Technology Enhanced Learning for People with

Disabilities Approaches and Applications Premier

Reference Source 1st Edition Patricia Ordóñez De
Pablos pdf download
https://ebookgate.com/product/technology-enhanced-learning-for-
people-with-disabilities-approaches-and-applications-premier-
reference-source-1st-edition-patricia-ordonez-de-pablos/

Get Instant Ebook Downloads – Browse at https://ebookgate.com

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Developing and Utilizing E Learning Applications Premier

Reference Source 1st Edition Fotis Lazarinis

https://ebookgate.com/product/developing-and-utilizing-e-learning-
applications-premier-reference-source-1st-edition-fotis-lazarinis/

ebookgate.com

Digital Culture and E Tourism Technologies Applications

and Management Approaches Premier Reference Source 1st
Edition Miltiadis Lytras
https://ebookgate.com/product/digital-culture-and-e-tourism-
technologies-applications-and-management-approaches-premier-reference-
source-1st-edition-miltiadis-lytras/
ebookgate.com

Machine Learning for Human Motion Analysis Theory and

Practice Premier Reference Source 1st Edition Liang Wang

https://ebookgate.com/product/machine-learning-for-human-motion-
analysis-theory-and-practice-premier-reference-source-1st-edition-
liang-wang/
ebookgate.com

Innovations in Supply Chain Management for Information

Systems Novel Approaches Premier Reference Source 1st
Edition John Wang
https://ebookgate.com/product/innovations-in-supply-chain-management-
for-information-systems-novel-approaches-premier-reference-source-1st-
edition-john-wang/
ebookgate.com
Mobile Multimedia Communications Concepts Applications and
Challenges Premier Reference Source 1st Edition Gour
Karmakar
https://ebookgate.com/product/mobile-multimedia-communications-
concepts-applications-and-challenges-premier-reference-source-1st-
edition-gour-karmakar/
ebookgate.com

Wireless Technologies for Ambient Assisted Living and

Healthcare Systems and Applications Premier Reference
Source 1st Edition Athina Lazakidou
https://ebookgate.com/product/wireless-technologies-for-ambient-
assisted-living-and-healthcare-systems-and-applications-premier-
reference-source-1st-edition-athina-lazakidou/
ebookgate.com

Cases on Health Outcomes and Clinical Data Mining Studies

and Frameworks Premier Reference Source 1st Edition
Patricia Cerrito
https://ebookgate.com/product/cases-on-health-outcomes-and-clinical-
data-mining-studies-and-frameworks-premier-reference-source-1st-
edition-patricia-cerrito/
ebookgate.com

Person Centred Planning and Care Management with People

with Learning Disabilities Paul Cambridge

https://ebookgate.com/product/person-centred-planning-and-care-
management-with-people-with-learning-disabilities-paul-cambridge/

ebookgate.com

Symmetrical Analysis Techniques for Genetic Systems and

Bioinformatics Advanced Patterns and Applications Premier
Reference Source 1st Edition Sergey Petoukhov
https://ebookgate.com/product/symmetrical-analysis-techniques-for-
genetic-systems-and-bioinformatics-advanced-patterns-and-applications-
premier-reference-source-1st-edition-sergey-petoukhov/
ebookgate.com
Technology Enhanced
Learning for People with
Disabilities:
Approaches and Applications

Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos

University of Oviedo, Spain

Jingyuan Zhao
Harbin Institute of Technology, China

Robert Tennyson
University of Minnesota, USA

Information science reference

Hershey • New York
Director of Editorial Content: Kristin Klinger
Director of Book Publications: Julia Mosemann
Acquisitions Editor: Lindsay Johnston
Development Editor: David DeRicco
Publishing Assistant: Milan Vracarich
Typesetter: Deanna Jo Zombro
Production Editor: Jamie Snavely
Cover Design: Lisa Tosheff

Published in the United States of America by

Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.igi-global.com

Copyright © 2011 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or com-
panies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Technology enhanced learning for people with disabilities : approaches and applications / Patricia Ordonez de Pablos, Jingyuan
Zhao, and Robert Tennyson, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "This book brings together academics, policy-makers and practitioners, with the goal of delivering a reference
edition for all those interested in approaches and applications of technology enhanced learning for people with disabilities"-
-Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-61520-923-1 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-61520-924-8 (ebook) 1. Students with
disabilities--Computer-assisted instruction. 2. Computers and people with disabilities. 3. Educational technology. I. Pablos,
Patricia Ordonez de. II. Zhao, Jingyuan, 1968- III. Tennyson, Robert D.
LC4024.T43 2010
371.9'04334--dc22
2010018196

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
List of Reviewers
Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos, University of Oviedo, Spain
Robert D. Tennyson, University of Minnesota, USA
Robert L. Jorczak, University of Minnesota, USA
Jingyuan Zhao, Harbin Institute of Technologies, China
Miltiadis. D. Lytras, University of Patras, Greece
Adolfo J. Cangas, University of Almería, Spain
Anastasios Ntanos, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Ángel García-Crespo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
António Moreira, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Athanasios Drigas, Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, Greece
Belén Ruiz, Parque Científico Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Dimitris Kouremenos, Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, Greece
Diogo Casanova, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Fernanda Nogueira, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Fernando Paniagua-Martín, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Irene Samanta, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Israel González Carrasco, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Javier Jiménez, Parque Científico Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
John Vrettaros, Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, Greece
José A. Carmona, University of Almería, Spain
Jose Emilio Labra Gayo, University of Oviedo, Spain
José Luis López-Cuadrado, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
José M. Sánchez, Parque Científico Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Juan Miguel Gómez-Berbís, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Kelly Ligon, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Luis Iribarne, University of Almería, Spain
Margarida Almeida, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Michela Ott, Istituto Tecnologie Didattiche- ITD, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche –CNR, Italy
Moisés Espínola, University of Almería, Spain
Mona Pruett, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Pablo Revuelta, Parque Científico Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Panagiotis Kyriazopoulos, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Rania Christou, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Ricardo Colomo-Palacios, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Saif alZahir, University of N. British Columbia, Canada
Sharon Jones, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Susanne Croasdaile, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Tariq M Khan, Brunel University West London, UK
Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv

Chapter 1
Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities..................................................................................... 1
Robert D. Tennyson, University of Minnesota, USA
Robert L. Jorczak, University of Minnesota, USA

Chapter 2
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities: Review of Research and Practice.................. 10
Robert D. Tennyson, University of Minnesota, USA

Chapter 3
China Special Education: The Perspective of Information Technologies . ........................................... 34
Jingyuan Zhao, Harbin Institute of Technologies, China

Chapter 4
Learning Applications for Disabled People........................................................................................... 44
Athanasios Drigas, N.C.S.R. Demokritos, Greece
Dimitris Kouremenous, N.C.S.R. Demokritos, Greece
John Vrettaros, N.C.S.R. Demokritos, Greece

Chapter 5
A Paradigm in Transition: From a Teaching Focused Education to a Learning One—The ICT
Contribution to the Acquisition of Social and Individual Skills in High Education.............................. 58
Pablo Murta Baião Albino, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
Fernando González Gatica, Universidad Diego Portales, Chile
José Enrique Armendáriz-Iñigo, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
Chapter 6
Personal Learning Environments: Meeting the Special Needs of Gifted Students............................... 67
Jaime Ribeiro, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Diogo Casanova, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Fernanda Nogueira, University of Aveiro, Portugal
António Moreira, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Margarida Almeida, University of Aveiro, Portugal

Chapter 7
Automatic Speech Recognition to Enhance Learning for Disabled Students........................................ 89
Pablo Revuelta, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Javier Jiménez, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
José M. Sánchez, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Belén Ruiz, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

Chapter 8
School of the Future: E-Tools and New Pedagogies to Build Up and Inclusive Learning
Community.......................................................................................................................................... 105
Michela Otta, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy

