­1813 ­ Lord Minto I, Governor­General,
1809 ­ Treaty of Amritsar­Ranjit Singh and British sign treaty of
perpetual amity.
1809­1811 ­ Ranjit Singh takes Kangra from the Gurkh
1813­1823 ­ Lord Hastings, Governor­General.
1814­1816 ­ Anglo­Gurkha War resulting in the cession of Garhwal and
Kumaon by the Gurkhas to the English.
1817­1818 ­ Pindari War­Peshwar defeat at Kirkee.
1817­1905 ­ Debendranath Tagore who reorganised the Brahmo Samaj.
1817­1898 ­ Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, ‘ founder of Aligarh Muslim Univer­sity.
1817­1819 ­ Last Anglo­Maratha War. Hostile princes like Sindhia and
Holkar become allies of the English.
1818 ­ First Bengali newspaper, the weekly Samachar Darpan
published by the Baptist Mission, Serampore.
1819­1827 ­ Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay.
1820 Munro, Governor of Madras.
1821 ­ Sanskrit college founded at Poona.
1823 1828 ­ Lord Amherst, Governor­General.
1823 ­ Raja Rammohan Roy’s memorial to Government, protesting
against the Press Ordinance of 1823.
1824 ­ Mutiny at Barrackpore. Large numebr of Indian soldiers killed
on parade for demanding more pay for fighting in Burma.
1824­1826 ­ First Burmese War. Arakan and Tenasserim annexed.
1824­1883 ­ Swami Dayanand B’v Saraswati, founder of Aiya Samaj.
1826 ­ English caputre Bharatpur. Conquest of Assam by East India
Company. Treaty of Yandbu.
1828­1835 ­ Lord William Bentinck, Governor ­ General.
1829 ­ Brahmo Samaj founded by Raja Rammohan Roy, Prohibition
of Sati.
1829­1837 ­ Suppression of Thuggee.

14 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1830­1833 ­ Raja Rammohan Roy visits England.
1831 ­ Raja of Mysore deposed and its administration taken over by
the Company. Meeting of Ranjit Singh and William Bentinck
at Rupar.
1832 ­ Annexation of Jaintia.
1833 ­ Abolition of the Company’s trading rights. Legislative power
centralised. Indian Law Commission appointed.
1834 ­ Annexation of Coorg. Maculay, Law member. Government
establishes tea garden. Formation of Agra Province.
1835­1836 ­ Sir Charles Metcalf, Governor ­ General.
1835 ­ Macaulay’s Education Resolution. English made official
language instead of Persian. Abolition of Press restrictions
and inland transit duties.Company strikes its own coins
omitting Mughal emperor’s name.
1836­1842 ­ Lord Auckland, Governor­General.
1837 ­ Bahadur Shah II succeeded by Akbar II.
1838 ­ Tripartite Treaty among Shah Shuja, Ranjit Singh and the
En­glish.
1838­1884 ­ Kesav Chandra Sen, another pillar of Brahmo Samaj.
1839 ­ Death of Ranjit Singh.New treaty forced on the Amirs of Sind.
Work begun on G.T. Road, between Calcutta and Delhi.
English declare Shah Shuja, Amir of Kabul.
1839­1842 ­ The First Anglo­Afghan War.
1840 ­ Amir Dost Mohammad sur­renders.
1841 ­ Foundation of “Desh Hiteshi Sabha” in Calcutta.
1842 ­ Simla Proclamation of Ellenborough. Govenror­General
agrees to recognise the Amir of Afghans’ choice.
1842­1844 ­ Lord Ellenborough, Governor­General.
1843 ­ Return of Dost Muhammad to Afghanistan as its Amir.
Conquest of Sind by the British. Slavery prohibited in British
India.
1844­1848 ­ Lord Hardinge, Gover­nor­General.
1844 ­ Lord Hardinge decides to employ, in Government service,
Indians educated in English schools.
15 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1845 ­ First Anglo­Sikh War.
1846 ­ Defeat of the Sikh Army, Treaty of Lahore.
1847 ­ Engineering College founded in Roorkee.
1848­1856 ­ Lord Dalhousie, Governor­General.
1848 Annexation of Satara. Rising at Multan.
1848­1849 ­ Second Anglo­Sikh War.
1849 ­ Defeat of Sikhs and annex­ation of the Punjab. Opening of a
Hindu Girls’ Schools in Calcutta by Drinkwater Bethune.
Dalhousie’s proposal to end Mughal dynasty in Delhi.
1851 ­ Foundation of “British Indian Association’ in Calcutta.
1852 ­ Second Anglo­Burmese War. Annexation of Rangoon and
Pegu.
1853 ­ Railway opened from Bombay to Thane. Telegraph line from
Calcutta to Agra. Annexation of Nagpur and Jhansi. Cession
of Berar by Nizam. Competitive examiantion for Civil
Service.
1855 ­ Santhal insurrection in Bihar. Beginning of the jute industry
in India. Foundation of Anjuman­i­ Islami in Calcutta.
1856 ­ Annexation of Awadh. Uni­versity Act. Hindu Widow’s
Remarriage Act.
1856­1862 ­ Lord Canning, Gover­nor­General and the first viceroy of
India.
1857 ­ Universities set up at Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.
1857­1858 ­ Revolt of 1857. Revolt at Meerut begins on May 10, 1857.
1858 ­ British India placed under the direct Government of the
Crown. Queen Victoria’s Proclama­tion.
1859 Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
1859­1861 ­ Indigo Riots in Bengal.
1860 ­ Introduction of Budget.
1861 ­ Indian Councils Act. Indian High Courts Act. Archaeological
Survey of India set up.
1862 ­ Penal Code introduced. Amal­gamation of the Supreme and
Sadar courts into High Courts.
1862­1863 ­ Lord Elgin, Viceroy.
16 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1863 ­ Death of Amir Dost Muhammad. Afghan War of Succession.
Sher Ali, Amir of Afghanistan receives an annual grant of six
lakh of rupees.
1863 ­ Formation of “Mohmmaden Association” in Calcutta,
Estab­lishment of Patna College.
1863­1902 ­ Swami Vivekananda.
1864­1869 ­ Sir John Lawrence, Viceroy.
1865 ­ Telegraphic communication with Europe opened.
1866 Establishment of Allahabad High Court.
1869 Ambala Conference with Amir Sher Ali. Amir Yakub’s rebellion
in Afghanistan. Opening of Suez Canal. Birth of M.K. Gandhi
(2 October).
1869­1872 ­ Lord Mayo, Viceroy.
1870 ­ Mayo’s Provincial Settlement. Erection of Red Sea telegraph.
1872 ­ First census in India
1872 ­ Kuka Revolt.
1872 ­ Assassination of Lord Mayo
1872­1876 ­ Lord Northbrook, Vice­roy.
1874 ­ Bihar Famine.
1875 ­ M.A.O. College, Aligarh founded by Syed Ahmad Khan.
Mayo College, Ajmer, opened. Visit of the Prince of Wales.
Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda.
1876 ­ Occupation of Quetta. Indian Association of Calcutta. The
Queen of England proclaimed Empress of India.
1876­1880 ­ Lord Lytton, Viceroy.
1877 ­ Lytton’s Delhi Durbar.
1878 ­ Vernacular Press Act.
1878­1880 ­ Second Afghan War. Flight of Sher Ali.
1878 ­ Appointment of Famine Com­mission under the presidency
of Richard Strachey.
1879 ­ Madam Blavatsky (Russian) and Col. Olcott (American) come
to India from USA and set up Theosophical Society at Adyar,
Madras.

17 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1880 ­ Abdur Rahman recognised as Amir of Afghanistan. Famine
Commission.
1880­1884 ­ Lord Ripon, Viceroy.
1881 ­ Factory Act. Rendition of Mysore.
1882 ­ Repeal of Vernacular Press Act.
1882 ­ Hunter Commission. Indian Education Commission.
University of Punjab set up.
1883 ­ Indian National Conference held in Calcutta.
1883­1884 ­ Illbert Bill controversy.
1K34­1888 ­ Lord Dufferin, Viceroy.
1885 ­ First Meeting of the Indian National Congress. Bengal Tenancy
Act. Bengal Local Self­Government Act. Third Anglo­Burmese
War.
1886 ­ Annexation of Upper Burma. Ramakrishna Mission founded.
Delimitation of Afghan northern boundary.
1888 ­ University set up at Allahabad.
1888 ­ Establishment of “United Indian Patriotic Association” by
colonel Beck.
1888­1894 ­ Lord Landsdowne, Viceroy.
1889 ­ Second visit of the Prince of Wales.
1891 ­ Factory Act, Age of Consent Act. Manipur Rebellion.
1892 ­ Indian Councils Act intro­duces the principle of election.
1893 ­ Durand’s mission to Kabul. Mrs. Besant arrives in India.
1894­1899 ­ Lord Elgin II, Viceroy.
1895 ­ Shivaji Festival started by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
1897 ­ Frontier Risings. Plague at Bombay. Indian Education Service
set up.
1897 ­ Tilak Sentenced to 18 months imprisonment.
1898 ­ Ramakrishna Math and Mis­sion founded at Belur by Swami
Vivekananda.
1899­1905 ­ Lord Curzon, Viceroy.
1900 ­ Famine Commission, Land Alienation Act, North­West Frontier
Province created.

18 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1902 ­ Gurukul Kangri started at Haridwar.
1904 ­ Act passed empowering the Universities to appoint professors
and lecturers. Cooperative Societies Act. Archaeological
Department established by Curzon. The Youghsband
Expedition to Tibet.
1905 ­ First Partition of Bengal. Morley, Secretary of State for
India.
1905­1910 ­ Lord Minto II, Viceroy.
1906 ­ Muslim League formed at Dhacca (Dhaka). Congress
declaration regarding ‘Swaraj’.
1907 ­ Surat Congress, Moderate­extremist clash. The Anglo­
Rus­sian Convention. Mrs. Annie Besant succeeds Col.
Olcott as President of Theosophical Society.
1908 ­ Newspapers Act. Tilak con­victed of sedition (July 22).
1908 ­ Khudiram Bose sentenced to death.
1908 ­ Imprisonment to Gandhi (First time)
1909 ­ Morley­Minto Reforms. Appointment of S.P. Sinha to the
Governor­General’s Council. Indian Councils Act passed (May
21). Madan Lai Dhingra shoots dead Curzon Whyllie in London
(July 1).
1909 ­ Gandhi writes book “Hind Swaraj”
1910­1916 ­ Lord Hardingen, Viceroy.
1910 ­ Death of Edward III and ac­cession of George V.
1911 ­ Delhi Durbar. Partition of Begal modified. Census of India.
Transfer of Capital to Delhi announced.
1912 ­ Removal of the Imperial Capital of Delhi. Province of Delhi
created by a proclamation, Attempt of Lord Hardinge’s life.
1913 ­ Education Resolution of the Government of India. Nobel Prize
for Rabindranath Tagore.
1913 ­ Formation of “Gadar Party” in San Francisco.
1914­1918 ­ First World War.
1914 ­ Tilak released from Mandale Prison.
1915 ­ Gandhi arrives in India (January). Defence of India Act.
Death of Gokhale (February 19). Mrs. Besant announces the
for­mation of the Home Rule League (September 25).
19 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1916 ­ Sadler Commission. Lucknow Pact of Indian National Congress
and All­India Muslim League. Foundation of Women’s
University at Poona. Banaras Hindu University established
at Varanasi.
1916 ­ Formation of Home Rule League by Tilak and Mrs. Besant.
1916­1921 ­ Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy.
1917 ­ British declaration on Indian self­government. Montague
be­comes Secretary of State, visits India. Announcement of
granting of responsible government. Gandhi tried for
Champaran Satyagraha (April 18). Mrs. Besant interned by
Madras Government (June 15).
1918 ­ Indians made eligible for King’s Commission, Rowlatt
(Sedi­tion) Committee submits its re­port.
1919 ­ Montague­Chelmsford Reforms. Rowlatt Act passed. Massacre
at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar (April 13). Third Afghan War.
Royal Proclamation. Government of India Act, 1919 passed.
1920 ­ Khilafat Movement and Non­ Cooperation Movement. Lord
Sinha, Governor of Bihar and Orissa. Mahatma Gandhi
Leads the Congress. All India Trade Union Congress
founded. Aligarh Muslim University established.
1921 ­ Chamber of Princes inaugurated. Moplah Rebellion. Prince of
Wales visits India. Census of India.
1921­1926 ­ Lord Reading, Viceroy.
1921 ­ Harappa excavations begin.
1922 ­ Resignation of Montague. Mohenjodaro excavations begin.
Chauri Chaura incident. Visvabharati University started
by Rabindranath Tagore.
1923 ­ Swarajists in India Councils. Certification of Salt Tax. Tariff
Board set up. Question of Indianising the command of
certain regiments.
1923 ­ Foundation of Indian Party by madan Mohan Malviva.
1924 ­ Kanpur Conspiracy Case.
1924 Gandhi became president of Congress session at Belgao
(Belgaum)

20 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1925 ­ All­India Depressed Class Association. Cotton excise
abolished. Reforms. Enquiry Report. Death of Chittaranjan
Das (C.R.) Sikh Gurdwaras Act passed to enable Sikhs to
take over control of Gurdwaras from Mahants. Vithalbhai
J. Patel elected as the first Indian President of the Leg­islative
Assembly.
1926 ­ Tr a d e U n i o n A c t p a s s e d . Swami Shraddhanand
Assassinated (December 23).
1926­1931 ­ Lord Irwin, Viceroy.
1927 ­ Indian Navy Act. Appoint­ment of Simon Commission.
1927 ­ Foundation of All India Woman Conference.
1928 ­ Simon Commission comes to India. All Parties’ Conference
set up. Nehru Report. Royal Commission on Agriculture
appointed.
1928 ­ Foundation of Hindustan Socialist Republic Association
(HSRA)
1929­ Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutt drop bombs in the
Legislative Assembly (April 8). Establishment of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research. Meerut Conspiracy case
trial begins.
1929 ­ Lahore session of Congress presided by Pt. JL Nehru, Passed
a r e s o l u t i o n d e c l a r i n g P o o r n a Swaraj (Complete
Independence) to be the congress objective.
1930­1932 ­ Boycott of the Simon Commission. Civil Disobedience
Movement.
1930 ­ Sharda Act Passed.
1930 ­ Gandhijis Dandi March, Re­bellion in Burma. Round Table
Conference (First Session). January 26, Independence Pledge.
1931 ­ Gandhi­Irwin Pact signed. Census of India. Round Table
Conference (Second Session). Publication of the Royal
Labour Commission’s Report.
I931 ­ Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Raj guru were hanged till death
on March 23 at Lahore Jail.
1931­1936 ­ Lord Willingdon, Viceroy.

21 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

1932 ­ Second Civil Disobedience Movement. Round Table
Confer­ence (Third Session), Communal Award announced.
Poona Pact signed. Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun set up.
1934 ­ Civil Disobedience Movement called off. Bihar Earthquake
(January 16).
1934 ­ Foundation of congress socialist party in Patna, Foundation
of Royal Indian Navy.
1935 ­ Indo­British Agreement signed. Government of India Act,
1935 passed by British Parliament (August 2).
1 936 ­ Death of King George V (January 21). Accession and
ab­dication of Edward VIII. Accession of George VI.
1936­1944 ­ Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy.
1937 ­ Inauguration of Provincial Au­tonomy (April 1). Congress
Ministries formed in seven out of eleven Provinces. In NWFP
the pro­Congress Red Shirt Party of Khan Abdul Ghaffar
Khan wins majority.
1938 ­ V.D. Savarkar elected Presi­dent of the Hindu Mahasabha.
Death of Sarat Chandra Chatterjee (born 1876) and of Sir
Muhammad Iqbal (born 1877). Subhash Chandra Bose
elected President of the Indian National Congress.
1939 ­ Second world war begins. Subhash Chandra Bose elected
president of Congress again but resigned latter.
1940 Proposal of separate Pakistan first passed in Lahore session
by the Muslim League.
1940 ­ Individual Satyagraha started. Vinoba Bhave was the first
Satyagrahi.
1941 Subhash Chandra Bose es­caped to Berlin from Calcutta.
1942 ­ Quit India Movement started (8 August, 1942).
1943 ­ Subhash Chandra Bose took the charge of Azad Hind Fauj in
Singapore and set up Indian Provisional Government.
1944­1947 ­ Lord Wavell, Viceroy.
1944 ­ Gandhi­Jinnah talks opened in Bombay on Rajagopalachari’s
proposals for solution of constitution deadlock (September
9). Talks break down on Pakistan issue (September 27).
INA reaches Indian soil.
22 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1945 ­ Labour Government in Britain. Lord Wavell’s broadcast
announcing British Government’s determination to go ahead
with the task of fitting India for self­government (September
19). End of Second World War. Germany surrenders (May).
Japan surrenders (June) INA Surrenders to the British (May),
Congress leaders released (June). First trial of INA men
(November 5).
1945 ­ Elections to the Central Legislative Assembly held (December).
1946 ­ Mutiny of the Indian Naval ratings in Bombay (February 18).
Violence in Bengal. Announcement of special Mission of
Cabinet Ministers of India (February 19). Cabi­net Mission’s
plans announced (June 16). Muslim League decides to
participate in Interim Government. Congress announces
accep­tance of the longterm part of May 16 plan, but refuses
invitation to participate in Interim. Government (June 25).
Jawaharlal Nehru takes over Presidentship of the Congress
(July 6). Muslim League withdraws its acceptance and
decides on a policy of direct action (July 29). This leads to
outbreak of mob violence in Calcutta (August 16). Interim
Government formed (September 2). Muslim League members
sworn in (October 26). Constituent Assembly’s first meeting
(December 9).
1947­1948 ­ Lord Mountbatten, Viceroy.
1947 ­ British Government’s historic announcement of transfer of
power to “responsible hands”, not later than 1948 (Februaiy
20). Announcement of Lord Mountbatten’s plan for Partition
of India (June 3). Indian Independence Act passed (July).
Creation of free India and Pakistan (August 14­15, 1947).

23 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
1. Literary Sources : Vedic, Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and other literature and
foreign accounts.
2. Archaeological : epigraphic, numismatic and architectural remains,
archaeological explorations and excavations
• study of development of scripts: palaeography.
• study of inscriptions: epigraphy.
• study of coins: numismatics
• study of monuments, material remains: Archeology.

LITERARY SOURCES
Indian Tradition of History Writing
• Many foreign scholars opined that Indians had no sense of history writing and
whatever was written in the name of history is nothing more than a story
without any sense.
• But this appears to be a veiy harsh judgment. Because the knowledge of history
was given a very high place in ancient India. It was accorded sanctity equal to
a Veda.
• Atharvaveda, Brahmans and Upanishads include Itihas­ Purana as one of
the branches of knowledge.
• Kautilya in his Arthashastra (fourth century B.C.) advises the king to devote
a part of his time every day for hearing the narrations of history.
Puranic Literature
• The Puranic literature is very vast.
• 18 main Puranas, 18 subsidiary
• Puranas and a large number of other books.
• According to the Puranas, following are the subject matters of history :
• Narration of Puranas were a part of the annual ritual in every village and town
during the rainy season and at the time of festi­vals. It was treated as a power­ful
vehicle of awakening of cultural and social consciousness.
• In all the Puranas royal genealogies are dealt with the reign of Parikshit, the
grandson of Arjun, as a benchmark.

24 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• All the earlier dynasties and kings have been mentioned in past tense.
• While the latter kings and dynasties have been narrated in future tense.
• This may be because of the fact that the coronation of Parikshit marks the
beginning of Kali Age.
• Many scholars think that this also points to the fact that perhaps the Puranas
were completed during the reign of Parikshit.
• In the context of the Puranas it may be remembered that in ancient India,
Itihas was looked upon as a means to illuminate the present and future in the
light of the past.
• The purpose of history was to understand and inculcate a sense of duty and
sacrifice by individuals to their families, by the families to their clans, by the
clans to their villages and by the villages to Janapada and Rashtra and
ultimately to the whole humanity.
• History was not meant to be an exhaustive compendium of the names of the
kings and dynasties and their achievements etc.
• The two great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, may also be used
as a source. It is generally held that there have been constant interpolations in
these works.
• The Puranas may not satisfy the modern definition of historio­graphy or those
who wrote it may not have been aware of the “historian’s crafts”, but they
seem fully aware of the purpose of their work and the purpose of history itself.
Ramayana, Valmiki
• composition started in 5BC. passed through five stage, fifth stage in 12AD
6000 verses to 12000 verses and finally 24000 verses.
• As a whole, this text seems to have been composed later than Mahabharata.
Mahabharata, Vyas
• Reflects the state of affairs between 70BC to 4AD.
• Originally 8800 verses, collection dealing with victory.
Later raised to 24000 verses­ came to be known as Bharata after Bharat tribe
• Final compilation: 1 lakh verses and came to be known as Mahabharata or
Satasahasri Samhita.
• Didactic portion from Post Maurya, Gupta times.

25 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

Puranic Literature: Limitations
1. Most of the ancient literature is religious in nature, and those which are claimed
to be history by Indians, i.e., puranic and epic literature, contain no definite
dates for events and kings.
2. In the Puranas and epics, we find genealogies of kings and sometimes their
achievements. But it is difficult to arrange them in chronological order.
3. Puranic literature helps tracing Lord Ram of Ayodhya around 2000B.C. but
the extensive exploration in Ayodhya donot show any settlement around that
date. Similarly, Lord Krishna can be traced to 200 BC­300AD. But excavations
in Mathura, donot attest his presence. Counter argument: The epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata have undergone several editions through ages,
hence difficult to tie up with specific era.
Vedic Literature
• The Four Vedas: We cannot find much trace of political history in the Vedas,
but can have reliable glimpses of the culture and civilization of the Vedic
period.
• Vedic literature are entirely in a different language, which can be called the
Vedic language. Its vocabulary contains a wide range of meaning and at times
different in grammatical usages.
• It has a definite mode of pronunciation in which emphasis changes the
meaning entirely.
• Four vedas in the chronological order are ; Rig veda, Yajur veda, Samaveda
and Atharvaveda.
Vedanga
Six vedangas (limbs of Vedas) were evolved for the proper understanding of the
Vedas.
1. Siksha (phonetics) 2. Kalpa (rituals)
3. Vyakarna (grammar) 4. Nirukta (etymology)
5. Chhanda (metrics) 6. Jyotisha (astronomy)
Sutra
• Each vedanga has developed a credible literature around it which are in the
sutra form i.e., precepts.
• This is a very precise and exact form of expression in prose which was developed
by the ancient Indians.

26 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

Later Vedic Literature
Brahmanas elaborate on vedic rituals
Aranyakas give discourses on different spiritual and philosophical problems.
Upanishads It gives an account of vedas in Predominantly monastic and mystical
terms. They are also known as Vedanta as they aire generally the
last part of the vedas.
Sulvasutra prescribe measurements for sacrificial altars. Mark the be­ginning
of study of geometry and maths.
Srautasutra account of royal coronation ceremonies
Grihyasutra domestic rituals with birth, naming, marriage, funeral etc.

Jain and Buddhist Literature

literature written in notes
Jain Prakrit was a form of Sanskrit language
Buddhist Pali • as the form of Prakrit language which was in vogue
in Magadha/South Bihar.
• Most of the early Buddhist literature is written in
this language.
• With the Buddhist monks it reached Sri Lanka,
where it is a living language.
• Provides details of contempary kings in Magadha,
North Bihar and East UP.
• Ashokan edicts are also in this language.

• Since the modern historians have discarded most of the dynasties mentioned
in the Puranas, Mahavira and Buddha are considered historical personalities,
only those portions of the puranic dynastic lists have been accepted which are
supplemented and supported by the Buddhist and Jaina literature.
Jataka Stories
• These are Buddhist books
• Before he was born as Gautama, the Buhddha passed through more Than
550 births, in many cases in animal­form.
• Each birth story is called Jataka. There are more than 550 such stories.
• Throw light on socio­economic conditions between 5BC to 2BC.
Dhamasutras and the Smritis
• These are rules and regulations for the general public and the rulers
• It can be termed in the modern concept as the constitution and the law books
for the ancient Indian polity and society. These are also called
27 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
Dharmashastras
• These were compiled between 600 and 200 B.C.
• Manusmriti and Arthashastra are prominent among them.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra
• A book on statecraft was written in the Maurya period.
• The text is divided into 15 chapters known as books.
• Different books deal with different subject matter concerning polity, economy
and society.
• Even before the final version of Arthashastra was written in the fourthj century
B.C. by Kautilya, there appeared a tradition of writing on and j teaching of
statecrafts because Kautilya acknowledges his debt to his predecessors in the
field.
• Mudrarakshusha, a play written by Vishakhadatta, also gives a glimpse of
society and culture.
Notable writers
Kalidasa Malavikagnimitra tells the love story of Malavika a maiden
of Queen and Agrimitra the son of Pushya mitra Shunga,
dynasty which followed the Mauiyas.
Abhgyanshakuntalam: glimpse of Guptas.
Bhasa and Sudraka written plays based on historical events.
Banabhatta Harshacharita throws light on many historical facts
Vakpati wrote Gaudauaho, based on the exploits of Yasovarman
of Kanauj
Bilhana Vikramankadevacharita describes the victories of the later
Chalukya king Vikramaditya.
Kalhana His book Rajatarangini. It is a chronicle of the Kings of
Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit language.
Biographical Writings
Banabhatta’s Harshacharita • 7 th AD­
• D e scr i be s th e e a rl y ca re e r o f
Harshavardhana­ courtlife and social life
in his age.
Sandhyakara Nandi • Ramacharita. 12th AD­
• conflict between Kaivarta peasants and
Pala prince Ramapala. Prince wins.
Bilhana’s Vikramanakadevacharita • Vikramaditya, the sixth A.D.
Atula • Mushika Vamsha­ this dynasty ruled
in Northern Kerala.
28 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• Kumarapalacharita of Jayasimha,
• Kumarapatacharita or Duayashraya Mahakauya of I lemachandra,
• Harnmirakavya of Nayachandra,
• Navasahasankacharita of ^admagupta,
• Bhojaprabandha of Billal,
• Prithuiraj acharit of Chandbardai.
• Limitations : These writers made lot of exaggerations to please their patron
kings.
LIMITATIONS OF INDIAN LITERARY SOURCES
1. Printing was not known. Everything was written on soft materials like birch
bark, palm leaf, paper etc.
2. Since the old manuscripts become fragile in course of time, they had to be
manually copied. But At the time of copying, some errors tend to creep in or
sometimes even additions are made.
3. Alexander s Invasion finds no mention in Indian sources. We’ve to reconstruct
his exploits entirely on basis of Greek sources.
4. Many of them religious in nature­ while they give some idea on prevailing
social conditions but hard to put it in context of time and place.
Sangam Literature
• Earliest Tamil text
• Kings and chiefs patronized poets.
• These poets assembled in colleges and compiled poems over a period of 3 to 4
centuries. This is Sangam literature.
• Describes many kings and dynasties of South India.
• This literature generally describes events upto the fourth century A.D.
• Total 30,000 lines of poetry
• Arranged in eight Anthologies called Ettuttokai
• Two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (18 lower collections) and the Pattupattu
(ten songs). The former is older than the latter.
• Some kings and events are supported by inscriptions also.

29 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
Greek Ambassadors :
• Ambassadors were sent to Pataliputra by Greek kings.
• Notable: Megasthenese, Deimachus and Dionysiqs,
• They mention Sandrokottas (Chandragupta Maurya)­ help fixing his date of
accession at 322BC. This helps as sheet­anchor in Ancient Indian Chronology.
Historians :
• Notable: Herodotus, Megasthenese, Nearchus, Plutarch, Arrian, Strabo, Pliny
the Elder, and Ptolemy (Geography).
• They were concerned mostly with the north western part of India and primarily
the areas which were either part of the Persian and Greek Satrapies or
Alexander’s campaign.
Megasthenese :
• The Greek ambassador (in the court of Chandragupta Maurya c. 324­ 300
B.C.)
• Megasthenese wrote extensively in a book called ndika which is no longer
available to us.
• We know about Megasthenese’s Writings through various extracts of the writings
of Diodorous, Strabo and Arrian.
• These fragments of Irtdika, provide valuable information on Maurya
Administration, social classes and economic activities.
• The existence of a list of 153 kings whose reigns had covered a period of about
6053 years uptill then.
• Indika is not free from credulity and exaggerations.
• Megast henest had little understanding of Indian society and social sys­tems.
For example, he mentions that Indian society comprised of seven castes (jatis).
• Discrepancies because he did not know any Indian language, was not a part of
Indian society and psyche.
Greek Writers
Darius India figures in his foreign inscriptions
Otesian got Info of India from through the Persian sources.
Herodotus in his “Histories” gives us much information about Indo­Persian
relations

30 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Arrian detailed account of the invasion of India by Alexander on the
basis of information from those who accompanied the campaign.
anonymous Book: “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” by an anonymous author,
who was a Greek, settled in Egypton the basis of his personal voyage
of Indian coast in about A.D.80. He gives valuable information about
the Indian coasts.
I tolemy wrote a geographical treatise on India in the second century

A.D.
Greek Limitations
1. Most of the Greek writing about India are based on secondary sources resulting
in numerous errors and, contradictions.
2. Except for Megasthenese all others have touched Indian history in the true
sense very marginally.
3. They were ignorant of the language and the customs of the country and their
information is full of unbelievable facts and fancies.
4. The works of Megasthenese and other Greeks of those who accompanied
Alexander, have been lost and are available only in fragments as* quoted in
later works.

Chinese Travelers
• visited India from time to time­ as Buddhist pilgrims and therefore their accounts
are somewhat tilted towards Buddhism. Three important pil­grims were
Notable Chinese writers
Fa­Hien Came in India in 399 A.D. in the reign of Gupta ruler Chandragupta
II ‘Vikramadity’ He was the first Chinese travaler to come to India.
Hiuen­Tsang 7th Century In the age of Harshavardhana and some other
contemporary kings of Northern India.
I­tsing 7th Century
Chinese Travelers: Limitations
1. Fa­Hien and Hiuen­Tsang have given somewhat exaggerated account of
Buddhism during the period of their visit.
2. For example Hiuen­Tsang depicts Harsha as a follower of Buddhism but in his
epigraphic records Harsha mentions himself as a devotee of Siva.
3. Counterargument : Indian rulers always have, like their subjects, been multi­
religious people, it is not difficult for a foreigner to be confused.

31 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

Arab Historian: Al­Beruni
• Abu Rihan better known as Al­Beruni.
• Born in central Asia in A.D. 973 and died in Ghazni (present­day Af­ghanistan)
in A.D. 1048
• Contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• When Mahmud conquered part of central Asia, he took Al­Beruni with him.
• Though A1 Beruni deplored his loss of freedom, he appreciated the favourable
circumstances for his work.
• Unlike Megasthenese, Al­Beruni studied Sanskrit language and tried to gain a
precise knowledge of Indian sources. The list of works consulted by him is long
and impressive. His observations range from philosophy, religion, culture, society
to science, literature, art and medicine.
• Al­Beruni’s work can be termed as fairly objective and wherever he has faltered­
is not because of any other reason but his lack of proper un­derstanding.
• Does not give any political information of his times.
• Comparatively free from religious or racial biases
• While Al­Beruni also possess a well defined religious and hermeneutics
awareness, he was essentially a scholar and not driven to preach his faith. He
was essentially a scholar and not driven to preach his faith.
• However, sometime Al­Beruni does show his annoyance when he says
sarcastically,”... the Hindus believe that there is no country but theirs, no
nation like theirs, no kings like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like
theirsm.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
Megaliths :
• Some people in South India, buried their dead with tools, weapons, potteries
etc. Such graves were encircled by a big piece of stone. These structures are
called Megaliths.
Carbon­Dating principle
• Half life period during which, half of the material decays out.
• Half­life of C14 is 5568 years.
• Carbon is associated with all living beings.
• When an object ceases to live, it stops receiving fresh supply of Carbon C14

32 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• And its existing undergoes decacy into an isotope C12.
• We can measure the decaying of C14 to C12 and identify the number of years
elapsed.

Inscriptions
• One of the most important and reliable sources of history writing are inscriptions.
• An inscription, being a contemporary document, is free from later inter­polations.
• It comes in the form it was composed in and engraved for the first time. It is
almost impossible to add something to it at a later stage.
• The earliest system of writings is found in the a ppan seals. (2500BC) However,
there has been no success in deciphering it. They are picto­ graphic script­
ideas/objects expressed in form of picture.
• Thus, the writing system of the Ashokan inscriptions (in Brahmi script) are
considered to be the earliest (3rd AD).
• Ashoka’s views on dhamma and conquests of Samudragupta, and sev­ered
others would have remained unknown without their epigraphs.
• Limitation of inscription: they never speak of defeats/ weaknesses

Ashokan Inscription
• These were recorded in different years of his reign and are called edicts because
they are in the form of the king’s order or desire.
• They also give a glimpse of Ashoka’s image and personality as a benevo­lent
king concerned with the welfare of not only his subjects but also of the whole
humanity.
• These are found written in four scripts.
Language used in Ashokan inscriptions
Empire script used in Ashokan Edicts
Afghanistan 1. Aramaic 2. Greek scripts
Pakistan 3. Kharoshthi. Kharoshthi evolved on the Varnantata
system of the Indian languages is written from right to
left.
Kalsi in the north in 4. Brahmi. Uttaranchal upto Mysore in the south.
• written from left to right.
• Its individual letters were modified century after century
and through this process all the scripts of India, including
33 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam in the south and
Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla., etc. in the north have developed
from it.
• This modification in the form of individual letters gave
another advantage. It has made it roughly possible to
ascertain the time or the century in which the inscription
was written
Firoz Shah Tughlaq
• He found an Ashokan Pilar inscription from Topra, Haryana, brought it to
Delhi and asked Pandits to decipher it. They failed.
• Later, British started epigraphic studies in the late eighteenth century and
deciphered it.
James Prinsep :
• Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837. After this the study of
epigraphs became a subject in itself. India is particularly rich in epigraphic
material. He was the first person to decipher Ashokan Edicts.
• Inscriptions of the Indo­Greeks, Saka­kshatrapas and Kushanas adopt Indian
names within two or three generations. These inscriptions show them engaged
in social and religious welfare activities like any other Indian.
Sanskrit
• Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy. This became the practice of the
subsequent dynasties. They took the opportunity to give an account of their
conquests and achievements of their predecessor including my­thology of their
origins.
• Sanskrit came to occupy a prune place since the Gupta period.
Junagarh Rock inscription • of Rudradaman is considered as an early example
of chaste Sanskrit, written in mid second century
A. D.
Allahabad Pillar enumerates the achievements of Samudragupta
Aihole inscription. Chalukya king Pulkeshin II gives a dynastic
genealogy
Gwalior inscription of Bhoja gives full account of his predecessors
and their achievements.
• From the inscriptions we also came to know that
Learned Brahmans (called Agraharas) were given
grant of land, free from all taxes.

34 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

Coins/numismatics
• We could not have known about most of the Indo Greek, Saka­Parthian and
Kushana kings without numismatic sources.
• This is considered as the second most important source for reconstruct­ing the
history of India, the first being inscriptions.
• Ancient India did not have banking system. People kept money in earthen
posts as precious hoards. Later they’re found while digging field or exca­vating
foundation for the construction of a building, making road etc.
• Some coins were issued by merchants and guilds with permission of rulers
prove that commerce had became important in later history of Ancient India.
• Largest number of coins found in post­Maurya period trade had in­creased.
• Few coins from Post­Gupta period trade had declined.
• Coins found in systematic excavations are less in number but are very valuable
because their chronology and cultural context can be fixed pre­cisely.