Chapter 9
Public Information Services for People with Disabilities: An Accessible Multimedia
Platform for the Diffusion of the Digital Signature............................................................................. 121
Ángel García-Crespo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Fernando Paniagua-Martín, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
José Luis López-Cuadrado, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Israel González Carrasco, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Ricardo Colomo-Palacios, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Juan Miguel Gómez-Berbís, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

Chapter 10
Elderly People with Disabilities in the Internet Age............................................................................ 137
Panagiotis Kyriazopoulos, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Irene Samanta, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Rania Christou, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Anastasios Ntanos, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece

Chapter 11
Supports for and Barriers to Implementing Assistive Technology in Schools.................................... 154
Susanne Croasdaile, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Sharon Jones, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Kelly Ligon, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Linda Oggel, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Mona Pruett, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Chapter 12
Theory of Mind in Autistic Children: Multimedia Based Support...................................................... 167
Tariq M. Khan, Brunel University of West London, UK

Chapter 13
M-Learning: Accessibility and Limitations for People with Disabilities............................................ 180
Saif alZahir, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada

Chapter 14
Applying Virtual Reality (VR) to the Detection and Treatment of Clinical
Problems in Educational Settings........................................................................................................ 194
José A. Carmona, University of Almería, Spain
Adolfo J. Cangas, University of Almería, Spain
Luis Iribarne, University of Almería, Spain
Moisés Espínola, University of Almería, Spain

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 203

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 225

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 233
Detailed Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv

Chapter 1
Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities..................................................................................... 1
Robert D. Tennyson, University of Minnesota, USA
Robert L. Jorczak, University of Minnesota, USA

Perhaps contrary to expectations, computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), particularly

asynchronous text discussion, has characteristics that may be beneficial to learners with disabilities.
CSCL seeks to bring the benefits of classroom-based collaborative and cooperative learning to the
online environment. Collaborative and cooperative learning, and particularly its online form, CSCL, is
a learning methodology with characteristics that may mask or compensate for specific disabilities. For
example, in addition to the generally improved access offered by online learning, the slowed pace and
anonymity of asynchronous text discussion has shown to improve social interaction for learners with
communication and learning disabilities. This chapter suggests how learners with specific disabilities
may benefit from CSCL discussion in postsecondary courses.

Chapter 2
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities: Review of Research and Practice.................. 10
Robert D. Tennyson, University of Minnesota, USA

This chapter presents an argument for the employment of computers in education and the possible
improvements especially for students with disabilities. Early in the chapter questions concerning tech-
nological change are discussed in reference to research and practice. The view in disability education
is moving towards lifelong learning and the need to apply advances in both technology and research to
accomplish this goal. Employment of cognitive theories coupled with emerging technologies is hypoth-
esized to improve the paradigm shift in education from classroom-centered instruction to distributed
learning environments. Proposed is that research in cognitive psychology, especially with findings for
constructive theories can be successfully applied to disability education.

Chapter 3
China Special Education: The Perspective of Information Technologies . ........................................... 34
Jingyuan Zhao, Harbin Institute of Technologies, China
The development of information technologies should be able to benefit to every educated person. The
use of information technologies in special education is a little studied by Chinese scholars. This study
focuses on China’s special education from the perspective of information technologies, discusses the
causes and impact factors why the information technologies applications in special education in China
is a blind area, presents the two principles for information technology applications in special education,
and put forwards to three implementation models of special education applications in special education.

Chapter 4
Learning Applications for Disabled People........................................................................................... 44
Athanasios Drigas, N.C.S.R. Demokritos, Greece
Dimitris Kouremenous, N.C.S.R. Demokritos, Greece
John Vrettaros, N.C.S.R. Demokritos, Greece

The chapter presents e-learning practices and applications, which target people with visual and hearing
disabilities. The first part discusses an e-learning application, which targets visually impaired people
while the second part presents an e-learning application for the teaching of the English language to
deaf and hearing impaired people. The final part presents a study about the relationship of the deaf and
hearing impaired with new technologies in Greece. The chapter stresses the importance of the thorough
exploitation of ICTs together with e-learning technologies towards the effective improvement of edu-
cative methods for this target group. The goals are to support the distance and lifelong education and
training of the target group, to guarantee their equal access to information, knowledge, education and
employment and finally, to minimize the digital divide through the use of assistive technologies and
contemporary, easily navigable and user-friendly e-learning environments.

Chapter 5
A Paradigm in Transition: From a Teaching Focused Education to a Learning One—The ICT
Contribution to the Acquisition of Social and Individual Skills in High Education.............................. 58
Pablo Murta Baião Albino, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
Fernando González Gatica, Universidad Diego Portales, Chile
José Enrique Armendáriz-Iñigo, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain

The traditional teaching process at higher education levels has changed in the European Union since
the arrival of the “Bologna Process.” Under this new paradigm, professors are no longer the knowledge
transmitters but also guides that must encourage students to generate knowledge. Hence, it is crucial
to generate certain skills that will let them learn throughout all their lives, especially in the ability to
search information that solves a certain problem. At this point is where it comes in hand the acquisition
of ICT skills; since the learning process can surpass the physical barriers of the classroom and is an
effective tool for solving problems. In this chapter, the authors address this new change in the educa-
tional paradigm focused on the European Union and taking into account the leading role of ICT in this
learning process.
Chapter 6
Personal Learning Environments: Meeting the Special Needs of Gifted Students............................... 67
Jaime Ribeiro, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Diogo Casanova, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Fernanda Nogueira, University of Aveiro, Portugal
António Moreira, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Margarida Almeida, University of Aveiro, Portugal

Gifted Students, in spite of their very well known characteristics, have specific education needs in or-
der to achieve their potential. Although they do not present a special educational need in the common
meaning, they have very particular learning needs that, if overlooked, may lead to adverse feelings
towards school and learning that can result in academic failure. Authors in the field agree that gifted-
ness can and must be developed and providing challenging and facilitative learning environments is
the first building block. The PLE, held up by WEB 2.0, for its openness and possibilities it offers to
learn autonomously, resorting to exploration, discovery, networking with like-minded peers and experts
fits the style and pace of learning of its user and shows to be a tool to fully suite the particular traits of
these students. In this chapter a 5 dimension PLE is conceptualized that accommodates the cognitive,
emotional and education needs of gifted students.

Chapter 7
Automatic Speech Recognition to Enhance Learning for Disabled Students........................................ 89
Pablo Revuelta, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Javier Jiménez, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
José M. Sánchez, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Belén Ruiz, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

This chapter introduces the potential of Automatic Speech Recognition Technology (ASR) in the chal-
lenge of inclusive education. ASR technology combined with Information and Communication Tech-
nology (ICT) enhances the learning of disabled people both in and outside the classroom. In the class-
room, deaf and hearing-impaired students can benefit from a real-time transcription of what the teacher
is saying. Also, a real-time transcription facilitates note taking for students with visual or physical dis-
abilities. Outside the classroom, transcription and other media files (audio, slides, video, etc.) are pow-
erful educational resources for all students, disabled or able-bodied. Some of most relevant projects and
systems around the world are described and compared in this chapter to provide updated information
about ASR technology performance and its application to enhancing the learning of disabled students.

Chapter 8
School of the Future: E-Tools and New Pedagogies to Build Up and Inclusive Learning
Community.......................................................................................................................................... 105
Michela Otta, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy

This chapter tackles the issue of e-inclusion in the field of school education. A picture of the new mil-
lennium learning panorama is outlined where new learners, new teachers, new tools and new pedago-
gies are around. Some experience –based reflections are also proposed on how, from this panorama,
new learning opportunities may arise for “all” learners, irrespective of their individual differences and
specific characteristics. The overall purpose of the chapter is to give an idea that the building up of a
genuinely inclusive classroom is an achievable goal, provided that strong efforts are devoted not only
in the direction of producing/using fully accessible e-tools but also (perhaps mainly) in the direction of
making the most of them in order to suit the “different” needs of the “different” students.