COIN TYPES
Punch­Marked
• Earliest coins
• Punch­marked coins are the earliest coins of India and they bear only symbols
on them.
• Each symbol is punched separately, which sometimes overlap the an­other.
• They do not bear any inscription, or legend on them­ These have been found
throughout the country from Taxila to Magadha to Mysore or even further
south.
• The earliest punch­marked coins were made largely of silver, though a few
copper coins also existed. Some gold punch­marked coins are also reported to
have been found, but they are very rare and their authenticity is doubtful.

Indo­Greek
• It were the Indo­Greek rulers who first of all issued the gold coin.
• The portrait or bust of the king on the observe side appear to be real portraits.
• On the reverse some deity is depicted.
• From these coins we know that than forty indo­Greek rulers who ruled in a
small north­western region of India.

35 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• We know about several Saka­Parthians kings about whom we would have no
information from any other sources.
Kushanas
• Kushanas issued mostly gold coins and numerous copper coins which are
found in most parts of north India up to Bihar.
• Indian influence can be seen on them from the very beginning.
• The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Siva standing beside a bull. He
was the first person who issued gold coins on a large scale.
• In the legend on these coins the king calls himself Maheshwara, i.e. devotee of
Siva.
• Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins.
• We find many Indian gods and goddesses depicted on Kushana coins besides
many Persian and Greek deities.

Guptas
• issued largest number of Gold coins.
• Guptas appear to have succeeded Kushanas in the tradition of minting coins.
They completely Indianised their coinage
• kings are depicted engaged in activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding
a bow or battle­axes, playing musical instrument or performing AshwamedK
yajna.
Excavations
• In addition to epigraphic and numismatic sources there are many other
antiquarian remains which speak much about our past.
• Temples and sculptures are found all over the country right from the Gupta
period up to recent times.
• These show architectural and artistic history of the Indians.
• They excavated large caves in the hills in Western India which are mostly
Chaitya and viharas.

36 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 IMPORTANT DYNASTIES, FOUNDER AND CAPITAL
Dynasty Founder Capital
Haiyanka Dynasty Bimbisara Rajgriha
Shishunaga Dynasty Shisunaga Vaishali
Nanda Dynasty Mahapadmananda Pataliputra
Maurya Dynasty Chandragupta Maurya Patliputra
Shunga Dynasty Pushyamitra Shunga Patliputra
Kanva Dynasty Vasudeva Pataliputra
Satavahanas Simuka Paithan
Kushanas Kujula Kadphises Purushpura
Guptas Sri Gupta Patliputra
Hunas Toraman Sialkot
Vardhans Pushyabhuti Thaneswar / Kannauj
Sena Dynasty Samanta Sena Lakhnauti
Parrnaras Upendra Dhara
Chandellas Nannuk Khaj uraho / Mahoba
Gahadvalas Chandradeva Kannauj
Guijar Pratiharas Nagabhatta­I Kanauj
Pallava Dynasty Simbhavishnu Kanchipuram
Chalukyas of Badami Pulakesin­I Badami
Chalukyas of Vengi Vishnuvardhana Vengi
Chalukyas of Kalyani Vijayaditya Manyakhet
Rashtrakutas Dantidurg Manyakhet
Slave Dynasty Qutubuddin Aibak Delhi
Khalji Dynasty Jalalludin Khalji Delhi
Tughlaq Dynasty Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Delhi
Saiyyads Khizr Khan Delhi
Lodi Dynasty Bahlol Lodi Delhi
Pandayas Nediyan Madurai
Cholas Vijayalaya Tanjaur
Yadavas Bhillan Devagiri
Hoysalas Vishnuvardhan Dwarasamudra
Sangam Dynasty Harihar and Bukka Vijaynagar
Saluvas Narsingha Vijaynagar
Tuluvas Vir Narsingha Vijaynagar
Aravidu Dynasty Tirumala Penukonda
Bahmani Dynasty Hasan Gangu Gulbarga
Qutubshahi Dynasty Quli Qutubshah Golkunda
Adilshahi Dynasty Adilshah Bijapur
37 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 Dynasty Founder Capital
Nizamshahi Dynasty Malik Ahmad Ahmednagar
Imadshahi Dynasty Amir ul Barid Bidar
Solanki Dynasty Muiraj Anhilwara
Kalchuris Kokkal Tripuri
Sharqui Dynasty Malik Sarvar Jaunpur
Mughal Dynasty Babur Delhi/Agra
Bhonsle Dynasty Shivaji Raigarh
Pala Dynasty Gopala Munger
Hyderabad State Nizam­ul­Mulk Hyderabad
Karkota Dynasty Durlabhvardhan Kashmir
Utpal Dynasty Avantivarman Kashmir
Lohar Dynasty Sangramraj Kashmir
Vakatakas Vindhyashakti Nandivardhan
Faruqi Dynasty Malik Raza Burhanpur

IMPORTANT BATTLES OF INDIAN HISTORY

327­326 B.C. ­ Alexander invades India. Defeats Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes
(Jhelum) 326 B.C.
305 B.C. ­ Chandragupta Mauiya defeats the Greek king Seleucus.
216 B.C. ­ The Kalinga War. Conquest of Kalinga by Ashoka.
155 B.C. ­ Menander’s invasion of India.
90 B.C. ­ The Sakas invade India.
A.D. 454 ­ The first Huna invasion.
A.D. 495 ­ The second Huna invasion.
A.D. 711­712 ­ The Arab invasion of Sind under Mohammed­bin­ Qasim.
1000­1027 ­ Mahmud Ghazni in­vades India 17 times.
1175­1206 ­ Invasions of Muhammad Ghori. First Battle of Tarain, 1191,
Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeats Muhammad Ghori; Second Battle
of Tarain, 1192, Muhammad Ghori defeats Prithviraj Chauhan;
Battle of Chandawar, 1194, Muhammad Ghori defeats
Jayachandra Gahadvala of Kannauj.
1294 ­ Alauddin Khalji invades the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri. The
first Turkish invasion of the Deccan.
1398 ­ Taimur invades India. De­feats the Tughlaq Sultan Mahmud Shah;
the Sack of Delhi.
1526 ­ Babur invades India and de­feats the last Lodi Sultan Ibrahim
Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.
38 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
1539 1540 ­ Battle of Chausa or Ghaghra (1539) and Kanauj or Ganges
(1540) in which Sher Shah defeats Humayun.
1545 ­ Battle (siege) of Kalinjar and death of Sher Shah Suri.
1556 ­ Second Battle of Panipat. Akbar defeats Hemu.
1565 ­ Battle of Raktakshasi­ Tangadi (Talikota) in which the forces of
the empire of Vijayanagar under King Sadasiva Raya and his
regent Rama Raya routed by the confederate forces of the Deccani
states of Bijapur, Golkunda, Ahmadnagar, and Bidar.
1576 ­ Battle of Haldighati. Akbar defeats Rana Pratap of Mewar.
1632­1631 ­ Conquest of Ahmadnagar by Shah Jahan.
1658 ­ Battles of Dharmat (April­May 1658) and Samugarh (June 8,
1658). Dara Shikoh, eldest son of Shah Jahan, defeated by
Aurangzeb.
1665 ­ Shivaji defeated by Raja Jai Singh and Treaty of Purandhar.
1739 ­ Invasion of India by Nadir Shah.
1746 ­ First Carnatic War.
1748­1754 ­ Second Carnatic War.
1756­1763 ­ Third Carnatic War.
1757 ­ Battle of Plassey. Siraj­ud­ daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, de­feated
by Clive.
1760 ­ Battle of Wandiwash, in which the English under Sir Eyre
Coote defeated the French under Lally.
1762 ­ Third Battle of Panipat. Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah
Abdali.
1764 ­ Battle of Buxar. The English (under Munro) defeated Mir Kasim,
the Nawab of Bengal and Nawab Shuja­ud­daulah of Awadh.
1767­1769 ­ First Mysore War.
1774 ­ The Rohilla War between the Rohillas and the Nawab of Awadh
supported by the East India Company.
1775­1782 ­ First Maratha War.
1780 1784 ­ Second Mysore War.
1792 ­ Third Mysore War.
1799 ­ Fourth Mysore War. Defeat and death of Tipu Sultan.
1802­1804 ­ Second Maratha War.
1817­1818 ­ Third Maratha War.
1845­1846 ­ First Sikh War.
1846 ­ Battle of Aliwal between the English and the Sikhs. The Sikhs
defeated.
1848­1849 ­ Second Sikh War and annexation of the Punjab to British India.
1857 ­ The Revolt of 1857 (The First War of Indian Independence).
39 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 IMPORTANT INDIAN RULER, DYNASTY AND TITLES

Rulers Dynasty Titles

Bimbisara Haryank Shrenika
Ajatshatru Haryank Kunika
Mahapadmananda Nanda Agrasen
Dhananan Nanda Agramese
Chandragupta Murya Maurya Sandrocottus,
Androcottus
Bindusara Maurya Amitraghat
Ashoka Maurya Devanampiya Piyadassi
Chandragupta II Gupta Vikramaditya
Harshvardhana Pushyabhuti Siladitya
Narsimhavarman I Pallava Vatapikonda
Amoghvarsha Rashtrakuta Vir Narayan
Pulakesin II Chalukyas Parmeshvar
(Vatapi)
Mahendravarman I Pallava Vichitrachita
Govinda III Rashtrakuta Jagtung
Vikramaditya IV Chalukyas Tribhuvan, Malla
(Kalyani)
Vikramaditya II Chalukyas Sikandar
(Vengi)
Ibrahim Qutubshah Qutubshahi Malik Brahim
Qutubuddin Aibek Slave dynasty Lakh Baksh, Malik
Jauna Khan Tughlaq Muhammad bin Tughlaq,
Ulug Khan
Hala Gautarni Putra Satvahana Kavivatsal
Satkarni Satvahana Kshatriya Darp Mardan
Kanishka Kushana Devaputra
RajaRaja Chola Mummadi Chola, Arumoli,
Raj Kesari
Rajendra I Chola Gangaikonda Chola
Mahmud Ghazni Ghazni Yamin­ud­Daula
Krishnadevaraya Tuluva Andhra Bhoj, Yavanraj
Sthapanachaiya
Ibrahim Lodi Lodi Ibrahim Shah

40 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Babar Mughal Ghazi
Sher Shah Sur Hazrat­i­Ala
Bairam Khan Mughal Khan Baba
Akbar Mughal Islam­i­Adil
Jahangir Mughal Shekh Salim
Mehrunissa Mughal Nuijahan
Dara Shikoh Mughal Shah­Iqbal
Aurangzeb Mughal Alamgir, Ghazi
Shivaji Marathas Chhatrapati
Balaji Bajirao Marathas Nana Saheb

ANCIENT INDIA
PRE HISTORIC PERIOD
• The Pre­historic phase can be roughly divided into 3 parts i.e., paleolithic,
Mesolithic and Neolithic.
PALEOLITHIC AGE (250,000­10,000 B.C.)
• Paleolithic Culture developed in the Pleistocene period.
• Pleistocene was the period when ice covered the earth’s surface.
• The main tools used during this period are handaxes, cleavers, Chop­pers,
flakes, burins, scrapers.
• Their tools were made up of hard rock called quartzite’.
• The paleolithic sites are spread in practically all parts of India except the alluvial
plains of the Indus and Ganga.
• The people of this age lived on hunting and gathering wild fruits and vegetables.
• Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and
lived in cave rock shelters.
• They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire, or pottery of any metal.
• In the later Paleolithic phase domestication of animals was practiced.
• Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of this phase.
• It has been pointed out that Paleolithic men belonged to the Negrito race.
• The Paleolithic Age in India has been divided into three phases according to
the nature of stone tools ­ Early or lower Paleolithic, middle Paleolithic and
upper Paleolithic.
41 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• MESOLITHIC AGE (10,000­6,000 B.C.) > The Mesolithic Age began around
8000 B.C
• It was the transitional phase be­tween the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age
Blade, Mesolithic tools are microliths.
• Blade, Core, Point, Triangle, Lu­nate and Trapeze are the main types of Mesolithic
tools. Important sites of Mesolithic Age are Bagor, Langhraj, Sarai Nahar Rai,
and Birbhanpur Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh and Mirzapur are rich in
Mesolithic Art.
• People in mesolithic age were still dependent on hunting but how they began
domesticating animals like dog, sheep goat etc.
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE
Name of the culture Period
Kayatha 2000­1800 B.C.
Ahar or Banas 2000­1400 B.C.
Savalda 2000­1800 B.C.
Malwa 1700­1200 B.C.
Prabhas 1800­1500 B.C.
Rangpur 1400­700 B.C.
Chirand 1500­750 B.C.
NEOLITHIC AGE (6000­2500 B.C.)
• The term Neolithic’ was coined by Sir John Lubbock in his book Pre Histroic
Times’.
• The beginning of agriculture was the most important discoueiy of this age.
• Neolithic men cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse
gram. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goat.
• Important sites are Gufkaral, Burzahom, Chirand, Mehargarh, Piklihal.
• Chopani Mando provides the earliest evidence of the use of pottery in the
World.
STONE ­ COPPER PHASE
• This phase is also called as chalcolithic phase.
• It is charaterised by the use of stone and copper.
• Chalcolithic people were not acquainted with burnt brick.
• People used different types of Pottery of which Black and Red ware was most
popular.
42 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• They worshipped Mother Goddess and Bull.
• They generally lived in thatched houses.
HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
• According to Radio Carbon dating Harappan civilization developed between
2500 B.C. to 1750 B.C.
• Indus Civilization is also called as Harappan Civilization because the first
excavated site is Harappa.
• It belongs to the Bronze Age.
• It extended from Manda (Jammu) in North to Daimabad in South.
• Major Settlements are in the Ghaggar­Hakra belt. More than 1000 sites
have been excavated.
• Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not iron. Seals were made up
of steatite
• Majority of the seals have an animal engraved on it with a short in­scription.
The most frequently found animal is unicorn bull.
• Camel bones have been discovered at Kalibangan.

Manda
(Kashmir)
N
Sutkagendor Alamgirpur
(Pakistan) W E (Uttar Pradesh)
S
Daimabad
(Maharashtra)

• They worshipped, Proto­Shiva, Mother­Goddess, Bull, and Pipal tree.

• Important sites are Harappa, Mohenjodero, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banwali,
Dholavira.
• At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been discovered.
• Furrowed field has been discovered at Kalibangan.
• Harappan civilization was the first urban civilization.
• Most of the sites of Harappan civilisation is found in state of Gujarat.
43 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• Great Bath is at Mohenjodaro
• Their Pottery was red or black Pottery
• The script was pictographic
• The writing was Boustrophedon.
• Mohenjodaro a Sindhi word meaning “Mound of the dead.” (i >­ Bead making
factory existed in Chanhudaro and Lothal
• Rakhigarhi is the latest site discovered in India.
• Ink­pot has been discovered at Chanhudaro
• Cemetry H and R­37 have been discovered at Harappa.
• Teracotta Plough has been discovered at Banawali.
• Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world.
Note : Two big mounds of Harappan sites found at Rakhigarhi in Hisar district of
Haryana in January 2014. It has led to archaeologists establishing it as the
biggest Harappan civilization site.

Site Archaeological Finds

Harappa : Stone symbols of Lingam (male sex organ) and Yoni
(fe­male sex organ), Painted pottery, Clay figures of Mother
Goddess, Wheat and Barley in wooden mortar, Copper
scale, Crucible for bronze, Copper­made mirror, Vanity
box, Dice. 6 Granaries in row, Working floors, Work­men’s
quarters, Virgin­Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R­37, H).
Mohenjodaro : Great Bath, Great Graneiy (the largest build ing of
civili­zation), Assembly hall, Shell strips, Pashupati
Mahadeva/Proto­Shiva (seal), Bronze Image of a nude
woman dancer, Steatite image of bearded man, Human
skeletons huddled together, The evidence of an Indian
ship (figured on a seal). Painted seal (Demi­God), Clay
figures of Moth­er Goddess, A fragment of woven cotton,
Brick Kilns, 2 Mesopotamian seals, 1398 seals (57% of
total seals of Harappan civilization), Dice.
Chanhudaro : City without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick; Metal­workers’,
shell­ornament makers’ and bead­makers’ shops; Imprint
of dog’s paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock
cart, Bronze toy cart.

44 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

Lothal : Dockyard, Rice husk; Metal­workers’, shell­ornament
makers’ and bead­makers’ shopes; Fire altars, Terracotta
fig­urine of a horse, Double burial (buiying a male and a
female in a single grave), Terracotta model of a ship, Dy­ing
vat, Persian / Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar
(bird and fox).
Kalibanga : Ploughed field surface (Pre­Harappan), 7 Fire altars,
Decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart, Mesopotamian
cylin­drical seal.
Banawali : Lack of chess­board or gridiron pattern town planning,
Lack of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clay
figures of Mother Goddess.
Dholavira : A unique water harnessing system and its storm water
drainage system, a large “well and a bath (giant water
reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Largest
Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, A
stadium.
Surkotada : Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials.
Daimabad : Bronze images (Charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and
rhinoceros)

IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES

Site Excavator Present Position
Harappa Dayaram Shahani (1921) Montogomery (Punj ab)Pakistan
Mohenjodaro Rakhal Das Baneijee Sindh (Pakistan)
(1922)
Kalibanga Amlananda Ghosh, Hanumangarh (Rajasthan)
B. B. Lai
Lothal S. R. Rao (1957) Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
Banwali R. S. Bist (1973) Hissar (Haiyana)
Rangpur M. S. Vatsa (1931) Gujarat (near Madar river)
Ropar Y. D. Sharma (1955­56) Punjab (Sutlej Bank)
Alamgirpur Y. D. Sharma Meerut (Hindon river)
Sutkagendor A. Stein, George Dales Baluchistan (Dashak river)
Surkotada J. P. Joshi (1964) Gujarat (Kuchchh Plain)
Dabarkot Macay (1935) Baluchistan
Chanhudaro N. G. Majumdar (1931) Sindh (Pakistan)
Ali Murad K. M. Kazzak Sindh (Pakistan)

45 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Mitathal Punjab University Bhiwani
Rakhi Garhi Suraj Bhan Jind (Haryana)
Sutkakoh Dales (1962) 8 km from Perin
Manda Jagpati Joshi Akhnur

TOWNS NEAR RIVER BANKS

Towns Rivers
Towns Rivers Towns Rivers
Mohenjodaro Indus Harappa Ravi
Banwali Ghagghar Kalibanga Ghagghar
Lothal Bhogava Rojdi Bhadar
Malavan Tapti Sutkakoh Shadi Kaur
Sutkagendor Dashak Chanhudaro Indus
Bhagtrav Kissagar confluence Alamgirpur Hindon
Rangpur Bhadar Kot Diji Indus

THEORIES OF DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATIONS

Aryan invasion Wheeler, Gordon, Childe
Ecological disturbance Fairservice
Change in river course Dales, M.S. Vatsa
Low rainfall Stein
Flood Macay, S. R. Rao
Drying of Ghaghar D. P. Agrawal and Sood
[ Earthquake Raikes and Date

THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500­1000 B.C.)

• It is also known as Rig Vedic Age.
• Rig Vedic Age gives us knowledge about the Aryans they came in India from
central Asia (Steppe region)
• The earliest Aryans lived in the land of ‘Sapta Sindhava’ i.e., land of Seven
rivers.
• The early vedic society was Pastoral.
• Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and wealthy man was called ‘Gomat’.
• The term Aghanya or not to be killed, has been used for cows.
• The Raja or chief is called 4Gopati\
• In the Rigveda Godhuli is used as a term for a measure of time.

46 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• Apart from Yava or Barley, no other grain is mentioned
• Indra was the greatest God of Aryans Agni occupied the second position.
• Varuna occupied the third posi­tion and he personfied water.
• The Battle of Ten Kings ended with the victory of the Bharatasled by Sudas.
• Gayatri Mantra is attributed to Savitri. Aditi was goddess of eter­nity.
• Widow marriage and Niyoga prevailed in the society.
• Important functionaries were Purohita, Senani, and gramini
• Important tribal Assemblies were Sabha, Samiti, Vidath and Gana.
• Sabha performed judicial and administrative functions.
• King attended Sabha but was not elected by it.
• Samiti is mentioned nine­times in Rigveda.
• Samiti was presided over by king.
• King wras elected in Samiti .
• ‘Gana’ is mentioned for 46 places in Rigveda.
• Leader of Gana was called as ‘Ganapatf.
• Dasyus were the most bitter en­emies of the Rigvedic people.
• Rigvedic people were not aware of Iron.
• Indra was the most important God.
• Indra was known as Purandar, Vritrahan and Marutavant.
• Varuna Uphold the natural order and moral order (Rita).
• Varuna was punisher of sin.
• Agni was called as Bhuvan­ chakshu.
• IXth book is devoted to Soma.
• Gayatri Mantra is mentioned in Illrd Mandal of Rigveda.
• Asvins and Nasatyas were divine physicians.
• Yama was the Lord of the dead.
• Aditi is the mother of Suiya.
• Varuna bears the title ‘Asura’.
• River Indus was the most impor­tant river in Vedic period.
• River Sarswati was the most sa­cred river in Vedic period.
47 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000­600 B.C.)
• The period assigned to later Vedic phase is 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C.
• These communities used a par­ticular kind of pottery called the Painted Grey
Ware (PGW).
• More than 700 PGW sites have been found in the upper Ganga basin. Some
important PGW sites are Atranji Khera, Ahichhatra, Noh, Hastinapur,
Kurukshetra, Bhagwanpura and Jakhera.
• Iron objects are common to most PGW sites. This metal was intro­duced around
1000­800 B.C. It is mentioned as Ayas.
• Society was clearly divided into four Varnas namely­Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Sudras.
• The upper three classes were known as Dvij (twice born).
• Education begin with investiture ceremony (upanayana)
• Sometimes girls were also initi­ated. Woman lost Importance.
• Gotra first appeared in Athaivaveda with the meaning of clan.
• There was practice of class ex­ogamy.
• There was reference to sati but not in common fashion.
• There were instances of child marriage.
• Indra and Agni lost their impor­tance. Prajapati (the creator) be­came supreme.
• Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.
• Pushan became God of Shudras.
• Sacrifices became more important and elaborate.
• There were 33 deities during later Vedic period.
• The long’s influence was strengthened by rituals.
• Rajasuya conferred supreme power on king.
• Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling was the main pastime.
• Vajapeya was a drink of strength.
• Aswamedha was the horse sac­rifice.
• Kings were known with different names in different region.
• Eastern Kings were called Samrat.
• Western Kings were called Svarat.

48 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• Northern Kings were called Virat.
• Southern Kings were called Bhoja.
• Kings of the middle country were called Raja.
• Earliest evidence of medicine comes from Atharvaveda.
• Parikshi has been called as the king of ‘Mrituloka in Atharvaveda’.
• King used to visit the house of each Ratnin in Ratnavimshi ceremony.
• A regular army was maintained for the protection of the kingdom.
• Athaivaveda mentions Sabha and Samiti as daughters of Prajapati.
• According to Kathak Samhita 24 oxen were employed for agriculture.
• During later vedic period Prajapati came to occupy the Supreme position.
• Pushan was the God of Shudras.
• Rudra was the God of animals.
• Institution of Gotra appeared during later vedic period.
• Duties of four varnas are given in Aatreya Brahamana.
• Three roomed mud house has been discovered at Bhagwanpura
• Largest deposit of Iron weapon have been found at Atranjikhera.
• Two furnaces for iron smelting have been found at Suneri village in Jhunjhunu
district.
• Legend of Videha Madhav’ is men­tioned in Satapatha Brahamana.
• Eight forms of marriages are given in Ashvalahayan Grihyasutra.
• Satapatha Brahamana says that ‘wife is half her husband’.
• Women enjoyed freedom and re­spect but their status deterio­rated compared
to the early vedic period.
• Earliest clear reference to the four ashrams is given in Jabala Upnishad.
THE VEDIC LITERATURE
• The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word Vidi’ meaning, to know or
knowledge par excellence.
• Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing), which is distinct from
Smriti (based on memory).
• Four Vedas and their Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the
Upanishads form a class of literature known as Sruti.
49 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
RIG VEDA
• It is divided into 10 Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the
oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to be later additions.
• A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families.
• Written between 1700­1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab.
• Books II to VII are earliest and are also called as family books. They are attributed
to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudeva, Atri, Bhardwaj, Vashishtha, Kanva
and Angiras.
• The IX mandala is dedicated exclusively to Soma.
• The singer of the Rig veda is called the Hotra.
• The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the
origin of four Varnas.
• Gayatri Mantra is the most sacred hymn of Rig Veda. Mentioned in 3rd mandal,
written by Viswamitra.
YAJUR VEDA
• A ritualistic Veda.
• It is divided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda.
• Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and
contains rituals as well as hymns.
• The singer of the Yajur Veda is called Ardhavayu.
SAMA VEDA
• Sam Veda derives its roots from Saman, which means a melody.
• A collection of melodies.
• A collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all other were derived from Rig Veda.
• It contains the Dhrupada Raga.
• The singer of Sama Veda is called Udgata.
ATHARVA VEDA
• A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 khandas.
• It is the latest Veda.
• Atharva Veda is a book of magi­cal formula medicinal treatises etc.
• It contains charms and spell to ward off evil and disease.

50 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• Its content throws light on the practices of non­Aryans.
• In Atharvaveda, Sabha and Samiti are described as uterine sisters­The two
daughters of Prajapati.
• This veda is also known as Brahma Veda.
Vedic Literature (1500 BC­600 BC)
• It is presumed that the Rig Veda was composed while the Aryans were still in
the Punjab.
• Vedic Literature comprises of four literary productions: 1. The Sam­hitas or
Vedas 2. The Brahamans 3. The Aranyakas 4. The Upan­ishads.
• Vedic Literature had grown up in course of time and was really handed down
from generation to generation. Hence these are called Shruti (to hear)
• The most important of Vedic Lit­erature are Veda. Vedas are called Apaurasheva
i.e. not cre­ated by man but God­gifted and Nitya i.e. existing in all eternity.
• There are four Vedas—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Athar­va Veda.
The first three Vedas are jointly called Vedatrayi i.e. trio of Vedas.
• Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda (Collection of lyrics) is the oldest text in the
wold, and therefore, is also known as ‘the first testa­ment of mankind’. The Rig
Veda contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas. Six mandalas (from
2nd to 7th mandalas) are called Gotra/ Vamsha Mandalas (Kula Granth). The
1st and 10th mandalas are said to have been added later. The 10th mandala
contains the famous Purushasuk­ ta which explains the 4 Varnas ­ Brahmana,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotri.
• The Sama Veda (book of chants) had 1549 hymns. All hymns (ex­cluding 75)
were taken from the Rig Veda. The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by
Udgatri. This Veda is important for Indian music.
• The Yajur Veda (book of sacrifi­cial prayers) is a ritual veda. Its hymns were’
recited by Adhvary­ us. It is divided into two parts­ Krishna Yajur Veda and
Shukla Yajur Veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse entirely, this
one is in both verse and prose.
• The Atharva Veda (book of magi­cal formulae), the fourth and the last one,
contains charms and spells to ward off evils and dis­eases. For a very long time
it was not included in the category of the Vedas.
• The Brahmans explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and
ritualistic in nature. Brahma means ‘sacrifice’. The various sacrifices and rituals
have been elaborately discussed in the Brahamanas. Every Veda has several
Brahamanas attached to it:
51 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 Rig Veda—Aitareya and Kaushi­ tikij Sankhyan.
Sam Veda­ Panchvisha (Tandya Maha Brahamana), Shadvinsh, Chliandogya
and Jaiminaya.
Yajur Veda—Shatapatha (the old­est and the largest Brahamana) and Taittariya.
Atharva Veda—Gopatha.
• The word Aranya means ‘the for­est’. The ‘forest texts were called Aranyaka,
because they were written mainly for the hermits and the students living in
jungles. The Aranyaka are the concluding portions of the Brahamanas.
• The Upanishadas are philosphi­ cal texts. They are generally called Vedanta,
as they came towards the end of the Veda. There are 108 Upanishadas.
Vrihadarany­ aka is the oldest Upanishada.
Literature of Vedic Tradition (600 BC­600 AD)
• Literature of Vedic Tradition (Sm­ riti i.e. rememberance literature) comprises
of 6 literary works :
1. Vedangas/ Sutras 2. Smritis Dharmashastras
3. Mahakavyas (Epics) 4. Puranas
5. Upvedas 6. Shad­Dharshanas.
• There are six Vedangas :
(i) Shiksha (Phonetics): Prat­ ishakhya’­the oldest text on phonetics.
(ii) Kalpa Sutras (Rituals) : (a) Shrauta Sutras/Shulva Sutra ­ deal with the
sacrifices, (b) Grihya Sutras—deal with family ceremonies, (c) Dhar­ ma
Sutras—deal with Var­nas, Ashramas etc.
(iii) Vyakarana (Grammar): 4Ash­ tadyayi’ (Panini) — oldest grammar of the
word.
(iv) Nirukta (Etymology) : ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on ‘Nighantu’ (Kashy­ ap)—a
collection of difficult vedic words—(‘Nighantu’—the oldest word­ collection
of the­world; ‘Nirukta’—the oldest dictionary of the world).
(v) Ghhanda (Met rics): ‘Chhandasutras’ (Pingal)­famous text.
(vi) Jvoi isha (Ast ronomy) “Vedanga Jyotisha’ (Lagadh Muni ­ the oldest
Jyotisha text.
• There are six famous smritis : (i) Manu Smriti (Pre­Gupta Period)— the oldest
Smriti text; Commentators : Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindraj, Kulluk Bhatt.
(ii) Yajnavalkya Smriti (Pre­Gupta Period)— Commentators : Vishwarupa,
Vijayaneshwar, Apararka (a king of Shilahar Dynasty) (iii) Narad Smriti (Gupta
period), (iv) Parashara Smriti (Gupta period) (v) Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period),
(vi) Katyayana Smriti (Gupta period).

52 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• There are mainly two vfahakavyas (Epics):
(i) The Ramayana (Valmiki): It is known as 4Adi Kavya’ (the oldest epic of the
world). At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokas i.e. verses (Originally
6,000, Later ­ 12,000, Finally ­ 24,000) in 7 Kandas i.e. sections. 1st and
7th Kandas were the latest additions to the Ramayana.
(ii) The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa) : The longest epic of the world. At present,
it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas i.e. verses (Originally­8,800­ Jay Samhita,
Later­24,000­Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/Bharata, Finally­!,00,000­
Shatasahastri Samhita/Maha Bharata) in 18 Par­ vans i.e. chapters, plus
the Harivamsa supplement. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bihshma
Parvan of Mahabharata. Shanti Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of
the Mahabarata.
• The Puran means he old’. There are 18 famous ‘Puranas’. The Matsya Purana
is the oldest Puranic text The other important Puranas are the Bhagavata, the
Vishnu, the Vayu and the Brahmanda. They describe genealogies of various
royal dynasties.
• The Upavedas (the auxiliary vedas) were traditionally associated with vedas :

Upavedas Associated with

1. Ayurveda i.e. Medicine Rig Veda
2. Gandharvaveda i.e. Music Sama Veda
3. Dhanurveda i.e. Archery Yaj ur Veda
4. Shilpveda/Arthaveda i.e. the science of Atharva Veda
craft/wealth (Vishwakarma)

• There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad­Darshanas.

Darshana Founder Basic Text
1. Sankhya Darshana Kaplla Sankhya Sutra
2. Yoga Darshana Patanjali Yoga Sutra
3. Nyaya Darshana Akshapada Gautama Nayaya Sutra
4. Vaishesika Darshana Uluka Kanada Vaishesika Sutra
5. Miraansa/Purva Mimansa Jaimini Purva Mimansa
Sutra
6. Vedant/Uttara­Mimansa Badarayana Brahma Sutra/
Vedant Sutra

53 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Rigvedic Name Modern Name Region
Sindhu Indus Punj ab (Pakistan) & J&K
Vitasta Jhelum Punjab J&K
Asikani Chenab Punjab (Pakistan) & J&K
Vipas Beas Punjab
Parushni Ravi Punjab
Sutudri Sutlej Punjab
Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan
Drishadvati Ghaggar Rajasthan
Kubha Kabul Afghanistan
Suvastu Swati Afghanistan
Krumu Kurram Afghanistan
Gomati Gomal Afghanistan

12 Ratninas (Satapatha Brahamana)

1. Purohita the Priest
2. Mahishi the Queen
3. Yuvaraja Crown prince
4. Suta/Sarathi the Royal herald/ the Charioteer
5. Senani the General
6. Graraani Head of the village
7. Kshata Gateman/ Chamberlain
8. Sangrahitri Treasurer
9. Bhagadudha Collector of taxes
10. Akshavapa Courier
11. Palagala Friend of King
12. Govikarta Head of forest department

Types of Hindu Marriage (Vivaha)

Brahma Vivaha : Giving the girl to a man with dowry.
Daiva V ivaha : Giving the girl to the priest himself in lieu of his fees.
Arsha Vivaha : Giving the girl to a man after accepting a bride­price.
Prajapatya Vivaha : Giving the girl to a man without demanding a bride­ price.
Gandhaiva Vivaha : Love marriage.
Asura Vivaha : Marriage with a purchased girl.
Rakshasa Vivaha : Marriage with the daughter of a defeated king or with a
kidnapped girl.
Paisllacha Vivaha : Marriage to a girl after seducing or raping her.
54 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
Anuloma Vivah : marriage between a bridegroom from an upper caste and
a bride from a lower caste; Pratiloma Vivaha­the reverse
of Anuloma Vivaha.
16 Samskaras
1. Garbhadhana 2. Pumsavana 3. Simantonnayan 4. Jatakarma 5. Na­ makaran
6. Nishkramana 7. Annaprashana 8. Chudakarma 9. Karnach­ hedana 10.
Vidvarmbha 11. Upanavana 12. Vedarambha 13. Samavara­ tana 14. Vivaha 15.
Vanprastha 16. Antyesti.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
SOME MORE FACTS ABOUT HINDUISM
Six Systems of Philosophy
Philosophy Founder Other Scholars

Sankhya Kapila Ishwar Krishna, Vachaspati

Nyaya Akshapada Gautma Vatsayayan, Udyanachaiya,
Jayantbhatt
Yoga Patanjali Myas
Valsheshika Uluka Kanada Keshav raishra, Vishvanath
Mimansa Jamini Sabrasvamin, Kumaril Bhatt
Vedanta Badrayana Shankarachaiya,
Vachaspati, Ramanuj,
Madhvachaiya etc.