Chapter 9
Public Information Services for People with Disabilities: An Accessible Multimedia
Platform for the Diffusion of the Digital Signature............................................................................. 121
Ángel García-Crespo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Fernando Paniagua-Martín, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
José Luis López-Cuadrado, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Israel González Carrasco, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Ricardo Colomo-Palacios, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Juan Miguel Gómez-Berbís, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

The current chapter introduces an accessible multimedia platform applied to the diffusion of the digital
signature. The project presented in this chapter is a multimedia initiative to promote the use of infor-
mation technology (IT), specifically, the digital signature. Through the modeling of typical daily situa-
tions, the platform provides simple responses to any uncertainties or concerns a user may hold about the
digital signature, and the advantages which its use entails. The multimedia system has been designed to
support subtitling and audio description facilities, with the objective of enabling access to the diffusion
of e-government to persons with an auditory or visual disability. The results of the evaluation of the
platform by test users of the system are positive, and have initiated the continuation of developments
which encourage e-inclusion.

Chapter 10
Elderly People with Disabilities in the Internet Age............................................................................ 137
Panagiotis Kyriazopoulos, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Irene Samanta, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Rania Christou, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece
Anastasios Ntanos, Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus, Greece

The purpose of this research is to explore behaviour regarding the use of the internet by elderly people
with movement disabilities. The study illustrates the ways, and the frequency, that they make use of
the internet; while identifying the attitudes of non-users towards the internet. Quantitative research was
carried out from a sample of 180 questionnaires divided into dyads (ninety users of the internet and
ninety non-users) in order to explore and evaluate the attitudes and views of the elderly. The findings
identify the factors that motivate older individuals with disabilities to move towards making use of the
internet, and allow an understanding of the reasons why some of them are still distrustful towards the
internet.
Chapter 11
Supports for and Barriers to Implementing Assistive Technology in Schools.................................... 154
Susanne Croasdaile, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Sharon Jones, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Kelly Ligon, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Linda Oggel, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Mona Pruett, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

This chapter examines practitioners’ perceptions of the factors impacting the implementation of as-
sistive technology (AT) for students with disabilities in five public school divisions. The Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act requires Individualized Education Program (IEP) teams to consider the
need for assistive technology (AT) for every student with a disability. In order for AT consideration to
be effective, IEP team members need to be informed about AT and able to make appropriate decisions
for their students. Interview data indicated that barriers to the implementation of AT include lack of
stakeholder buy-in, especially in the area of administrative support. Important supports include the
development and maintenance of relationships with instructional staff and technology coordinators.
The ongoing need to build stakeholder awareness of and skill in implementing assistive technology
was a common theme. Participants perceived that, if empowered to do so, an AT facilitation team can
overcome existing barriers to implementation.

Chapter 12
Theory of Mind in Autistic Children: Multimedia Based Support...................................................... 167
Tariq M. Khan, Brunel University of West London, UK

The chapter examines how multimedia learning systems and analogical reasoning could be used to help
autistic children cope with the demands of reasoning abstractly and to develop their Theory of Mind.
Learners with autism have problems reasoning about other’s mental states and beliefs, which has been
coined Theory of Mind. The specially developed systems proved beneficial for the autistic children,
which highlights the potential benefits that a multimedia system can have as a learning tool for Theory
of Mind. However, there is some doubt over the usefulness of interactivity for learning beyond its en-
hancement of enjoyment and sense of participation. It is intended that the results will stimulate a reas-
sessment of current multimedia theories as they relate to non-typically developing learners, and provide
new directions for research in the area of support for children with ASD.

Chapter 13
M-Learning: Accessibility and Limitations for People with Disabilities............................................ 180
Saif alZahir, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada

This chapter presents technology enhanced learning for people with disabilities. At first, the author
scans the phases of learning progression and propose a learning model to represent their interrelation-
ships. Then the author explains the various types of disabilities within the learning reference of context
and map available technologies to their corresponding learning disabilities. A special emphasis will be
exerted on mobile-learning software, hardware, and systems that meet the requirements for learners
with disabilities. In this research, the author finds that although m-learning has several limitations and
shortcomings to deliver to users, it is a promising learning technology for people with disabilities and
its technological constraint and limitations are likely to be addressed and mostly eliminated in the near
future.

Chapter 14
Applying Virtual Reality (VR) to the Detection and Treatment of Clinical
Problems in Educational Settings........................................................................................................ 194
José A. Carmona, University of Almería, Spain
Adolfo J. Cangas, University of Almería, Spain
Luis Iribarne, University of Almería, Spain
Moisés Espínola, University of Almería, Spain

In recent years, thanks in part to advances in computer technology, there has been a renewed interest in
using Virtual Reality (VR) to improve the traditional intervention procedures used in educational and
clinical settings. A growing number of researcher teams, and three-dimensional (3D) simulations, are
oriented toward the detection and treatment of school-related problems such as violence in the class-
room, hyperactivity, eating disorders, and drug abuse. The chapter highlights the major advantages of
using VR in clinical assessment and intervention programs.

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 203

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 225

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 233
xiv

Preface

One of the most meaningful application domains of technology enhanced learning (TEL) is related to
the adoption of information technologies (IT) and designs for people with disabilities. Much research
and development effort has been directed towards technology enhanced learning for people with dis-
abilities, assistive learning technologies, and public information services in terms of learning activities,
learning resources, and learning supports. Technology enhanced learning in special education projects
is developing websites, instructional modules, and resources that are accessible to teachers, parents, and
consumers. The emerging assistive learning technologies and innovations for people with disabilities are
attracting significant coverage from society. This book brings together policy makers, government officers,
academics, and practitioners to deliver a reference edition for all those interested in approaches and ap-
plications of technology enhanced learning for people with disabilities. Our goal is to foster conditions
conducive to promoting the development of technology enhanced learning for people with disabilities.

Objective of the Book

This book provides relevant theoretical frameworks and contemporary empirical research findings in the
area of TEL applications for people with disabilities. It is written for professionals who want to improve
their understanding of the strategic role of trust at different levels of the information and knowledge so-
ciety; that is, trust at the level of the global economy, of networks and organizations, of teams and work
groups, of information systems and, finally, trust at the level of individuals as actors in the networked
environments. The book has a clear editing strategy:

• To be a reference for all those interested in the strategic role of TEL in helping people with dis-
abilities: The main emphasis is on practical aspects.
• To be a reference for all those (policy makers, government officers, academics, and practitioners)
interested in understanding how TEL can help people with disabilities.
• To become a reference edition for people thirsty for knowledge on theoretical and practical ap-
plications of Information Technology to improve the life and work of people with disabilities.

The book aims to be the leading source of information for all those interested in understanding how
TEL can help because it promotes scientific discussion of the needs of people with disabilities and how
IT enhanced activities and programs can help disabled people in their daily activities. Furthermore, this
book demonstrates the capacity of information technology and management for the mutual understand-
ing, prosperity and well being of people.
 xv

Target Audience

• Politicians
• Professors in academia
• Policymakers
• Government officers
• Students
• Corporate heads of firms
• Senior general managers
• Managing directors
• Board directors
• Academics and researchers in the field both in universities and business schools
• Information technology directors and managers
• Quality managers and directors
• Human resource directors
• Libraries and information centres serving the needs of the above.