Famous Religions, Founders, Holy Books & Places of Worship

Religion Founder Holy Books Place of

Worship
Hinduism No single Ramayana, Vedas, Temple
Founder Puranas and Geeta
Sikh Guru Nanak Dev Guru Grantha Sahib Gurdwara
Christianity Jesus Christ Bible Church
Islam Prophet Mohammed Koran (Quran) Mosque
Parsi Zoroaster Zend Avesta Fire Temple
Jainism Adinath Rishabh Dev JainGranth Jain Temple
Buddhism Gautama Buddha Tripitaka Buddha
Stupa
Jew Moosa Jorah Synagogue
55 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 OTHER HETERODOX IDEAS
1. Makhali Putta Gosal: Popularised Ajivika Sect.
• Ajivikas believed in niyativad.
• Goshala’s follower centred around Sravasti.
2. Charvak : Believed in complete materialism.
3. Purana Kassapa : Preached the doctrine of Akriya or non­action.
4. Ajit Kesakamblin (Ucchedvad) : Preached that everything ended with death
and there is no further life after death.
5. Pakudha Kachchayna (Asasvatavad) : There are seven elements and the
body is ultimately dissolved in these seven elements.
Other Religious­ideas and their founders

Religious ideas/sect Founder

1. Pasupatas Lakulisa/Nakulisa
2. Lingayats Basava
3. Pratyabhijna Vasugupta
4. Spanda­sastra Kallata and Samnanda
5. Siva­Siddhanata Srikanth­Sivacharya
6. Advait Shankarachaiya
7. Vishistadvait Ramanujachaiya
8. Brahm Sampradaya Madhvacharya
9. Sanak Sampradaya Nimbakacharya

SAIVISM

• The origin of SaMsm can be traced back to the pre­vedic times. By the early
centuries of the Christian era it was a popular sect all over India.
• Siva was the principle deity of this sect.
• Siva was worshipped in the form of Linga.
• Kushan king Weem Wema Kadphises was an ardent devo­tee of Siva.
• Prakrit text Gathasaptasati has references to Siva worship.
• Tamil Sangam work refers to Siva as the greatest of all gods (mamudu mudalvan).
Siva’s consort Paivat was adored as Sakti.
• In Satavahana kindom Parvati was worshipped as Gauri.
• Ska rul was regarded as the son of Siva.
• In Tamil country Skanda was worshipped in the Murugan form.
56 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• Ganesa was the younger brother of Skanda.
• Ganesa was also known as Vinayak.
• The most popular Saiva sect was Pasupata sect.
• The Kapalika and Kalamukha sect developed much later.

VARIOUS SECTS OF SAIVISM

A. Pasupatas /Nakulisapasupatas
• It was founded by Lakulisa/ Nakulisa/Lakulin / Lakutin
• They besmear the body with ashes.
• They creates sound of Ha Ha and Hundukkara.
• It was dualistic in character.
• Pasu, the individual soul­exists with Pati, the supreme soul.
• Dakhanata (end of misery) is at­tained through yoga and Vidhi.
• They observe atimargika religious practices.
• The basic works are Pasupata sutras and Sarvadarsansmgraha.
B. Kakamukhas / Kapalikas
• It was extreme form of Saivism.
• They eat food in skull, eat ashes, carry pots of wine.
• They worship Bhairava as the great God with his wife Chandika.
• The perform human sacrifices.
• They practice yoga in order to acquire miraculous powers.
• They observe unconventional and horrifying practices including sexual rites.
• It was an off shoots of Pasupata sect.
• It flourished during the Gupta and post Gupta period.
C. Mattamayuras
• It was moderate form of Saivism.
• It developed in central India.
D. Virasaivas/Lingay a t as
• It was founded by Basava, the Prime Minister, of Bijjala, the Kalachuri King.
• It was anti­Brahmin in nature.

57 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• They believe in love and self Sur ­ render.
• They worship Linga and Nandi bull.
• They encouraged widow remar­riage.
• Their philoshophy is known as Shakti Visistadvaita soul as sepa­ rable union
with Para­Siva through Shakti.
• The Para Siva is the supreme re­ality and Shakti is the power which resides in
him.
• The ultimate goal of the soul is to unit with Para­Siva, this state is known as
Ling Samarasya which means unity between Linga (Siva) and Anga (soul).
• They observed Diksha ceremony in the place of Upanayana in which even girls
wear Linga.
• They do not worship Siva in temples.
• It was popular in Karnataka re­gion.
E. Kashmir Saivism
I. Pratyabhijna
• Its origin is traced to Siva­Sutras revealed to Vasugupta.
• It’s founder is vasugupta (800­ 900 AD).
• It is also known as Trika/Triad because it had three chief reli­gious books.
• It regards the individual soul and the world identical with Siva.
• Pratyabhij na 4means realisation of the soul’s identity with Siva.
• The ultimate reality is Siva.
• Siva is known as anultara which means the reality beyond which there is
nothing.
• Salvation lies in recognition that the soul is one with Siva.
• It was a moderate form of Saivism.
• It believed in spiritual develop­ment.
• Some of greatest exponents were Utpalachara,
• Abhinavgupta and his disciple Kshemraja.
II. Spanda­Sastra
• It’s founders are Kallata and Samnanda, the two disciples of Vasugupta.
• The term spanda means a change from the state of absolute unity to the plurality
of the world.
58 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• Kallata wrote Spanda­Saivasa.
• Somananda wrote Siva­dristi.
• It was a moderate form of Saivism.
VAISHNAVISM
• The principal deity of this sect was Vishnu.
• The cult of Vishnu in the early period was known by the name Bhagavatism.
• Bhagavatism owed its origin to the Upanishadas.
• Bhagavatism arose around the Mathura region.
• Vasudeva was the central figure in the Bhagavata cult.
• Around second century B.C. Vishnu and Narayan were united and identified
as one deity.
• Heliodorus erected a pillar with Garuda, at Besnagar (Vidisa) near Bhopal in
honour of Vasudeva.
• Lakshmi is Vishnu’s consort.
• Vasudeva­Krishna was the dis­ciple of Ghora­Agnirasa.
• Megasthenese refers to Krishna as Herakles of Souraseni tribe.
• Ten awataras of Vishnu ­ (i) Matsya (fish), (ii) Kurma (tortoise), (ill) Varaha
(boar), (iv) Narasimha (man­lion), (v) Vamana (dwarf), (vi) Parasurama (Rama
with axe), (vii) Rama, (viii) Krishna, (ix) Budha, (x) Kalkin (yet to born).
• It was patronised by Guptas, Chalukyas, Hoyasalas, Satvahanas.
• Acharyas are the great leader philosophers of Vaishnavism who defended
and popularised the religion. Some of the prominent acharyas are : Ramanuja,
Chaitanya, Madhava, Nimbarka, Nathmuni, Yamunacharya.
• The earliest reference to Krishan is found in Chhandogya Upanishad.
• The reference to Vasudeva is found in Panini’s Ashtyadhyayi and Patanjali’s
Mahabhashya.
• Narayana, the cosmic God finds mention in the Satpatha Brahamana.
• Pancharatra, a Vaishnavite school, gave the doctrine of Vyuha (eman­cipation)
according to which Sankarasana (Balram), Pradumana (Krishna’s), Anirudha
(Krishna’s grand son) emerged out of Vasudeva/
• It was developed and popularised in south by twelve saints known as Alvars.
• Nammalvar and Tirumalsalvar were the greatest of twelve Alvars.
59 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
TANTRISM
• The core of Tantiism means es­sentially orgiasticrites.
• The rites involve the use of five makaras:
(i) matsya (fish) (ii) mansa (meat) (ill) madya (liquor) (iv) maithuna (sex) (v)
mudra (physical ges­tures) .
• In Tantrism high status was given to female deity.
• Tantrism emerged as a religious factor in the sixth century A.D. and became a
strong force by the ninth century.
• The Tantric priest act as a priest, physician, astrologer and shraman.
• Tantrism penetrated Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmana theology.
• The Yapaniya sect of the Jainas was the foremost in propagating Tantric mode
of worship in Karnataka.

Shakti Dharma
• It refers to the worship of female deity. It is first mentioned in the Mahabharata.
• The Tantric Devi hymn in the 10th mandala of Rig Veda is devoted to the worship
of Goddesses.

CHRISTIANITY
• This religion was founded by Jesus Christ. He was born to Mother Marry
and Joseph in Bethlehem near Jerusalem. His birth day (25th December) is
celebrated as the holy festival, Christmas.
• His first two disciple, Andrews and Peter, were hanged in AD 33 by the Roman
Governor Portius.
• Bible is the holy book of Chris­tians and the sign of ‘cross’ is their holy symbol.
ISLAM
• Hazrat Muhammad Saheb founded the islamic religion. He was born to Amina
(mother) and Abdullah (father) at Mecca in AD 570.
• He was married to Khqjida (a widow) at the age of 25 yrs. His daugher, Fatima,
was married to Ali Hussain.
• Hazrat Muhammad attained su­preme knowledge or enlightment in AD 610 in
the Hira Cave near Mecca. His teachings are compiled in the Holy Quran.
• 24th September AD 622, the day Hazrat Muhammad started his journey from
Mecca to Medina mark the beginning of ij ri Bra.
60 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• He died on 8th June, AD 632 and was buried at Medina.
• After his death Islam divided into Shia and Sunni cult. His successors were
known as Khalifa. The Turkish ruler, Mushtafa Kumal Pasha , Kalifah ended
the designation of Caliphate 1924 A.D.
• The birthday of Muhammad Saheb is celebrated as Eid­mild­un­Nabi.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUNNI AND SHIA SECTS

A Schism emerged after the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632. A.D.
He died without appointing a succesor to lead the Muslim commu­nity, and disputes
arose over who should shepherd the new and rapidly growing faith.
Some belived that a new leader should be chosen by consensus; others
thought that only the prophets descendants should become caliph. The title passed
to a trusted aide, Abu Bakr, though some thought it should have gone to Ali, the
prophet’s cousin and son­in­law. Ali eventu­ally did become caliph after Abu Bakr’s
two successors were assassi­nated.
After Ali also was assassinated, with a poisonlaced sword at the mosque in kufa,
in what is now Iraq his son Hasan and then Hussein and many of his relatives
were massacred in karbala, Iraq in 680 A.D.
His martyrdom became a central tenet to those who believed that Ali should
have suceeded the prophet. The followers became known as shias, a contraction of
the phrase Shiat Ali, or followers of Ali. The Sunnis, however, regard the first three
caliphs before Ali as rightly guided and themselves as the true adherents to the
Sunnah or the Prophet’s tradi­tion. Sunni rulers embarked on sweeping conquests
that extended the caliphate into North Africa and Europe.
Beliefs of Sunni and Shia Sects :
The Sunni and Shia sects encompass a wide spectrum of doctrine, opinion
and schools of thought. The branches are in agreement on many aspects of Islam,
but there are considerable disagreements within each both branches include
worshippers who run the gamut from secular to fundamentalist.
Shias consider Ali and the leaders who came after him as Imams. They
most believe in a line of 12 Imams, the last of whom, a boy is believed to have
vanished in the ninth century in Iraq after his father was murdered. Shias known
as Twelvers anticipate his return as the Mahdi or Messiah. Sunnis emphasise
God’s power in the material world, sometimes includ­ing the public and political
realm, while the Shias value martyrdom and sacrifice.

61 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

ZOROASTRIANISM (PARSI)
• Parsi religion was founded by Prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra). His teachings
compiled in the holybook, Zend Avesta. His followers believed in one God, Ahur.

BUDDHISM
• Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.
• Buddha was born on the Vaisakh W­ Pumima day in 563 B.C.
• He belonged to the Sakya clan of Kshatriyas.
• His father was Suddhodana, the ruler of Kapilvastu.
• He was born in Lumbini in Kapilvastu.
• His mother was Mahamaya of the Kosala dynasty.
• Buddha got Nirvana at the age J. of 35 years.
• Buddha got Nirvana at Uruvela on the bank of river Niranjana.
• Buddha gave his first Sermon at ‘ Sarnath.
• Buddha’s first sermon is called as “Dharma Chakraparivartana”
• Buddha died in 483 B.C. at Kushinagar.
• Kushinagar has been identified with village Kasia in Deoria dis­trict of
U.P. ­
• Buddha’s last words were “All composite things, strive diligently’’.
• Buddha was brought up by his stepmother Gautami.
• After seeing an old man, a sick main, a corpse and an ascetic, Buddha decided
to become a wanderer.
• Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, j Sariputra and Ananda were five disciples
of Buddha

Five Great Events of Buddha’s Life and their symbols

• Birth : Lotus and Bull
• Great Renunciation : Horse
• Nirvana : Bodhi tree
• First Sermon : Dharmachakra or wheel
• Parinirvana or Death : Stupa

62 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

Four Noble Truths
• The world is full of sorrows.
• Desire is root cause of sorrow.
• If desire is conquered, all sor­rows can be removed.
• Desire can be removed by fol­lowing the eight­fold path.

Eight Fold Path

1 Right understanding 2 Right speech
3 Right livelihood 4 Right mindfulness
5 Right thought 6 Right action
7 Right effort and 8 concentration

IMPORTANT FACTS RELATED WITH BUDDHA

Tathagata, Sakyamuni Titles of Buddha

Sakya Clan to which Buddha belong
Gautama Gotra of Buddha
Suddhodana Buddha’s Father
Mahamaya Buddha’s Mother
Prajapati Gautami Foster Mother
Yasodhara Buddha’s Wife
Rahul Buddha’s Son
Kanthaka Buddha’s Horse
Channa Buddha’s Charioteer
Alara Kalam Buddha’s Teacher
Sujata Girl who offered rice and milk
Niranjana River on the bank of which Buddha attained Nirvana
Mara King of spirit who troubled Buddha during
meditation
Chunda The person who offered pork to Buddha
Sravasti Buddha preached most of his sermons here

Three Ratnas
• Buddha • Dhamma • Sangha
Code of Conduct:
1 Do not covet the property of others
2 Do not commit violence
3 Do not speak a lie
4 Do not indulge in corrupt practices
63 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
BUDDHIST COUNCILS
• The First Council was held in 483 BC at Saptaparni cave near Rajagriha to
compile the Dhamma Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka.
• Chairman : Mahakassapa, Pa­tron : Ajatshatru
• The Second Council was held at Vaisali in 383 BC. The monks of Vaisali wanted
some change in the rites. Schism into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas.
• Chairman : Sabakami, Patron : Kalashoka
• The Third Council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka 236
years after the death of Buddha. It was held under the Presidentship of
Moggliputta Tissa to revise the scriptures.
• The Fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir under
the Presidentship of Vasumitra, who was helped by Aswvaghosha and resulted
in the division of Buddhists into Mahayanists and Hinayanists.

SECTS OF BUDDHISM
• Hinayana:
(a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha
(b) They sought individual sal­vation through self­discipline and meditation.
(c) They did not believe in idol­ worship
(d) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God, Karma taking the place
of God
(e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all
(f) the oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Thervada
in Pali) or the Doctrine of the Elders’
(g) Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more philosophical is known as
Sarvastivada or the doctrine which maintains the existence of all things,
physical as well as mental and
(h) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched off another school
called Sautantrika, which was more critical in outlook.
• Mahayana:
(a) Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation
of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas.
(b) Believes in idolworship.
(c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive
state of bliss.
(d) Mahayana had two chief philo­sophical schools : the Madhyamika and
the Yogachara.
(e) The former took a line mid­way between the uncompro­mising realism of
Hinayanism and the idealism of Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara.
64 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 (f) The Yogachara school founded by Maitreyanatha completely rejected the
realism of Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism.
• Vajrayana
(a) Its followers believed that salvation could be the best at­tained by acquiring
the magical power, which they called Vaira.
(b) The chief divinties of this new sect were the Taras.
(c) It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

BUDDHIST LITERATURE
• The Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitaka i.e.
Three fold Basket.
• Tripitaka includes Vinaya Pita ka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhammat Pitaka.
• The Vinayapitaka comprires of suttavibhanga, Khandakas and Parivarpatha.
• The Vinay Pitaka :
(a) Mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated.
(b) It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.
(c) An account of the life and teaching of the Buddha is also given.
• The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas.
• The five Nikayas are Digh Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya,
Anguttara Nikaya and Khuddaka Nikaya.
• The Khuddaka Nikaya consists of large number of miscellanceous works.
• The Jatakas are a part of Khuddaka Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka.
• The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of:
(a) discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions.
(b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and other are
also included in it.
(c) It lays down the principles of Buddhism.

• The Vbhidhamma Pitaka is written in the form of questions and Answers.

• It consists of seven books of which Kathavattu is most important.
• Kathavattu is attributed to Tissa Moggaliputta
• The Abhidhamma Pitaka :
(a) Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s tecahings.
(b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as
they truly are.

65 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
• Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz.
(a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are
preserved)
(b) Chaitya (prayer hall)
(c) Vihara (residence)
Bodhisattvas
• Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt), Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus beacer)
• Manjushri (holds books describ­ing 10 paramitas)
• Kshitigrha (guardian of purgato­ries)
• Maitreya (the future Buddha)
• Amitabha/Amitayusha (Buddha of heaven)

S. No. Buddhist Location Founder

1. Nalanda Badagoan, Bihar Kumargupta­I
2. VikramsMa Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
3. Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
4. Jagadal Bengal Ramapala (Pala ruler)
5. Odantpuri Bihar Sharit, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)
6. Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka (Maitrak Rule)

EIGHT HOLT PLACE (ASHTAMAHASTHANAS)

(1) Lumbini, (2) Bodh Gaya, (3) Kusinagar,
(4) Sravasti, (5) Sankasya, (6) Rajgriha,
(7) Valshall, (8) Sarnath.

SECTS OF BUDDHISM : AREA

Hinayana : India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Nepal, Singapore
Mahayana India, China, Nepal, Singapore, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam
Vajrayana : India, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan.
JAINISM

• Jainism was founded by Vardhamana Mahavira.

• Mahavira was born in 540 B.C.
• Mahavira’s Birth place was Kundagram in Vaishali

66 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• He belonged to the fantriak Kshatriya clan.
• His father’s name was Siddhartha and mother’s name was Trishala, who was a
sister of the Lichchavi prince Chetak of Vaishali.
• Mahavira was married to Yashoda.
• He left home at the age of 30 and wandered for 12 years.
• He is regarded as the 24th Tirthankara.
• Rishabha was the 1st Tirthankara.
• Parsavanath was the 23rd Tirthankara.
• Mahavira’s first disciple was Jamali.
• He attained Kaivalya on the bank of river Rijupalika near J rimbhikgrama.