Patricia Ordoñez de Pablos

Robert D. Tennyson
Jingyuan Zhao
March 2010
 1

Chapter 1
Benefits of CSCL for
Learners with Disabilities
Robert D. Tennyson
University of Minnesota, USA

Robert L. Jorczak
University of Minnesota, USA

ABsTRACT
Perhaps contrary to expectations, computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), particularly
asynchronous text discussion, has characteristics that may be beneficial to learners with disabilities.
CSCL seeks to bring the benefits of classroom-based collaborative and cooperative learning to the on-
line environment. Collaborative and cooperative learning, and particularly its online form, CSCL, is a
learning methodology with characteristics that may mask or compensate for specific disabilities. For
example, in addition to the generally improved access offered by online learning, the slowed pace and
anonymity of asynchronous text discussion has shown to improve social interaction for learners with
communication and learning disabilities. This chapter suggests how learners with specific disabilities
may benefit from CSCL discussion in postsecondary courses.

INTRODUCTION cooperative learning to the online environment.

CSCL is frequently employed in online training
Computer-supported collaborative learning and postsecondary education, but the techniques
(CSCL) is the use of networked computers to of CSCL may be increasingly applied to other
deliver collaborative learning activities. Col- educational levels in the future.
laborative learning methods involve increased Collaborative and cooperative learning results
student participation and exploration in learning from a theoretical learning perspective asserting
activities, including reliance on peer-to-peer in- that students sharing their understanding provide
teraction for learning. CSCL seeks to bring the opportunities for individual students to increase
benefits of classroom-based collaborative and their knowledge and also that conflict among stu-
dents’ ideas and knowledge provide a stimulus for
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-923-1.ch001 increased knowledge. A body of research shows

Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

that collaborative learning activities can foster the characteristics of online environments may
shared understanding and retention of learned present better learning opportunities for learners
material (Johnson & Johnson, 1994; Johnson, with specific disabilities than traditional classroom
Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon, 1981; collaboration. Online collaborative environments
Slavin, 1987, 1992; Yeager, Johnson & Johnson, may also present some unique problems for learn-
1985). Other research asserts that collaborative ers with specific disabilities.
learning methods can promote higher-order Cook and Gladhart (2002) posit that learning
learning such as critical thinking (e.g., Anderson, via the Internet has analogues of most instructional
Howe, Soden, Halliday & Lowe, 2001; Gokhale, methods used in higher education classrooms.
1995; Meyer, 2003; Webb, 1989). CSCL often Online instruction thus has few or no pedagogic
uses online peer-to-peer discussion to support limitations compared to classroom instruction,
achievement of higher-order learning objectives. except that the instructor or facilitator is not
Hammond (2005) surveyed online discussion physically present. The physical absence of an
studies and found several that cite evidence of instructor places an additional burden on online
higher-order knowledge construction and learning instruction to provide clear class procedures to
advantages of group discussion. students. Cook and Gladhart (2002) assert that
Supporters of online learning generally assert such additional guidance is especially important
that online learning provides increased access to for students with learning disabilities, who then
postsecondary education for students with disabili- have more difficulty generalizing information
ties, but there is minimal research on if and how than other students.
online learning environments affect postsecond-
ary students (Kinash, Crichton & Kim-Rupnow,
2004). Schenker and Scadden (2002) suggest that ADAPTIVE AND AssIsTIVE
the research on educational technology and the TECHNOLOGY FOR
disabled tends to focus on accessibility, but that COMPUTER UsE
pedagogy and instructional design may also affect
disabled students. Schenker and Scadden (2002) The first factor to be considered in examining
further suggest that assessing the effects of instruc- CSCL for learners with disabilities is their ability
tional approaches is more difficult and therefore to use computers access to the World Wide Web
has been the subject of less research. Collabora- of the Internet. For some learners with disabilities,
tive and cooperative learning, and particularly its adaptive technology is required to enable Internet
online form, CSCL, is a learning methodology use. For example, learners with visual disabilities
with characteristics that in some ways mask or may require “screen reader” software that uses syn-
compensate for specific disabilities. Confirming thetic speech to read text on computer screens. (See
research of these characteristics, however, is not Cook and Gladhart [2002] for a list of examples
yet available, so at this time we speak mainly of of such assistive hardware and software.) This
potential benefits of CSCL characteristics. discussion will not address the various technolo-
CSCL provides opportunities for students to gies that provide Internet access to learners with
interact with other students so they can practice disabilities, but rather will focus on how CSCL
and improve their social skills and experience can benefit such learners once they have Internet
group dynamics (Tennyson, 2005). This charac- access and can use a computer to participate in
teristic may be particularly useful to students with typical CSCL learning activities. In general,
disabilities that limit access to social interaction. technology is available that enables learners with
While collaboration is beneficial to all students, disabilities to take postsecondary classes online

2
Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

that they could otherwise take only with great ef- learning in a classroom often involves communi-
fort (for example, see this Internet article: http:// cating verbally with members of a small group in
www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/2000/05- real time. Collaborative learning is highly inter-
22ecollege.mspx). While discussion of technology active and relies on student learning from fellow
intended to ease computer use by learners with students. The classroom environment for col-
disabilities is beyond the scope of this chapter, this laboration places additional burdens on students
problem should not be overlooked. Online courses who have difficulty moving about the classroom,
have some characteristics that can inhibit use by getting situated for small group discussion, and
students with specific disabilities (see for example, communicating via speech. Online discussion, in
the Carnevale, 2005 article: http://chronicle.com/ contrast to classroom collaborative learning, can
free/v51/i49/49a03301.htm). be done from students’ own households or from
any location that provides Internet access and
supports asynchronous written communication.
IMPROVED ACCEss TO
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTs
EQUITY IN PARTICIPATION
Online learning in general provides easy access to
various learning environments, and often provides Equity in online collaborative learning activi-
much improved access for learners will physical ties means the potential for students to equally
disabilities. Transportation to a classroom, sup- contribute to and benefit from activities such as
port for various physical disabilities, and issues discussion. Equitable discussions are balanced in
of technology support of communication often terms of contributions from group members, and
are non-issues once the learner is able to use a students’ contributions are treated with impartial-
computer to access online learning on the Internet ity. Such discussions provide students with both
and to communicate with the instructor and fellow the ability to fully express themselves and the
students. For courses that are offered totally on the ability to be fully heard. Also, equitable discus-
Internet, learners typically interact only through sion would be impartial in judging the merits of
their computer display and keyboard and, if dis- presented information, ideas, and opinions.
cussion is asynchronous (not real time), students Most CSCL environments use asynchronous
communicate at the time (and speed) of their own text-only discussion, which improve discussion
choosing. (For detailed descriptions of asynchro- equity for all students. Unlike face-to-face oral
nous discussion, see Lapadat, 2002.) For adult discussion, no learner can dominate an asynchro-
students with severe physical disabilities, online nous conversation by taking up a disproportionate
distributed learning may be the only practical or amount of the time allotted for discussion. With
economical means for students to access a wide asynchronous discussion, all learners can say as
variety of higher education and postsecondary much as they want, and lengthy comments do not
courses and may also be the only feasible means to lessen the time for other learners to participate.
access courses employing collaborative learning. Learners’ speaking and social skills have less effect
Improved access (provided the learner has the on the discussion. Because most online discussion
requisite access technology) is a feature of all for learning is exclusively by text, learners who
online learning, not just collaborative learning. are disadvantaged in their ability to speak or to
Collaborative learning, however, is in particular hear and comprehend oral communication are less
made much more accessible to learners with some disadvantaged when communicating via text in
disabilities by being offered online. Collaborative CSCL activities.

3
 Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

Physical disabilities can affect learners’ ability they will be less likely to be inhibited in reacting to
to fully participate in face-to-face discussions, as students with disabilities and less likely to adjust
learners with such disabilities may have difficulty their expectations of those students.
speaking quickly or intelligibly, or to use various When collaborative activities rely on written
nonverbal communication cues. These issues are communication, physical and perceptual dis-
not present when asynchronous discussion is used abilities that affect typing can put learners at a
to support collaboration, so students with such disadvantage in synchronous (real time) discussion
disabilities can fully contribute their ideas to the (i.e., “chat”). With synchronous text-only commu-
discussion. Asynchronous, text-only small group nication, a learner must be able to type quickly to
discussion clearly has the potential to mitigate equally contribute to the fast-moving discussion.
problems experienced by students with certain Synchronous discussion among several learners
communication disorders. Students with hearing can be confusing to learners without disabilities, as
and speaking disabilities, for example, are not dis- learners struggle to conduct multiple conversations
advantaged in asynchronous text-only discussion at the same time. Real time discussion can be an
because communication is not aural and occurs at even greater problem for learners with physical
a pace comfortable to all participants. or communication disabilities, or learners who
CSCL allows learners to engage in discussion are easily distracted (Cook & Gladhard, 2002).
“without a voice and without a face” (Schenker When discussion is asynchronous, learners have
& Scadden, 2002, p. 3) which provides increased as much time as they need to read and process
anonymity that may allow learners to express messages from other learners. Learners with typing
themselves more openly (Schenker & Scadden, handicaps are not disadvantaged in terms of their
2002). With online text-only discussion, the ability to fully contribute to the discussion because
probability of feeling stigmatized is lessened as they have ample time to produce their messages.
students often never see each other and may be When discussion is asynchronous, even learners
unaware of a student’s disability unless that stu- who type more slowly can equally participate in
dent mentions their disability. In typical CSCL the discussion.
discussions, students with disabilities are less Collaborative learning small group discus-
likely to be discomforted or frustrated by their sions can increase apprehension of learners with
disability; other students are often not aware of disabilities because they may have encountered
such disabilities because students do not hear difficulty with social interaction in the past;
or see their peers and written contributions are particularly if learners have an obvious learning
indistinguishable. disability or if their disability involves difficulty
When other group members are aware of an with communication or social interaction. Such
individual student’s disability, they may react by apprehension can cause these learners to minimize
lessening or limiting their interaction for fear of their participation in discussion, preventing full
inadvertently offending the individual. They may participation. In face-to-face discussion, group
also unconsciously lower their expectations of members may feel inhibited from fully responding
students with observable disabilities. The online to learners with physical disabilities or obvious
collaborative environment provides more control communication or learning disabilities. Thus,
and choice to students with disabilities. In most the learner with the disability is deprived a fully
CSCL environments, the student can choose if and developed discussion (which may involve conflict
when to reveal a disability, likely reducing their of ideas and perspective) that is required for the
anxiety of interacting with classmates. If other interaction to support peer-to-peer learning.
group members are unaware of those disabilities,

4
Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

In general, CSCL asynchronous discussion has in some cases shame and embarrassment. Such
the potential to provide more equitable peer-to- feelings are likely to hinder both communication
peer discussions for learning. For students with and the resultant learning when participating in
physical, communication, and other disabilities, collaborative learning.
asynchronous text-only communication provides Asynchronous CSCL discussion tends to slow
increased anonymity, which works against stereo- the pace of communication, providing more time
typing and assumptions about other students. This for students to think about and react to ideas and
increased impartiality of online discussion may information (Meyer, 2003; Garrison et al., 2000),
be particularly true for students with observable thereby lessening the pressure for students to per-
disabilities. form in discussion. The reflective time of slower
written communication along with the more con-
scious and careful organization of written online
IssUEs AND POTENTIAL BENEFITs communication may ease the need for continuous
OF CsCL FOR sTUDENTs WITH and deep attention, and may also remove the social
LEARNING DIsABILITIEs pressure of face-to-face synchronous discus-
sion. The slower pace of asynchronous written
A learning disability hinders a person’s ability discussion provides students with more time to
to interpret what they sense or to integrate in- cognitively process new information present in
formation activating various parts of their brain the discussion (Andriessen et al., 2003; Lapadat,
(Neuwirth, 1993). Students with learning disabili- 2002). This extra time available to process infor-
ties may have difficulty using spoken or written mation when responding to asynchronous written
language. Learning disorders may also affect a messages deepens the level of students’ processing
student’s ability to focus attention. Difficulties and students’ potential to extract meaning using
with spoken and written language are of particular online dialog (Lapadat, 2002). Students with at-
concern because of the reliance of collaborative tention problems will likely feel less frustration
learning on communication, especially peer-to- with the discussion because discussions progress at
peer communication. Difficulties with speaking, a slower and user-determined rate. Learners with
listening, reading or writing are likely to diminish problems involving attention or organization are
the effectiveness of collaborative learning. CSCL, also less likely to adversely affect other learners
being an online learning environment that relies in an online environment because the learner with
heavily on text communication, is therefore most disability any frustration with communication is
sensitive to difficulties with written language. less likely to be observed.
While many learning disabilities are devel- While learners with speaking disorders and
opmental, some continue into adulthood. For ADD may benefit from the slower, written discus-
example, hyperactivity associated with attention sion pace of CSCL environments, learners with
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) gener- dyslexia—a difficulty with written language,
ally subsides in adolescence, but problems with particularly with reading and spelling (Moody,
maintaining attention can continue into adult- 2000)—are disadvantaged in CSCL text-only dis-
hood (NIMH, 1993). Adults with ADHD tend cussion environments, particularly synchronous
to have difficulty in organizing and completing text discussion in which written responses must
tasks (NIMH, 1993). Many people with ADHD, be quickly processed and generated. Dyslexic
Asperger syndrome, and dyslexia are highly intel- learners must be given additional support to ensure
ligent, but the difficulties they experience when that they benefit from online written discussion,
trying to process information cause frustration and but effective ways of supporting learners with

5
 Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

dyslexia are not clear. Further research is required with other, emotionally involved people. Increased
to identify means of addressing the problem of social presence may be reassuring to some students
dyslexic CSCL learners, but additional help (from and enable them to better understand and interact
the instructor and other members of the group) is with other students.
very likely to be required for these students. The The difficulty of computer-mediated communi-
use of graphical representations and additional dis- cation in establishing the level and quality of social
cussion scripting (detailed instructions and models and emotional interaction present in face-to-face
guiding discussion) may also prove helpful. collaborative learning environments raises ques-
tions about how text-only discussion might affect
learners with social interaction disabilities, such
sOCIO-EMOTIONAL MEDIATION as social anxiety disorders or Asperger syndrome.
Some learners may require the full spectrum of
Despite the ability of text-only CSCL discussion social communication cues found in face-to-
to support cognitive processes required for deep face discussion to communicate effectively in a
learning, some theorists assert that text-only collaborative learning environment discussion.
computer-mediated discussion is lacking in socio- These learners would be at a disadvantage in
emotional content and that content is necessary CSCL text-only discussions. Learners who have
for optimal learning. For example, Kreijns et al. difficulty processing and interpreting social and
(2003) state that “…research on group learning emotional cues of oral conversation, or who find
shows that asynchronous distributed learning social interactions intimidating or threatening,
groups utilizing computer supported collabora- however, may prefer the mediated communication
tive learning environments often lack the social of text-only asynchronous environments in which
interaction needed for these dialogs” (p. 335). such cues are not present and their interpretation
Classroom collaborative-dialog learning ac- is not required to fully understand what a group
tivities use face-to-face oral communication, a member is saying. Learners with Asperger syn-
medium rich in non-verbal cues that carry much of drome tend to have difficulty reading nonverbal
the social and emotional content of the discussion cues and may be annoyed by stimuli that do not
(Garrison et al, 2003; Kreijns et al, 2003). Such bother other students and is therefore the behavior
communication is carried visually (e.g., through of the student with Asperger’s syndrome misin-
facial expression and body language), audibly terpreted by other students (Kirby, 2005). The
(e.g., with voice inflection), or via other senses. communication mediation of text-only discussion
Because text-only computer-based communica- is therefore a benefit for smooth and productive
tion does not include these sensory modes, much integration of students with Asperger syndrome
of the social and emotional content of face-to-face into group discussions.
discussion is either lost or must be communi- Learners with social anxiety disorder have
cated via text (e.g., with emoticons). Mallen et a chronic fear of being judged by others and of
al. (2003) found that participants in face-to-face being embarrassed by their actions. Students with
dialog reported greater satisfaction and levels of this type of disability may also benefit from the
“closeness” than those in online text-only dialogs. relative anonymity of online discussion. The ad-
The loss of much of the socio-emotional content ditional time to compose messages of asynchro-
of discussion in computer-mediated communica- nous discussion also may work to lessen students’
tion (CMC) might result in less social presence anxiety. Agoraphobia, for example, is an anxiety
(Garrison et al, 2003; Kreijns et al., 2003, Mallen, disorder in which a person feels extreme fear
et al., 2003) a feeling that one is communicating when there is no easy means of exit or escape and