Important Facts about Jainism

Mahavira, Arhat Titles of Vardhamana,

Vardhamana Original name of Mahavira
Kundagram Mahavira’s birth place
Trisala Mahavira’s Mother
Yashoda Mahavira’s Wife
Jamali Mahavira’s Son in Law.
Jnatrika Clan to which Mahavira belonged.
Rijupalika River on the bank of which Mahavira got Kaivalya.
Sal tree The tree under which Mahavira got Kaivalya.
Pava Place where Mahavira died.

• The names of two Jaina Tirthankaras, Rishabha and Aristanemi, are found in
the Rigveda.
• The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagvata Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation
of Narayana.
• In the course of wandering Mahavira met Mokhliputta (the founder of Ajivika
sect).
• Ashoka’s grandson Samparati accept Jainism.
• In First century AJD. lathura became the Centre of Jaina art and culture.
• The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya.
• Many Jaina followers went to south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.

67 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• These southern followers later formed the Digambra sect (lives nude)
• Those who remained at Magadha, under the leadership of Sthalabahu, formed
Shvetambar sect (wears white garments)

Explanation of formation of Digambaras and Shvetambaras : After the j

death of Mahavira during the reign of king Chandragupta Mauiya a se­vere famine
led to the migration of some jains under Bhadrabahu to the Deccan. Sthulabhadra
remained in North and allowed wearing white gar­ments Bhadrabahu maintained
nudity leading to division as Digambaras (sky clad or naked) and shwetambars
(white clad).

FIVE MAIN TEACHINGS

• Non­injury (ahimsa)
• Non­lying
• Non­Stealing (asateya)
• Non­Possession (aparigraha)
• Observe continence (Brahamchaiya). It was added by Mahavira.
JAINA LITERATURE
• Most of the literature is written in Prakrit.
• The jaina Literature includes,
1. The 12 Angas
2. The 12 Upangas
3. The 10 Prakirna
4. The 6 Chhedsutras
5. The 4 Mulasutras
JAINA COUNCILS
• First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the
third century BC and resulted in the compila­tion of 12 Angas to replace the
lost 14 Purvas.
• Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 6th (513 AD) cen­tury AD under
the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation
of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

68 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 24 TIRTHANKARAS AND THEIR SYMBOL
S.No. Name Symbol
1. Rishabha Bull
2. Ajitnath Elephant
3. Sambharnath Horse
4. Abhiaandam Swamy Monkey
5. Sumathinath Curlew
6. Padamprabhu Red Lotus
7. Suparaswanath Swastik
8. Chandraji Prabhu Moon
9. Suvidhlnath Crocodile
10. Shitalnath Srivatsa
11. Shregansnath Rhinoceros
12. Vasupujya Buffalo
13. Vimalnath Boar
14. Ananthanth Falcon
15. Dharamnath Vajra
16. Shantinath Deer
17. Kuntunath He­Goat
18. Amath Fish
19. Mallinath Water Pot
20. Muniswasth Tortoise
21. Naminath Blue Lotus
22. Arishtanemi Conch Shell (Neminath)
23. Parswanath Serpent
24. Mahavir Lion

Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism

• Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste system but uphold the
essence of Vedas, Preached Truth, non violence, celibacy and detachment
from material comforts, believed in karma and rebirth and were liberal towards
women.
• Aacharangsutra about rules and regulation for Jain Bhikshus.

69 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism Jainism
• Followers Monks Lay man
• Salvation Moderate one Extreme one
• Spread Died in India but spread Confined to India and survived
to foreign lands
• Ahimsa Liberal Policy Over­emphasis
• Soul Did not believe in soul Belived in soul

RISE OF MAHAJANAPADAS
• The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya gives the list of sixteen Mahajanapadas
at the time of Buddha.
• These Mahajanapadas extended from the North western Pakistan to east Bihar
and from Himalayas to the river Godavari.

Mahajanapada Capital Area

Anga Champa Bhagalpur, Munger (Bihar)
Magadha Rajgriha Patna, Gaya (Bihar)
Kasi Varanasi Near Varanasi
Kosal Saketa, Sravasti Eastern Uttar Pradesh
Vajji (Ganasangha) Vaishali Muzaffarpur (Bihar)
Malla Kusinara/Pava Gorakhpur (U.P.)
Chedi Suktimati Bundelkhand (U.P.)
Vatsa Kaushambi Allahabad (U.P.)
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut Delhi region
Panchal Ahicchatra, Kampilya Western U.P.
Sursena Mathura Mathura (U.P.)
Gandhar Taxila Peshawar (Pakistan)
Kamboja Rajpura Near Gandhar
Asmak Paithan Godhavari area (M.H.)
Avanti Ujjain, Mahishmati Malwa region
Matsya Viratnagar Near Jaipur

• Kashi was famous for its cotton textiles and market for horses.
• Champa was noted for its trade and Commerce.
• Va[ji represented a confederacy of eight clans.
• The Buddha died in the vicinity of Kusinara.
70 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• The Northern Panchalas had their capital at Ahicchatra.
• The Southern Panchalas had their Capital at Kampilya.
• Viratnagar was used as the hiding place by Pandavas.
• Malhura was located at the junction of two famous trade routes i.e. Uttrapatha
and Dakshinapatha.
• The Kambojas were regarded as uncultured by the Brahamanical texts. The
Buddha calls himself Kosalan in the Majjhima Nikaya.
• Kashi had emerged as a cloth manufaturing centre by the time of Buddha.

RISE OF MAGADHA

Magadha Empire

Haryank Shisunaga Nanda

Dynasty Dynasty Dynasty

HARYANK DYNASTY
• The epic Mahabharata has provided information about the early period of
Magadha.
• Jarasandh and Brihdrath were the rulers during the period of Mahabharata.
Girivraja was the magadhan capital during the early period.
BIMBISARA (544­492 B.C.)
• Bimbisara established Haiyank dynasty.
• Rajg was the capital of the state.
• Bimbisara ascended the throne in B 544 B.C.
• In Jain literature he has been called as ‘Shraunik’.
• Bimbisara had three wives, mahakosala, Chellana and Khema.
• Mahakosala was the sister of Kosal ruler Prasenjit and Chellana was
Lichchhavi Princess.
• Bimbisara defeated Anga and an­nexed it.
• Bimbisara was contemporary of Buddha.
• Bimbisara send his physician Jivak to treat Chand Pradyot of Avanti
71 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• Bimbisara was prisoned by his son Ajatshatru and died in 493 B.C.
AJATSHATRU (492­460 B.C.)
• Ajatshatn sat on Magadha throne in 492 B.C.
• Ajatshatru followed an expansionist policy.
• After a long struggle he defeated Kas and Vai]i confederacy.
• Ajatshatru took the services of his minister Vassakar to divide the Vaiji
confederacy.
• Ajatshatru got a large stupa con­structed in Rajgriha.
• Gautama Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist council.
• Ajatshatru constructed a fort around Rajgriha to protect it from Lichcchavi
attack. Ajatshatru was killed by his son Udayin in 461 B.C.
• Udayin transferred the Capital to Patliputra.
• Udayin was a follower of Jainism.
• The last Haryank ruler was Nagdasak.
SHISUNAGA DYNASTY (412­344 B.C.)
• Nagdasak was killed by his minister Shisunaga.
• Shisunaga established Shisunaga dynasty in 412 B.C.
• Shisunaga annexed Avanti to Magadha.
• Shisunaga established his capital at Vaishali.
• Kalashoka came to the throne in 344 B.C.
• Kalashoka again transferred the capital to Pataliputra.
• During the reign of Kalashoka second Buddhist council was organized at
Vaishali.
• Nandivardhan was the last Shisunaga ruler.
NANDA DYNASTY (344­323 B.C.)
• Nanda Dynasty was established by Mahapadmananda.
• According to Puranas he was not a Kshatriya.
• Mahapadmananda was known as Ekarat and Sarvakshatrantaka.
• Mahapadmananda conquered Kalinga.
• Last Nanda ruler was Dhananai ida

72 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• Dhanananda was the contemporary of Alexander.
• Alexander attacked India in the reign of Dhanananda (the last ruler)
• The Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously powerful.
• Nanda Dynasty was destroyed by Chandragupta Mauiya and Chanakya.
• Nandas have been termed as first empire builders of India.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA
• Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position
• Iron deposits were situated close to Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha.
• Rajgir and Pataliputra were situated at very strategic points.
• Pataliputra was surrounded by rivers from all sides it was called as jaladurga
(water­fort).
• Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plain.
• Magadha for the first time used elephants on a large scale in wars.
• Greek sources have mentioned that the Nandas maintained 6000 elephants.
Magadha society was unortho dox and was recently Aryanized.
• Ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Mahapadma nanda
established Magadha as a powerful kingdom.

FOREIGN INVASION
• North­West India was ruled by smaller principalities like Kambojas and
Gandharas.
• The Period of 6th century B.C. marked by political instability in North­West
India.
In 516 B.C. the Iranian ruler Darius penetrated into North­ West India.
• Darius annexed Punjab, west of Indus and Sindh.
• This area constituted the 20th kshatrapy (province) of Iran.
• The Indian Kshatrapy included Sindh, the North­West frontier and part of
Punjab.
• The Indian Kshatrapy paid a tribute of 360 talents of Gold.
• Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed Indians in the long war against the
Greeks.
• The Iranian Scribes brought into India Kharoshti script.

73 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the Greeks destroyed
the Iranian Empire.
• Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 B.C.
• Ambhi was the king of Taxila.
• Porus ruled between Jhelum and Ravi.
• Poms provided a strong resistance to Alexander.
> Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326­325 B.C.)
• Alexander’s campaign opened up four distinct routes by land and sea.
• Alexandria and Boukephala were Greek settlements which were established in
the North West.
• Alexander’s historian Nearchus has left valuable geographical ac­counts.
• Battle of Hydaspes was fought between Porus and Alexander.
• Alexander sent 20,000 oxen to Macedonia for use in Greece.
• The Sati system and slave trade was prevalent in the society.
• Alexander’s invasion paved the way for the expansion of Mauiyan Empire in
North West India.
Effects of Alexander’s Invasion
• It exposed India to Europe by opening up four distinct lines of communication
three by land and one by sea.
• The Hindu and the Buddhist religious faiths and philosophies had an impact
of the Greek world of philosophy following Alexander’s time.
• Due to cultural contacts, a cosmopolition school of art came up in Gandhara.
It paved the way for the unification of North India under chandragupta by
weakening small states.
The Mauryan Empire (321BC ­ 289BC)

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322­ 295 B.C)

• The Mauryan dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the
help of Chanakya or Kautilya.
• Brahamanical texts say he was born of Mura, a sudra women in the court of
the Nandas.
• An earlier Buddhist tradition says he belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya clan
in some texts he is referred to % as Vrishala and Kulahina.
74 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• He fought Seleucus in 305 B.C. Seleucus surrendered a large territory including
Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Gandhara) and Gedrosia
(Baluchistan), in return for 500 elephants.
• According to Jaina tradition Chandragupta was converted to Jainism.
• Chandragupta Maurya passed his last days at Sravanbelagola near Mysore.
Where he died by starvation (Sallekhana/Santhara) ritual of Jains.
• Seleucus sent an ambassador Megasthenes to the Mauryan court.
• Megasthenes wrote the text Indica”

BINDUSARA (298­272 B.C.)

• Bindusara succeeded Chandra­gupta Maurya.
• In Jain literature he has been called as ‘Simhasen.
• Antiochus sent Deimachus as an ambassador to Bindusara’s court.
• Ptolemy Philedelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as ambassador.
• He was known as Amitraghata. He was also known as Amitrochates.
• He wrote to Antiochus I of Syria and asked for some sweet, wine, dry figs and
a sophist.
• He sent his son Ashoka to quell a rebellion in Taxila.
• He was a followers of Ajivika sect
• The Syrian ambassador Deimachus was sent to his court.
ASHOKA (273­232 B.C.)
• Ashoka (273­232 B.C.) succeeded Bindusara.
• He was holding viceroyalty of taxila and Ujjain during his fathers lifetime.
• After his fathers death he as­cended the throne but formal consecration was
delayed for 4 years.
• A Buddhist text says he usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers.
• He fought Kalinga war in 260 B.C. in the 9th year of his reign.
• Under Ashoka, the empire reached its zenith. And in the history, for the
first time, the entire Indian sub­continent came under a single umbrella (except
extreme Southern India).
• In course of his second Dharmayatra tour (in 21 st year of his reign), he
visited Lumbini.

75 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• In the 1th yea of his reign he started the institution of Dharn la Mahamatras.
• The reverberation of the war drum (Bheri Ghosha) was to be­come the
reverberation of the law (Dhamma Ghosha). His Hellenistic contemporaries
were Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Antigonas of Macedonia,
Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus.
• He organised the third mddhist council in the 18th year of his reign at Patliputra.
• Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, regulated the slaughter of animal for food.
• According to his Maski and Gurjara inscriptions he was known as Devanam
Priya Priyadarshi.
• He was converted to Buddhism by Nigrodh.
• Ashoka sent peace missionaries inside India as well as abroad.

NAMES & TITLES OF ASHOKA

Ashoka Personal name

Piyadassi Official name
Ashoka Maski minor rock edict
Ashok Vardhan Puranas.
Ashoka Mauiya Junagarh inscription
Piyadassi Dipavamsa, Kandhar inscription
Piyadassi Raja Barabar hill cave inscription
Piyadassi Raja Magadh Bhabru­Bairat minor rock edict
Raja Ashoka Dewanampiya Udegolum minor rock edict
Raja Ashoka Nittur minor rock edict
Devanampriyas Ashoka Rajas Guijara minor rock edict

Edicts of Ashoka Related Places

Location of Major Rock Edicts

1. Kalshi (Dehradun)
2. Manshera (Hazara dist. Pakistan)
3. Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar)
4. Girnar (Gujarat)
5. Sopara (Near Mumbai)
6. Dhauli (Odisha)
7. Jaugada (Odisha)
8. Maski (Andhra Pradesh)
9. Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh)
76 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
Location of Minor Rock Edicts
1. Bairat 2. Rupnath 3. Sahsaram
4. Rupnath 5. Brahmagiri 6. Gavimath
7. Jatinga Rameshwar 8. Maski 9. Palkigundu
10. Rajula­Mandagiri 11. Suvarnagiri 12. Yerragudi
13. Guijara 14. Ahraura
Location of Pillar Edicts
1. Allahabad 2. Delhi­Topra 3. Delhi­Meerut
4. Nigalisagar 5. Lauriya­Araraj
6. Lauriya­ Nandangarh 7. Rampurva

INFORMATION ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS

• 1st major rock edict declares prohibition of animal sacrifice.

• 2nd major rock edict mentions medical treatment of human and animals.
• 3rd major rock edict mentions Pradeshikas, Rajukas and Yukta.
• 4th major rock edict mentions Bheri Ghosha is replaced by Dhamma Ghosha.
• 5th major rock edict mentions the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas.
• 6th major rock edict mentions Mantri Parishad and officers like pulisani and
Prativedikar.
• 7th major rock edict mentions religious toleration amongst all sects.
• 8th major rock edict mentions that he went to Sambodhi in Bodh Gaya.
• 9th major rock edict mentions the uselessness of various cer­emonies.
• 10th major rock edict mentions that the king desires no more fame
• 11th major rock edict explains the policy of Dhamma.
• 12th major rock edict appeals for toleration amongs sects.
• 13th rock edict mentions Kalinga war.
• 14th major rock edict mentions the purpose of the rock edicts.
• There are 7 pillar edicts.
• In the 1st pillar edict, social code has been mentioned.
• In the 2nd pillar edict eye donation has been mentioned.
• In the 3rd pillar edict soul and sin has been mentioned.
• In the 4th pillar edict Rajukas have been mentioned.
77 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• In the 5th pillar edict animal killing is mentioned.
• The 6th pillar edict mentions the welfare of people.
• The 7th pillar edict mentions the Dhamma Mahamattas.
FACTS ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS
• Maski edict discovered in 1915 is the only edict which mentions the name
Ashoka.
• The Topra & Meerut pillars were brought to Delhi by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
• Ashokan edicts were deciphered by Jaines Princep in 1837.
• The Kausambi pillar was brought to Calcutta by Jahangir.
• The Bairat inscription was brought to Allahabad by Cunningham.
• Two major rock edicts as Mansehra and Sahbazgarhi are in Kharoshti script.
• The Kandhar inscription is bilin­gual­Greek and Aramaic.
• Most of the Ashokan edicts are written in Brahmi script.
• The language used in Ashokan edicts except Kandhar is Prakrit.
• The inscription in fragmentary condition found at Lampak/ Lamghan is in
Aramaic
• In all the edicts except the Maski edict Ashoka refers to himself by his title
Devanampiya Piyadassi.
• The Allahabad pillars (brought from Kausambi) contains the in­scription of
Samudra Gupta and Jehangir also.
• Major rock edicts are fourteen in number.
• Total number of pillar edicts is thirteen, they are inscribed in ten pillars. Out
of thirteen seven are major pillar edicts, four are minor pillar edicts and two
are commemorative pillar edicts.
• Of the four minor pillars edicts one is known as Queen’s edict and it is on
Allahabad pillar.
• Schism edicts (one each) are found in Allahabad, Sanchi and Sarnath Pillars.
• The commemorative pillar edicts are Rumeindei and Nigalisagar (both in Nepal).
• The longest among the major rock edict is 13th rock edict (in Odisha).
• 7th pillar edict is longest among all the edicts.
• The Allahabad pillar contains first six pillar edicts, Queen’s edict, Kosam
Schism edicts, Prasasti of Samudragupta written by Harisena and some decrees
of Jehangir.
• Kharosthi script was derived from Persian Aramaic.
• He constructed Sanchi Stupa at Vidisha (M.P.)
78 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 18 TIRTHAS MENTIONED IN ARTHASHASTRA
1. Mantrin : Chief Minister
2. Purohita : Chief Priest
3. Senapati : Commander in Chief
4. Yuvaraja : Crown prince (These four were the highest function­
aries among the tirthas).
5. Dauvarika : Chamberlain
6. Antaivesika : Chief of the harem.
7. Prasastri : Inspector general of prisons
8. Samaharta : Collector general
9. Sanidhata : Treasury Chief
10. Pradeshtri : Divisional Commissioner
11. Nayaka : City Constable
12. Paura : Governor of the City.
13. Vyavaharika : Chief Judge
14. Karmantika : Chief of the Mines
15. Mantri : President of the Council. Parishadhyaksha
16. Dandapal : Police Chief
17. Dvarapala : Chief of the Home Defence.
18. Antapala : Chief of the Frontier Defence.