6
Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

tends to avoid pubic or unfamiliar places. Students discourse about a topic, a changing attitudes and
with this disorder may only be able to take part beliefs, and co-construction of new knowledge
in collaborative learning via online offerings. In when they achieve a compromise of divergent
general, students who are uncomfortable with views. When disabilities are known to other stu-
social interaction of traditional classrooms may dents, they may initially be reluctant to engage
prefer an online environment and perform better in conceptual conflict and argumentation with
in one (Cook, 2002). those students with disabilities. Thus, students
who already may have additional problems in
taking part in collaborative learning may also be
sUMMARY AND CONCLUsION deprived of aspects of collaborative interaction
that are necessary to obtain the full benefits of
Because of the more controlled and thoughtful collaborative learning.
socio-emotional communication of asynchro- Aspects of CSCL, and particularly of asynchro-
nous CSCL text discussion, all students may feel nous online discussion, are beneficial to students
more secure and consequently reveal more of with several types of disabilities. The slowed
themselves than in face-to-face discussion. Such pace of discussion and the lessening of socio-
comfort and self-disclosure may be an essential emotional content in CSCL discussions seems
aspect of peer-to-peer discussion for learning to have benefits for students with several types
(Rourke et al. (1999). Optimal learning via on- of disabilities, while having potential problems
line discussion requires that discussion include for students who find it difficult to communicate
diverse ideas and opinions (e.g., Jorczak, 2008). through writing. Empirical research is required to
In addition, the preexisting ideas and opinions understand exactly which disabilities are lessened
of learners must be challenged enough so that or exacerbated by characteristics of CSCL environ-
students experience conceptual conflict (Johnson ments, but there are several good reasons to expect
& Johnson, 1979; Lowery & Johnson, 1981). It that the online collaborative learning environment
is more likely that such conflict will occur and is superior to traditional classroom environments
be accepted as positive if students feel secure, for students with specific disabilities.
trust their group members and do not overreact to
criticism or contrary opinions. Overreaction is less
likely to occur if students have time to consider REFERENCEs
their discussion contributions and those of their
classmates. Overreaction is also less likely to oc- Anderson, T., Howe, C., Soden, R., Halliday,
cur if socio-emotional messages are reduced in J., & Low, J. (2006). Peer interaction and the
number, less spontaneous, and not delivered via learning of critical thinking skills in further edu-
non-verbal cues. cation students. Instructional Science, 29, 1–32.
Students with physical, communication, and doi:10.1023/A:1026471702353
learning disabilities may need the more mediated Andriessen, J. (2006). Collaboration in computer
and considered discussion that is possible with conferencing . In O’Donnell, A. M., Hmelo-Silver,
asynchronous text-only discussion because they C. E., & Erkens, G. (Eds.), Collaborative learn-
have greater insecurities associated with social ing, reasoning, and technology (pp. 197–232).
interaction, particularly in public settings and with Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
strangers. Andriessen, Baker, and Suthers (2003)
suggest that students learn from argumentation in
collaborative discussion by having more coherent

7
 Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

Andriessen, J., Baker, M. J., & Suthers, D. Jorczak, R. L. (2008). The effects of task char-
(2003). Argumentation, computer support, and acteristics on higher-order learning in online
the educational context of confronting cognitions collaborative learning. Unpublished doctoral
. In Andriessen, J., Baker, M. J., & Suthers, D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minne-
(Eds.), Arguing to learn: Confronting cognitions apolis, MN.
in computer-supported collaborative learning
Kinash, S., Crichton, S., & Kim-Rupnow, W. S.
environments (pp. 1–25). Amsterdam: Kluwer.
(2004). A review of 2000-2003 literature at the
Cook, R. A., & Gladhard, M. A. (2002). A survey intersection of online learning and disability.
of online instructional issues and strategies for American Journal of Distance Education, 18(1),
postsecondary students with learning disabilities. 5–19. doi:10.1207/s15389286ajde1801_2
Information Technology and Disabilities, 8(1).
King, A. (2007). Scripting collaborative learning
Retrieved on August 1, 2009 from http://people.
processes: A cognitive perspective. In F. Fischer, I.
rit.edu/easi/itd/itdv08n1/gladhart.htm
Kollar. H. Mandl & J. M. Haake (Eds.), Scripting
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). computer-supported collaborative learning (pp.
Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: 13-38). New York: Springer.
computer conferencing in higher education. The
Kirby, B. L. (2005). What is Asperger syndrome?
Internet and Higher Education, 2, 1–19.
Online Asperger syndrome information and sup-
Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative learning port site. Retrieved on December 12, 2008 from
enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology http://www.udel.edu/bkirby/asperger/aswhatisit.
Education, 7(1). html.
Hammond, M. (2005). A review of recent papers Lapadat, J. C. (2002). Written interaction: A
on online discussion in teaching and learning in key component in online learning. Journal of
higher education. Journal of Asynchronous Learn- Computer-Mediated Communication, 7(4).
ing Networks, 9(3).
Lowery, N., & Johnson, D. W. (1981). Effects of
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1979). Con- controversy on epistemic curiosity, achievement,
flict in the classroom: Controversy and learning. and attitudes. The Journal of Social Psychology,
Review of Educational Research, 49(1), 51–69. 115(1), 31–43.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1994). An Meyer, K. A. (2003). Face-to-face versus threaded
overview of cooperative learning. In J. Thousand, discussions: The role of time and higher-order
A. Villa & A. Nevin (Eds.), Creativity and col- thinking. Journal of Asynchronous Learning
laborative learning. Baltimore: Brookes Press. Networks, 7(3). Retrieved January 22, 2009, from
Retrieved January 27, 2008, from http://www. http://www.aln.org/publications/jaln/v7n3/pdf/
co-operation.org/pages/overviewpaper.html v7n3_meyer.pdf
Johnson, D. W., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R., Nel- Moody, S. (2000). Dyslexia—a psychotherapist’s
son, D., & Skon, L. (1981). Effects of cooperative, guide. The Dyslexia Online Journal. Retrieved
competitive, and individual goal structures on December 12, 2008, from http://www.dyslexia-
achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bul- adults.com/therapy.html
letin, 89, 47–62. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.89.1.47

8
Benefits of CSCL for Learners with Disabilities

Neuwirth, S. (1993). Learning disabilities. Re- Slavin, R. E. (1992). When and why does coopera-
trieved December 8, 2008, from http://www.kid- tive learning increase achievement? Theoretical
source.com/kidsource/content/learningdis.html and empirical perspectives . In Hertz-Lazarowitz,
R., & Miller, N. (Eds.), Interaction in cooperative
NIMH. (1996). Attention deficit hyperactivity
groups (pp. 145–173). New York: Cambridge
disorder. National Institute of Mental Health.
University Press.
Retrieved December 8, 2008, from http://www.
himh.nih.gov/health/publications/adhd/nimhad- Tennyson, R. D. (2005). Using glass box simula-
hdpub.pdf tions to accelerate and extend knowledge transfer.
System Dynamics Review, 21, 243–267.
Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. R., &
Archer, W. (1999). Assessing social presence in Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning
asynchronous text-based computer conferencing. in small groups. International Journal of Educa-
Journal of Distance Education, 14(3), 51–70. tional Research, 13, 21–39. doi:10.1016/0883-
0355(89)90014-1
Schenker, K. T., & Scadden, L. A. (2002). The
design of accessible distance education environ- Yeager, S., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T.
ments that use collaborative learning. Information (1985). Oral discussion, group-to-individual
Technology and Disabilities, 8(1). transfer, and achievement in cooperative learning
groups. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1),
Slavin, R. E. (1987). Developmental and motiva-
60–66. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.77.1.60
tion perspectives on cooperative learning: A rec-
onciliation. Child Development, 58, 1161–1167.
doi:10.2307/1130612

9
10

Chapter 2
Computer Interventions for
Children with Disabilities:
Review of Research and Practice
Robert D. Tennyson
University of Minnesota, USA

ABsTRACT
This chapter presents an argument for the employment of computers in education and the possible
improvements especially for students with disabilities. Early in the chapter questions concerning tech-
nological change are discussed in reference to research and practice. The view in disability education
is moving towards lifelong learning and the need to apply advances in both technology and research to
accomplish this goal. Employment of cognitive theories coupled with emerging technologies is hypoth-
esized to improve the paradigm shift in education from classroom centered instruction to distributed
learning environments. Proposed is that research in cognitive psychology, especially with findings for
constructive theories can be successfully applied to disability education.

INTRODUCTION obtain an Excel database of River Watch monitor-

ing results from the MPCA (Minnesota Pollution
Visualize, if you will, two tenth grade students Control Agency). From that data they decide to
with learning disabilities that are actively involved focus on the topic “Acid Rain.” Their data are the
in the study of toxins in the St. Louis River of raised pH levels collected at all sites over a four
Minnesota (USA). They have spent a week in year period. They obtain computerized details on
the library using the computerized catalog and Acid Rain from the MPCA and then search the
the CD ROM periodicals index with full text Internet for other schools with similar interests.
to locate information from which to propose a The home page of a southern Minnesota school
hypothesis for their investigation, “The Cause involved with deformed frog research has some
of Water Pollution of The St. Louis River.” They links to information sources. They also find more
Acid Rain background material on the Green Net,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-923-1.ch002 the River Net, and GLIN (Great Lakes Information

Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

Net). From these sources, they download pictures The existing knowledge base related to com-
and text, and proceed to construct a storyboard puters in the state of Minnesota will be explored
multimedia presentation, using PowerPoint. This thoroughly in the next pages, as Minnesota has
presentation will be the final summary (qualitative been in the forefront of the adoption of comput-
and quantitative) of their processes and efforts. As ers in education: Starting with mainframe access
part of their learning activities, they will also ana- across Minnesota in the 1970’s, followed by lo-
lyze the actual water quality by taking samplings cal MECC (Minnesota Educational Computing
at the Indian Point site on the St. Louis River of Consortium) site coordinators and microcomputer
Minnesota, and will compare those findings with efforts in the 1980’s, and recently consummating
the established criteria from the MPCA on river with the legislative funded technology site testing
based toxins. The most interesting thing about this and the Internet explorations of the 2000’s.
whole scenario is that these students are in a special Technological change is driving both the
education science class at the high school level. computer industry and education at a frenetic
pace, while at the same time; schools worldwide
are striving to find the most educationally sound
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE applications for the newly emerging computer
(Is TECHNOLOGY OUTPACING technologies. We will also explore the driving
EDUCATIONAL CHANGE?) mechanisms of computer use in educational
institutions of many kinds (public, private, and
The above scenario is typical of one technologi- distributed) by looking at how miniaturization,
cally mature approach to using computers on a networking, artificial intelligence, and business
daily basis in one class at the Duluth Central High initiatives are driving the change process. At
School in Duluth, Minnesota. Computers have the close of this chapter, we to describe some of
been used for instruction in schools for over 35 the emerging knowledge base issues supporting
years in Minnesota, with some real successes and computer interventions with children.
some definite concerns that we will explore in
detail in this chapter. Miniaturization of computer
chips in the 1970’s has provided education with a REsEARCH AND PRACTICE
powerful technological tool--the microcomputer. (CAN REsEARCH IMPROVE
But, the concern is that the educational micro- EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE?)
computer does not come with directions as to
its appropriate use! Educational theory and the Schools around the world have married the com-
resulting research will be explored as a possible puter for better or worse, with wedding expenses
diviner of instructions for how computers should in the multiple billion dollar range. Meta-research
be used to support instructional interventions for indicates that computers can improve instruction,
school children with disabilities. The 1990’s and so the investment has not gone to waste (O’Neil
2000’s paradigm shifts in research from scientific & Perez, 2008). Properly designed computer
reductionism to holistic social constructivism (Ly- instruction is equal to or more effective that tra-
tras & Tennyson, 2008) and in practice from 20th ditional large group or small group instruction
Century industrialism to today’s post-industrial (Tennyson & Breuer, 2003). The research results
information society, will be used to explain the build an incomplete picture but they suggest that
complex and interrelated issues of using computers certain hardware and software employed with
for instructional interventions in special education. particular populations under competent teachers

11
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

can meet instructional objectives. Students who significant to all. Examples were given of the
use a computer improve their spelling, sentence few research projects that had resulted in com-
memory, listening comprehension, vocabulary, mercial successes such as the reading program,
and reading comprehension (literacy) skills more Reader Rabbit, and the problem solving experi-
than those who do not (Breuer, Molkenthin, & ences, Jasper Woodbury, but most did not. NCIP
Tennyson, 2008). participant discussions came to be directed at the
A critical question still persists, though, because large amount of research that was funded and
of the large amount of school computer hardware completed that was not possible to put into prac-
and software presently in use: Is the software and tice. Much of computer research is focused on a
hardware used in education based on successful narrow segment of education (e. g., eighth grade
research that can lead to improvement in school small group computer instruction) that would be
practice or are teachers just going through another difficult to replicate at another site or that is so
educational fad--driven by the media hype of the theoretical in nature (e.g., the artificial intelligence
“information revolution?” Schools cannot stop visual recognition research) that it is not possible
the worldwide computer revolution and ongoing to convert it to a practical educational end prod-
technological change but they can willfully build uct. Researchers defended their specific research
computers into education in ways that are most agenda’s that were tightly linked to theory, which
efficient and effective based on sound research have suffered from shortages of research dollars in
linked to educational theory (Tennyson, 2005b). recent years. Practitioners positioned themselves
as overworked and underfunded but with a clear
need to utilize the power of technology and the
NATIONAL CENTER FOR microcomputer to improve educational interven-
IMPROVEMENT OF PRACTICE tions with children.
The NCIP has since 2004, provided a valued
In 2004, the National Center for the Improvement service to both researchers and practitioners by (a)
of Practice (NCIP), collected testimony on the selecting specific research projects that can most
problems associated with operationalizing com- easily be operationalized into practice through
puter theory and research into educational practice. their funding and development programs, (b)
On one side of the table sat the university profes- developing video vignettes of viable computer
sors with a clear research agenda based on solid practices, and (c) providing an Internet site to
theory, and on the other side sat the practitioners continue the dialog on the issues surrounding the
who were the college, high school, or primary conversion of research to practice. The NCIP has
school educators. This was one of the few times brought our attention to the need for careful analy-
that these two groups had come together to focus sis of computer based interventions with children
on the holistic issue--how to move from theory and the need for sound research that can be put
based research to the practical classroom imple- into practice. The important question is: “How can
mentation of computer based instruction. Most theory and research lead to improved educational
practitioners and researchers present recognized practice in a time of decreasing budget and ever
that there was a significant problem in moving increasing speed of technological change?”
from closely structured theory based research to The researcher and the practitioner may have
the complexity of the real classroom to seek a common ground where the student can
Many NCIP conference sessions and discus- benefit or the future of computer based education
sions were held because the problem of moving may default to the software sales people interested
research into practice appeared to be real and in monetary returns instead of educational results.