IMPORTANT ADHTAKSHAS AND THEIR DUTIES

1. Panyadhyaksha : Commerce
2. Samsthadhyaksha : Markets, checking wrong practices
3. Pautavadhyaksha : Weights and measure
4. Navadhyaksha : State Boats
5. Sulkadhyaksha : Tolls/Customs
6. Akaradhyaksha : Mines
7. Lohadhyaksha : Iron
8. Sawarnika : Gold
9. Sitadhyaksha : Crown lands
10. Aksha pataladhyaksha : Accounts
11. Rathadhyaksha : Chariot
12. Hastyadhyaksha : Elephant force
13. Ayudhagaradhyaksha : Production and maintenance of armaments
14. Kosadhyaksha : Treasury
15. Kosthagaradhyaksha : Storehouse
16. Kupyadhyaksha : Forest produce
17. Manadhyaksha : Measurement
79 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 18. Mudradhyaksha : Passports
19. Pattanadhyaksha : Ports
20. Ganikadhyaksha : Courtesan
21. Devatadhyaksha : Religious institutions
22. Lakshanadhyaksha : Mint

IMPORTANT OFFICICALS:
Amatyas : The Secretaries
Antapala : Governer of the Frontier
Akshapatala : Accountant General
Durgapala : Governer of Fort
Dhamma : A New Post created by Ashoka.
Gopa : Responsible for accounts
Lipikaras : Scribes
Kumaras : The Viceroys­in­change of a province
Maharnatras : Functions of Propagating Dhamma and taking care of
the common folk for their material well being.
Pra deshikas : Modern District magistrate.
Rajukas : later day Patwaris
Sthanika : The tax collector officers
THE VILLAGE LEVEL OFFICERS :
Gramika : Head of Village
Gram widdhas : Village elders.

POST ­MAURYAN DYNASTIES

SUNGAS AND KANVAS
• Pushyamitra laid the foundation of Sunga dynasty.
• Pushyamitra killed the last Mauryan ruler Brihdrath in 185 B.C.
• Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga.
• Pushyamitra performed two Aswamedha sacrifices.
• It was corroborated by Patanjali and Malavikagnimitram.
• He was succeeded by Agnimitra.
• A Sunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of kalidasa’s Malavika­gnimitram.
• Heliodorus came during the reign of Bhagbhadra
• He was the ambassador of Greek king Antialkidas of Taxila.
• The last Sunga king was Devabhuti.
• This period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.
80 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
THE SATVAHANA DYNASTY
• The Puranas speak only of Andhra rule and not of Satvahana rule.
• Simuka was the first Satvahana king.
• They issued mostly coins of lead.
• They were the successors of the Mauiyans in the Deccan and the central India.
• Gautamiputra Satkarni (106­130 A.D.) called himself the only Brahamana.
• His achievements are recorded in Nasik Inscription.
• Nasik Inscription belongs to his mother Gautami Balasri.
• Vashisthaputra Pulumayi (130­ 158 A.D.) set up his capital at Paithan.
• He enlarged Amravati Stupa and decorated it with marble.
• He has been praised in Nanaghat Inscription.
• Yajnasri Satkarni (165­194 AD.) recovered Malwa from the Shaka rulers.
• Ship is depicted on his coins.
• Satvalianas were the first rulers to make land grants to Brahamanas.
• Prakrit text Gathasaptashati is attributed to Satvahana king Hala.
• They had brisk trade with Romans.
• Nasik and Nanaghat are important inscription of the Satvahana period.
THE INDO­GREEKS
• A series of invasions from central Asia began around 200 B.C.
• The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo­Greeks.
• Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about 190 B.C.
• The most famous Indo­Greek ruler was Menander (165­145 B.C.). His capital
was Sakala or Sialkot.
• Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena or Nagaijuna.
• The conversation between the two is recorded in a book named ‘Milindapanho’,
or question of Milinda.
• Indo­Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
• They were the first rulers in India to issue coins definitely attributed to the
kings.
• They also introduced practice of militaiy governorship. The governors were
called Strategos.
81 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• The Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu at
Vidisha.
• The term Horashastra used for astrology in Sanskrit is derived from the Greek
term Horoscope.
THESAKAS
• The Greeks were followed by the Sakas.
• They are referred to as scythians.
• The Saka poured into India through the Bolan Pass.
• The earliest Indian textual reference to the Sakas are found in the Mahabhasya.
• The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in
Gandhara.
• Maues was succeeded by Azes who successfully attacked the last of the Greek
kings in Northern India, Hippostratos.
• The most famous of the Saka rulers was Rudradaman (130­ 152 A.D.)
• His achievements are highlighted in his Junagarh Inscription.
• It is the first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit.
• It records the repair of Sudarshan lake undertook by his officers.
THE KUSHAN DYNASTY
• They are referred to as Yuch­Chis or Tocharians.
• They belonged to one of the five clans of the Yuch­Chis tribe.
• They came from North Central Asia near China. Their empire included a good
part of central Asia a portion of Iran a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan and
almost the whole of North India.
• Kujula Kadphises initiated copper imitation of Roman coins.
• Wima Kadphises issued a large number of gold coins.
• Kanishka (78­144 A.D.) started the Shakaera (78 A.D.)
• His two capitals were Purushpura (Peshawar) and Mathura.
• He erected a monastery stupa at Peshawar.
• He was a great patron of art and literature.
• At Toprak­Kala a huge Kushan palace has been unearthed.
• Charak was the court physician of Kanishka.

82 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• He was a great patron of Buddhism.
• Fourth Buddhist Council was held under his patronage at Kundalvan.
• Kanishka controlled the famous Silk route in central Asia.
• The Gandhara School of art recieved royal patronage of the Kushans.
• The Kanishka group of rulers used the title ‘Shanaushahi’.
• The Kushanas started erecting mortuary temples called Devakulas.
• Kushanas divided their empire into strips.
• Kanishka provided patronage to Ashvaghosha and Nagaijuna.

The Guptas (320­550 A.D.)

• Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta rule.
• He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha.
• The real founder of the Gupta power was Chandragupta I (319­ 355 A.D.)
• He was the first independent king with the title of Maharaja­ dhiraja.
• He started the Gupta era in 319­320 A.D.
• He married a Lichchavi Princess.
• His empire included Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal.
• Samudragupta (355­380 A.D.) enlarged enormously the Gupta kingdom.
• His achievements are mentioned in the Prayag­ Prasasti composed by Harisena.
• He captured and annexed the Aiyavrata rulers.
• He defeated 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha.
• These rulers were first captured and then released by Samudragupta.
• Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court.
• He was a great patron of art and adopted the title of Kaviraja.
• On some coins he is shown playing the Veena.
• V.A. Smith calls Samudragupta the ‘Napoleon of India’.
• Samudragupta had a disputed accession to the throne.
• Virasena was the commander of Samdragupta during his southern campaign.
• Samudragupta performed the Aswamedha Yajna and struck gold coins of
Yupa type.

83 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• He granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon Meghavarman to
build a Monas­tery at Bodh Gaya.
• The historian V.A. Smith complemented Samudragupta as the Indian
Nepoleon’.
• Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him
and married his queen Dhruvadevi.
• He entered into matrimonial alliance with the Nagas by marrying princess
Kubernaga.
• He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III and annexed his kingdom.
• He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. Mehrauli iron pillar inscription mentions
his authority over North western India and a portion of Bengal.
• Virasena’s Udaigiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world.
• He made Ujjain his second capital.
• His court contained 9 gems including Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Fa­hien, Acharya
Dignaga etc.
• Veerasena Saba was the court poet and minister of Chandragupta II.
Amarkhaddava was his army general.
• Fa­hien, the Chinese traveller came during the time of Chandragupta. II.
• He issued silver and copper coins.
• His predecessors had issued only gold coins.
• The gold coins were called Dinara’.
• Chandragupta II was succeeded by Kumargupta I.
• His inscriptions are the Bilsad inscription, the Karandanda in­scription, the
Mandsor inscription, the Damodarpur copper plate inscription.
• He founded the Nalanda Univer­sity.
• Towards the last year of his reign, the Gupta empire faced foreign in­vasions.
• Skandagupta had to fight the Pushyamitras and the Hunas.
• He was successful in throwing the Hunas back.
• The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells that his governor Parnadatta got
the Sudarshan lake repaired.
• He adopted the title of Vikramaditya
• Some of the successors of Skandagupta were Buddhagupta, Vainyagupta
Bhanugupta Narsimhagupta Baladitya, Kumargupta II and Vishmigupta

84 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Titles of the Gupta Kings
Srigupta Adiraja, Maharaja
Ghatotkach Maharaja
Chandragupta­I Maharajadhiraja
Samudragupta Sarva­raj­ochhchetta, kaviraja
Chandragupta­II Vikramaditya
Kumargupta Mahendraditya, Shakraditya
Skandagupta Vikramaditya, Karmaditya

Taxes Levied during the Gupta Dynasty

Bhag Kings share of produce

Bhoga General tribute
Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in cash
Bedakbhog Irrigation tax
Bhatta Police tax
Charasana Grazing tax
Chat Security tax
Prataya Toll tax
J lalivakar Tax on Ploughing
Upkilpta Sales tax
Taradaya Navigation tax

Gupta Temples Places

Vishnu temple : Tigawa (Jabalpur)
Shiva temple : Bhumara (Nagaud)
Parvati temple : Nachna Kuthara
Dasavtar temple : Deogarh (Jhansi)
Shiva temple : Koh (Nagaud)
Bhitargaon temple : Bhitargaon
Lakshman temple (birckmade) : Kanpur
Laxman temple : Sirpur (Raipur)
Mukund Darra temple : Kota
Dhammekh stupa : Sarnath
Jarasandh’s sitting : Rajgrih (Bihar)

85 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

HARSHVARDHAN (606­647 A.D.)
• Harshavardhan ascended the Pushyabhuti throne in 606 A.D.
• Harshavardhan was also known as Siladitya.
• Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang have provided important information about
Harsha’s reign.
• Poet Banabhatta wrote ‘Harshacharita’.
• Harsha was not successful in his first expedition against Gauda.
• In his second expedition Harsha conquered Magadha and Sasanka’s empire.
• Gauda was divided between Harsha and Bhaskarvarman.
• The Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha met defeat at the hands of
Pulakesin II.
• Harsha’s empire extended from the Punjab to northern Orissa and from
Himalayas to the banks of Narmada.
• Harsha wrote three Sanskrit plays­Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
• Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita and Kadambri.
• Harsha showed equal respect to all religious sects.
• Harsha built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed numerous Brahamanical,
Buddhist and Jaina establishments.
• The Kannauj assembly was held in the honour of Hiuen­Tsang.
• Harsha used to celebrate reli­gious festivals at the end of ev­ery five years at
Prayag.
• Harsha sent an emissary in 641 A.D. to the Chinese emperor.
• Harsha also received a Chinese emissary in return.
• Harsha died in 647 A.D.

Officials in Harshavardhana’s administration

Singhnada Chief of Armed Forces
Amatya Revenue and Finance Minister
Uparika Provincial Head
Dandapashik Police Officer
Vrihadeshwara Head of Cavalry
Baladhikrita The Commander
Skandagupta/Katuka Head of Elephant Brigade
Ayuktaka Ordinaiy officer
Mahasandhivigrahaka Officer to decide on war and peace

86 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 SOUTH INDIAN DYNASTIES
THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI (543­757 A.D.)
• The Vakatakas in the deccan were followed by the Chalukyas of Badaml.
• The Chalukyas established their base at Badaml (Vatapi) in Bijapur district of
Karnataka.
• The Chalukyas claimed their descent either from Vtanu or Moon.
• Pulakesin­I (543­66) : founder of the Chalukya dynasty, established a small
kingdom with Badami/Vatapi in Bijapur District as its capital.
• Kirtivarman­I­ expanded the kingdom by wars against the Kadambas of
Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
• Pulakesin II was able to check Harsha’s design to conquer Deccan.
• Aihole inscription is a eulogy written by his court poet Ravikirti.
• He sent an ambassador to Persian king Khusrau II in 625 A.D. and also received
one from him.
• The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang Visited his kingdom.
• Pallava ruler Narsimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya kingdom, killed
Pulakesin II and captured Badami.
• Vishnuvardhan, son of Pulakesin II, founded the eastern branch of the
Chalukyas with its capital at Vengi.

THE PALLAVAS (560­803)

• The Pallavas played an important role after the fall of Satvahanas in 3rd century
until the rise of the Cholas.
• The origin of Pallavas is a debatable issue.
• Pallava dynasty was founded by Si ml lavisnn in 560 A.D.
• Mahendravarman­I was defeated by Pulakesin­II.
• Narasimhavarman was the greatest king. He defeated Pulakesin II and captured
Badami/Vatapi. So, took the title of Vatapikonda.
• Narsimhavarman also defeated Cholas, Cheras and Paridyas, thus be­came
supreme in South India.
• Narsimhavarman was a great builder, having constructed Mamallapuram and
the various buildings here. During his reign Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi.
• Narsimhavarman II constructed the shore temple of Mamallapuram and the

87 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Kailasnath temple of Kanchi. He sent emissaries to China to encourage maritime
trade.
• The Chalukya Vikramadita­II attacked the Pallava capital during the reign of
Paramesvar Varman.
• Nandivarman­II was a worshipper of Vishnu. He built Vaikuntaperumal temple
at Kanchi.
• The last Pallava ruler, Aparajila Pallava was defeated by Aditya Chola.
• Kanch , Pallavas capital was a great centre of Sanskrit learning.
• Both Bharavi and Dandin, the authors of ‘Kirtaijuniyam’ and ‘Dash km
narcharitarn respectively lived in the Pallava court.
• The scientific works of Varahamihira and the poetry of Kalidasa were well
known in the Pallava country.
• Most of the kings were accomplished scholars and Vlahendravai man­ him­self
wrote the famous burlesque MattavUasa Prahasana.

THE GANGAS
• The Gangas were the contemporaries of the Chalukyas and the Pallavas.
• They ruled over a large part of modern Mysore.
• The region was called after them as Gangavadi.
• Hie founder of the Ganga dynasty was Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja.
• The Gangas had matrimonial alliances with the Pallavas, Chalukyas and
Rashtrakutas.
THE KADAMBAS
• The Kadamba dynasty was founded by Mayur Sarman.
• The Kadambas ruled from Banvasi from 345 A.D. to 365 A.D.
• Kakusthavarman (435­455 A.D.) was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty.
• Kakusthavarman established matrimonial relations with the Gangas and the
Guptas.
THE CHOLAS
• The Cholas were the feudatories of the Pallavas
• The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalays, who was at first a feudatory of
the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D.
• The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985 1014 A.D.) and his son Rajendra
I (1014­1044 A.D.)
88 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• Raja built a Saiva, a temple of Rajarajeshwara at Tanjore.
• Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola and built a city called
Gangaikondacholapuram.
• The Chola empire was divided into Mandalams or provinces and these in turn
were divided into Valanadu and Nadu.
• Chola rulers marked their victories by erecting a number of Shiva and Vishnu
temples.
• During the reign of Rajendra a naval expedition was sent against the Sri Vijaya
empire.
• The Bay of Bengal was converted into a Chola lake’.
• The Chola rulers fought constantly with the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Rajaraja I granted a village for the maintenance of Buddhist vihara at
Nagapattam.
• The king was the most important person in the Chola administration.
• The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of elephants, cavalry and
infantry.
• Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai 10 Vimaladitya (Eastern Chalukya of
Vengi) and restored Vengi to him.
• Rajaraja I sent his son Rajendra I to capture Banarasi and sack Manyakhet
of Western Chalukyas.
• During the reign of Rajaraja Maldives was captured.
• Rajaraja conferred the title of lahadandanavaka” upon Rajendra­I for his
victory over Pandyas & Keralas.
• Rajaraja­1 started the system of land survey called kadanib’.
• Adhirajendra was killed in a public revolt
• Kulotunga I of Vengi united the kingdom of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and
Chola kingdom. His other name was Rajendra­II. He was given the title of
Sangam Tavirtta (he who abolished tolls).
• Rajendra was crowned in the battle field of Koppam. He was given the title of
Prakesari.
• Vira Rajendra Rajakesari defeated Western Chalukyas king Someswara­
Ahvamalla in the battle of Cndal Sangman (Kurnool district). He foiled all
efforts of Vijayabahu of Sri Lanka to extend his authority and drive away the
Cholas from Sri Lanka.
89 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
• After the decline of Cholas, their place was taken by the loysalas of
Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of MaduraL
• The 4opuram style was developed under the Cholas.
• The system of canals in south is a contribution of the Cholas. Rajendra­I built
Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram.
• The Cholas were famous for the bronze statue of Nat a
• Kamban wrote Ramaya . Sivagasindamani was also produced.
• Temple architecture in south at­tained its climax under the Cholas.
• The style of architecture which came into vogue during this pe­riod is called
Dravida.
• ‘Mandap’ was the pillared hall.
• ‘Garbhgriha’ was the room of the chief­deity.
• Ceremonial dances were per­formed by Devadasis.

Tripartite Struggle (Palas, Pratiharas and Rastrakutas)

• A number of powerful empires arose in Northern India and the Deccan between
750 A.D.­1000 A.D.
• The Guijara Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rastrakutas emerged al­most at the
same time.
• These three powers fought for the supremacy over Kannauj.
Titles of the Chola Kings
King Titles
Parantaka­I Maduraikonda
Rajaraj­I Rajkesari, Arumoli, Cholormand, Mumadichola Dev.
Rajeadra­I Gangalkondachola, Mudigundchola, Panditchola.
Kulotunga­1 Kataikondachola, Malaindu Kondachola.

Administrative Units of Chola Dynasty

Mandalam Province
Kottam Division
Nadu District
Kurtam Group of villages

90 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 CHOLA KINGS
1. Vijayalaya : 846­887 A.D.
2. Aditya : 871­907 A.D.
3. Parantaka­I : 907­955 A.D.
4. Ganaraditya : 955 956 A.D.
5. Arinjaya : 956­957 A.D.
6. Parantaka­II : 957­973 A.D.
7. Uttamachola : 973­985 A.D.
8. Rajeadra­I : 985­1014 A.D.
9. Rajendra­I : 1014­1044 A.D.
10. Rajadhiraja : 1044­1054 A.D.
11. Rajendra II : 1054­1064 A.D.
12. Virarajendra : 1064­1069 A.D.
13. Kulottunga­I : 1070­1118 A.D.
14. Vikramachola : 1118­1135 A.D.
15. Kulottunga­II : 1135­1150 A.D.
16. Rajaraja­II : 1150­1173 A.D.

Tripartite Struggle (Palas, Pratiharas and Rastrakutas)

• A number of powerful empires arose in Northern India and the Deccan between
750 A.D.­1000 A.D.
• The Guijara Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rastrakutas emerged al­most at the
same time.
• These three powers fought for the supremacy over Kannauj.
THE PRATIHARAS
• The Pratiharas emerged from Gurjaratra or South West Rajasthan.
• They resisted Araburincrusions from Sindh into Rajasthan.
• Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta­I.
• Pratihara power revived under Nagabhatta­II. He defeated Dharmapala near
Monghyr (Mudgir).
• Pratiharas traced their descent from Lakshamana (the solar race).
• Their capital was at Mahodaya (Kannauj).
• The real founder and the greatest king was Bhoja (836­885 A.D.).
• Bhoja is also called Mihir Bhoja. He defeated Devapala and got Kannauj back.
• Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha.
91 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 IMPORTANT PRATIHARA RULERS
Vatsaraja 773­793
Nagabhata I 793­833
Bhoja 836­885
Mahipala 908­942
THE PALAS
• The Pala empire was founded by Gopala in 750 A.D.
• Gopala was elected as the king by the notable men of the area.
• Gopala was succeeded by his son Dharmapala in 770 A.D.
• Palas established their rule in Bengal and Bihar.
• Dharmapala (770­810) was defeated by Dhruva (Rashtrakuta) and Nagabhatt
II (Pratihara).
• During Dharmapala, two brothers Indra & Chakra clashed for Kannauj.
• Dharmapala revived Nalanda University, which had been famous all over the
eastern world.
• He also founded the Vikramshila University.

IMPORTANT PALA RULERS

Gopala : 750­770 A.D.
Devapala : 810­850 A.D.
Dharmapala : 770­810 A.D.
Vigrahapala : 850­854 A.D.
THE RASHTRAKUTAS
• Founded by Dantidurga in deccan.
• Their capital was at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur (earlier
at Ellora).
• Amoghvarsha rulled for 68 years.
• Amoghvarsha wrote ‘Kavirajamarga , a book on Poetics Kannada. It was the
earliest Kannada book on poeties.
• Amoghavarsha first transferred capital from Ellora to Manyakhet or Malkhed.
• Indira III (915­927) defeated Mahipala (Pratihara) and sacked Kannauj in
915, Indra was the most powerful ruler of his time.
• Rashtrakutas imported horses from Arabia, West­Asia and cen­tral Asia.

92 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered areas, were divided
into Rashtras (provinces), Visaya and Bhukti.
• The last ruler Karka was over­thrown by Tailap, the founder of Chalukyas of
Kalyani.
• Dantidurga built the Dashavatara temple at Ellora.
• Krishna I built the Kailasa or Shiva temple at Ellora in the 9th century.
• The great Apabhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived at the Rashtrakuta
court.
IMPORTANT RASHTRAKUTA RULERS
1. Dantidurga : 753 756
2. Krishna­I : 756­773
3. Govinda­II : 773­780
4. Dhruva : 780­792
5. Govinda­II : 792­814
6. Amoghavarsha : 814­880
7. Krishna­II : 880­915
8. Indra­III : 915­927
9. Amoghavarsha : 927­930
10. Govinda­IV : 930­935
11. Amoghavarsha­II : 935­940
12. Krishna­Ill : 940­967
13. Khottiga : 967­972
14. Karka : 972­973

REGIONAL DYNASTIES
THE PARMARAS
• The Parmams ruled in the Malwa region.
• The Parmaras initially had their capital at Ujjain.
• The Parmaras later transferred their capital to Dhara.
• Vakpati Munj was the founder of the Parmara dynasty.
• Vakpati was a great patron of art and literature.
• Padmagupta, Dhananjya, graced the court of Vakpati.
• The greatest ruler of dynasty was Bhoja.
• Bhoja built the city of Bhojapur. Bhoja founded a college, Bhojshala near
Dhara.

93 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

THE GAHAD AVALS
• The Gahadaval dynasty was founded by Chandradeva.
• The capital of Gahadaval was Kannauj.
• Govindchandra conquered east Malwa.
• Govind Chandra’s minister for peace and war, Lakshmidhara wrote
Krityakalpataru.
• Jaychandra was defeated by Lakshman Sena of Bengal.
• In the Battle of Chandawar (1194 A.D.) Muhammad Ghori defeated
Jaichandra.
• Harischandra was the last ruler of Gahadaval dynasty.
THE CHAUHANS
• The Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasty emerged near Sakainbhari (Ajmer).
• The Chauhans were the feudatories of Pratihara.
• Simharaja declared independence in the middle of 10th century.
• Ajayraja founded the city of Ajaymeru (Ajmer).
• Prithviraja Chauhan ascended to the throne in 1177 A. D.
• Prithviraja Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain
(1191 A.D.).
• In the second battle of Tarain (1192 A.D.) Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraja
Chauhan.
KASHMIR
• Three dynasties Karkota, Utpala and Lohar ruled Kashmir dur­ing 800 A.D.
to 1200 A.D.
• Karkota dynasty was founded by Durlabh Vardhana.
• Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Yasovarman of Kannauj.
• Lalitaditya built the famous Sun temple at Martand.
• Utpala dynasty was founded by Avantivarman.
• Queen Didda ruled from 980 A.D. to 1003 A.D.
• Sangramraja founded the Lohara dynasty.
• King Harsha belonged to Lohara dynasty.
• Kalhana wrote ‘Rajatarangini’ in 12th century.

94 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

THE CHANDELLAS
• The Chandelas ruled in Bundelkhand.
• The dynasty was founded by Nanuka in the early years of 9th century and
his capital was Khajuraho.
• Dhanga was the first independent king of the Chandella dy­nasty and assumed
the title Maharajadhiraja.
• He was succeeded by Ganda who in turn was succeeded by Vidyadhara.
• During Vidyadhara’s reign Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Kalinjar in 1019
and again in 1022.
• In 1165 Parmardideva was de­feated by Prithviraja Chauhan.
• Qutub­ud­din Aibak defeated Parmadideva and occupied greater part of
Bundelkhand.
• Alauddin Khalji captured the whole of the kingdom.
• Temples of Khajuraho were built by Chandellas.
• The most prmoinent among the Khajuraho temples are the
• Kandariya Mahadeva, Devi Jagadamba, Parsvanatha, Lakshamana and
the Viswanatha temples.
THE SENAS
• The Senas supplanted the Palas in Bengal.
• The Senas called themselves ‘Brahma Kshatriya’.
• Vijaysena ascended the throne in 1095 A.D. and enlarged the frontiers of
senas.
• Vijayapuri and Vikrampuri were two capitals of Senas.
• Vijayasena was succeed by his son Ballalsena.
• Ballalsena established the tradi­tion of ‘Kulinism’.
• Ballalsena wrote Adbhutsagar’ and ‘Dansagar’.
• Ballalsena was succeeded by Lakshmansena.
• Bakhtiyar Khalji invaded Bengal during the reign of Lakshmansena.
• Jayadeva, Dhoyi, Halayudha adorned Lakshmansena’s court.

95 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

THE SANGAM AGE
• The word Sangam is associated with the assembly of Tamil Scholars and
Poets flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyan Kings at Madurai.
• The first Sangam was held at Madurai but its work has not survived. Its
Chairman was Agastya.
• The second Sangam was held in Kapatpuram. Its Chairman was Tolkapiyar.
• The third Sangam was held in Madurai. Its chairman was Nakkirar.
• Tolkapiyam ‘belongs to second Sangam.
• Tokapiyam is a work on grammar.
• The Sangam literature was compiled in circa A.D. 300­600.
• Thirukural of Kural by Tiruvalluvar is sometimes called the ‘fifth Veda’ or
‘Bible of the Tamil land’.
• Silpaddikaram literally The jeweled Anklet’ by Ilango Adigal is an epic, deals
with the love stories of Kovalan and Madhavi.
• Manimekhalai is written by Sattalai Sattanar, considered the ‘Odysseus of
Tamil poetry’.
• Jivaga Chintamani, a third epic by the Jaina Tiruttakadevar.
• Roman king built a temple of Augustus at Muziris.
• Murugan was the God par excellence of the Tamils, also known as
Subramaniyam.
• Yavan Priya is a Sanskrit terms for pepper.
• Muslin, gems, pearls and spices were the important export items to Rome.
• The Sangam Age was marked by three political powers. These were Pandyas,
Cholas and Cheras.
• The Chola dominion was known as Tondaimandlam.
• Karikala was the greatest Chola king.
• He constructed 160 km of embankment along the Cauvery river.
• Uraiyur was the Chola capital. Nedunjeral Adan is the first known Chera
king.
• He earned the title of Udiyanjeral.
• Senguttuvan was the greatest Chera king.
• He established the Pattini cult.

96 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

• The capital of Cheras was Vanji.
• Nedunjhelian was the most im­portant Pandya king.
• He ordered the execution of Kovalan the husband of Kannagi.
• The capital of Pandyas was Madurai.
• Megasthenes has pointed out that Pandyas were rules by a woman.
• Korkai and Saliyur were important sea ports of Pandyas.
• Earliest known Pandya king is Palyagasalai Mudukudumi.
• Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for 50 years.
• Karikala defeated the joint forces of Cheras and Pandyas.
• Captains of army were invested with the title Enadi.
• The ruling class in Sangam Age was called Arasar.
• The lowest class in society was of Kadaisiyar.
• Purananuru contain the poems of Kapilar, Awai and Kovur­ kilar.
• In Silppadikaram there is a ref­erence to Ceylonese king Gajabahu.
• Bow was the royal emblem of Cheras.
• Tiger was the royal emblem of Cholas.
• Carp/Fish was the royal emblem of Pandyas.
• In the battle of Talaiyalanganam Nedunjelian defeated Chera and Chola kings.
• Muziris was a great centre of cotton trade.
• Uraiyur was famous for pearls and muslins.
• Yavana ships used to arrive at Kaveripattinam.
• Kadamai and Kavalmaram are tutelary tree.
• ‘Yal’ was a stringed instrument like lute.
• Puliyars were the craftsmen.
• Tamil work Jivak Chintamani highlights the importance of Jaina philosophy.
• Jivak Chintamani was written by Tiruttakkadevar.

97 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 FIVE UNAIS

Area Occupation God

Forest land (Mullai) Lended cattle, sheep Mayon
Hill area (Kurinji) Hunting Seyon (Murugan)
Cultivable land (Marudam) Cultivators Vendan (Indra)
Coastal regions (Neidal) Fishing Varunan
Sandy region (Palai) Robbery Korravai.

IPanchtinai (five Inhabitants Occupation

Tamil regions/lands)
Kurinji (hilly backwoods Kurvar, Vetar Hunting, Gathering
or montane)
Palai (dryland) Eyinar, Maravar Cattle lifting, Highway
Robbery
Mullai (Pastoral land) Ayar, Idaiyar Shifting Agriculture,
Animal husbandry
Marutam (Wetland) Ulavar, Vellalar Plough Agriculture
Neital (costal) Paratavar, Valayar Fishing, Salt extraction

Important Officials in Sangam Administration

Armaichchar Minister
Purohitar Religious Affair
Dutar Envoys
Orrar Spies
Senapatiyar Cheif of Armed Forces

Social groups in Sangam Dynasty

Ulavar Agriculturists
Kuravar Shifting Agriculturists
Idaiyar Cattle holders Kallar Plunderer of cattle
Vetar Food gatherers and Hunters
Panar Wandering Balladmanger
Paratavar Fisherman
Umnar Salt producer

98 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

Sangam Literature
• The word Sangam is associated with a college or assembly of Tamil scholars
and poets flour­ished under the royal patronage of the Pandyan kings.
• The whole Sangam age is called Golden or Augustan Age. Accord­ing to Tamil
sources, the father of Tamil literature is ‘Agastya.’
table

Sangams Venue Chairman Surviving Text

1st Ten­Madurai Agastya —
2nd Kapatapuran Alvai Agastya (founder) Tolakappiyan
Tolakappiyan (Tamil Grammar)
(later chairman)
3rd North Madurai Nakkirar Ettutogati Patinenki
lakanakku, pattu­Pattu

Important Sangam Works

• Tokapiyam by Tokapiyar (Tamil Grammar).
• Tirukiinal or Kunal by Tiruvaluvar is sometimes called the ‘Fifth Veda’ or
‘Bible of the Tamil land’. It explains the doctrine of dharma, artha, kama and
moksha.
• Aggatiyar comprises grammar of letters and life, in three parts writ­ten by
saint Aggatiyar.
Epics
• Silappadikarma the jewelled anklet: by Ilango Adigal is an epic, deal­ing with
love story of Kovalan and Madhavi also called ‘llliyad’ of Tamil Poetry.
• Manimekalai is one of the two greatest epics and a sequel to Silappadikaram
written by Satallai Sattannam.
• Jivaka Chintamiui (Sivaga Sindamani) a third epic by a Jaina Tiruttakrdeva. It
has elements of Jainism.
• Bharatman written by Perudevanar.
• The land was veiy fertile with proper irrigation facilities. The chief lo­cal God
was furugan, also called as Subramaniya.

99 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir

 Revenue Terminologies
Karai Land tax
Irai Tribute paid by feudatories and body collected in war
Iravu Extra demand or forced gift Custom duties
Variyar Tax collector
Variyan A well known unit of territory yielding tax

ANCIENT INDIAN BOOKS & ITS AUTHORS

Books : Author Books : Author
Ashtadhyayi : Panini Meghduta : Kalidas
Buddhacharita : Asvaghosha Mitakshara : Vijnaneshwara
Charak Samhita : Charak Mrichhkatikam : Sudraka
Devi Chandra­ : Vishakadutta Mndra Rakshasha : Vishakhdatta
guptam Nagananda : Harshavardhana
Gita Govind : Jayadeva Natya Shashtra : Bharata
Harsha Charita : Banabhatta Nitisara : Kamandaki
Kadambari : Banabhatta Priyadarshika : Harshavardhana
Kumar Sambhava : Kalidas Ramcharita : Sandhyakara
Kumarpalcharita : Hemchandra Nandi
Mahabhashya : Patanjali Ritu Samhara : Kalidas
Mahavir Charita : Bhavabhut Sisupal Vadha : Magha
Malvikagnimitram : Kalidas Susmta Samhita : Susruta

Books : Author Books : Author

Swapna : Bhasa Uttararamcharita : Bhavabhuti
Vasavadatta Gaudvaho : Vakpati Raj
Tilakmanjari : Dhanpala Daskumarcharita : Dandin
Vikram Deva : Bilhana Vashvadatta : Subandhu
Charita Kathasaritsagar : Somdeva
Vikramourvasi : Kalidas Panchatantra : Vishnu Sharma
Manu Smriti : Manu Hitopdesha : Narayan Pandit
Arthshastra : Kautilya Kamasutra : Vatsayan
Chhanda­Sutra : Pingala Mattavilasa : Mahendra­
Buddhacharita : Ashvaghosha Prahasana varman I
Sariputra Prakarna : Ashvaghosha Nitisara : Kamandaka
Saundaranand : Ashvaghosha Dayabhaga : Jimutavahana
Sisupalvadha : Magha Nighantu : Yaska
Ratnavaii : Harshavaidhana Mitakshara : Vijneshvra
Maltimadhav : Bhavabhuti Brihat Kathamanjari : Kshemendra
Mahaviracharita : Bhavabhuti
100 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir
 FAMOUS SCHOLARS AND THEIR PATRONS

Scholar Patron Scholar Patron

Udayraja : Mahmud Begrha Dandin : Narsinghavarman
(Gujarat) (Pallava)
Hemchandra : Kumarpala Bharvi : Simhavishnu
(Chalukyas of (Pallava)
Anhilwara) Gunadhya : Hala (Satvahana)
Nagaijuna : Kanishka Mahavirachaiya : Amoghvarsha Amar
Singh : Chandragupta (Rashtrakuta)
Vikramaditya Jinasen : Amoghvarsha
Ravlkirti : Pulkesin­II (Rashtrakuta)
Vakpatiraj : Yashovarman of Sakatyayan : Amoghvarsha
Kannauj (Rashtrakuta)
Bhav Bhuti : Yashovarman of Jayadeva : Lakshman Sena
Kannauj (Bengal)
Harishena : Samudragupta Bilhan : Vikramaditya VI
Rajshekhar : Mahendrapala (Chalukyaof
and Mahipala Kalyani)
Somadeva : Prithviraja III Vijnaneshwar : Vikramaditya VI
Chandarbardai : Prithviraja III Lakshmidhar : Govind Chandra
Banabhatta : Harshavardhana Shri Harsha : Jaychand .

101 History By Ranjeet Yadav Sir