12
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

COMPLEXITY (CAN EDUCATION scriptions (Tennyson, 2005a). The complexity

DEAL WITH THE LARGE of the computer-human interface is an added
NUMBER OF VARIABLEs?) complication to the myriad of variables in the
instructional setting, which all combine to form
The educational classroom application of com- a complex environment.
puter interventions for children with disabilities
is a very complex task. Cognitive factor research
has isolated a large number of abilities that have REsERACH (WHAT DO WE KNOW
been studied related to schools and education ABOUT REsEARCH ON COMPUTER
(i.e., verbal, spatial, perceptual speed, and visual BAsED INsTRUCTION?)
memory). The number of educational research
variables that have been investigated individu- Researchers have seen fit to study most of these
ally is well over thousands and includes variables 100+ variables in basically a laboratory envi-
such as: ronment in order to control for intervening and
confounding effects during the investigations.
Abstract reasoning, achievement, aptitude, at- Based on the NCIP meetings, the very control of
titude, behavior, calculations, cognitive style, independent variables that leads to quality research
cooperative learning, deductive reasoning, diffi- does not seem to allow for easy replication in
culty, discovery, educability, encoding, experience, the real world of multicultural schools with their
failure, feedback, forgetting, general intelligence, myriad of social problems, diversity of students,
genotype, goal-directed, grouping, growth, health, and multiplicity of extraneous variables. Schools
heredity, imagery, individual difference, interest, each have their own unique mix of variables that
instructor, instruction, judgment, knowledge base, make implementation in actual school environ-
language, latency, listening, memory, mental age, ments so difficult.
metacognition, motor, observation, organization, Meta-Analysis. Research that looks at a
parenting, past performance, personality, problem number of studies, meta-analysis, can give us a
solving, recognition, reflection, rehearsal, self- broader view of the impact of educational research
regulation, sex differences, social class, spatial, completed in the last several decades. The 2006
strategy, teaching style, test anxiety, time-on-task, meta-analysis of 254 computer based instruction
trainability, transfer, underachievement, values, (CBI) studies since the 1980’s (Tennyson, 2006)
verbal, whole brain, working memory, zone of came to the conclusion that CBI usually produces
proximal development, etc. positive instructional effects on students. Tenny-
son found that CBI raised the average final exam
The complexity of implementing an instruc- scores from the 50th to the 62nd percentile (.30
tional program is obvious to those instructional standard deviations) in the typical study. This
designers attempting to utilize computers for seems to match a previous study (Suppes, 1979)
educational improvement, and is one of the that found a .31 standard deviation increase and
major roadblocks to the operationalization of also matches other studies that show CBI at least
research into classroom practice. There is a need as effective as live teaching and it may also result
to rigorously match the relevant research findings in savings of instructional time. The detailed meta-
to student’s individual needs. We need to plan analysis findings give us some insight as to what
for computer intervention, by linking cognitive may be relevant to computer implementation,
theory and research to specific appropriate pre- these include the following:

13
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

1. Effectiveness: CBI used in a four week greater fluidity, and classes finished whole
or less time period improved performance units of study far more quickly than in past
by .42 standard deviations over traditional years.
instruction taught in a traditional classroom. 2. Collaboration: Researchers found that in-
2. Teaching: Instructors had a significant effect stead of isolating students, access to technol-
on instructional outcomes, which addresses ogy actually encouraged them to collaborate
the issue of the human interface and social more than traditional classrooms. Instead
interaction. Good instructors are necessary. of technology becoming boring with use,
3. Software: Microcomputers are more effec- technology was even more interesting.
tive because of the growing sophistication 3. Competencies: Students wrote more and
of the available software. better when they had access to computers.
4. Efficiency: CBI took only 2/3 the time of Students in computer supported classrooms
conventional instruction, but taught as well. did almost twice as much writing as students
5. Attitudes: CBI improves students’ attitudes in other classes. Students explored and
towards instruction, the content, and towards represented information dynamically and
the instructor of the class. in many forms, became socially aware and
more confident, communicated effectively
about complex processes, used technology
PRACTICE: (WHAT DO WE routinely and appropriately, became inde-
KNOW ABOUT IMPLEMENTING pendent learners and self starters, knew their
COMPUTER INsTRUCTION?) areas of expertise and shared that expertise
spontaneously, worked well collaboratively,
At the NCIP meetings, college, high school, and developed a positive orientation to the
and primary school teachers bemoaned the low future.
quality of available software and the lack of
solid research and evaluation support for these
interventions. Only since the late 1990s has the sUMMARY
computer hardware/software industry provided
the multimedia products that are making data At this point I can unequivocally say that research
access via computer such a powerful tool for and practice on computer instruction shows
educators. Yet, many titles are nothing more than positive results. The microcomputer is effective
computerized books such as encyclopedias, with in delivering classroom instruction, does im-
no research to support their use. prove student attitudes about instruction, and is
Some of the findings from the long term effects efficient in delivering instruction in a third less
of using computers in the classroom are as follows: time. Contemporary microcomputer software is an
improvement over the past, and the instructional
1. Performance: Scores on both mathematics skills of the teacher are a significant factor in the
and English were higher than control groups. success or failure of any use of computers for
Keyboard skills averaged 39 WPM com- instructional interventions for children. Students
pared to the control groups of 18 WPM. Test seem to do better academically than in the tradi-
scores indicated that students were perform- tional classroom, and feel good about the use of
ing well and some were clearly performing technology in education.
better. Students wrote more effectively, with

14
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

PARADIGM sHIFTs IN learning, authentic tasks, and allowing the learner

EDUCATIONAL REsEARCH flexible time in order to achieve success. This is
AND PRACTICE quite a change from the existing paradigm where
the learner is expected to sit down, be quiet, and
Educational paradigms are the theories and models do what they are told by the authoritarian teacher
that underlay the research and practice of computer (Tennyson, 2005b).
based instruction. In educational theory there have The rate of change in our post-industrial soci-
been a number of paradigm shifts over the years, ety is increasing and many feel that technology is
from the behaviorist to the cognitive to the con- leaving education behind. Scientific knowledge
structivist. Educational systems should and usually is doubling at an increasing rate, while schools
do reflect the underlying cultural beliefs, values, have generally not changed at anywhere near the
and ethics of a given society (Banathy, 1987). rate required to disseminate that knowledge. We
Yet, education has been severely criticized in the can see this trend most clearly in the sciences
last 25 years because of its inability to change where the amount of new knowledge is doubling
and meet the needs of the changing multicultural yearly. Many schools are still teaching science
society of the world. in the same laboratory manner that we all grew
Businesses and industries that count on the up with, even though the capabilities exist for
schools to provide them with young minds have the school laboratory to move out into the real
been increasingly critical of public education. world. For example, with a lap-top computer and
The ongoing criticisms of education suggest the proper probes placed in real rivers, science
that classroom educational experiences that are labs can analyze water acidity directly. Schools
grounded in the industrial age of the last century can move from the older analysis of laboratory
are outmoded and do not meet the needs of an experiments to the construction of answers to real
information based society (Lytras, Tennyson, & problems; problems that have social and cultural
Ordonez de Pablos, 2009). Business corporations relevance to students, their lives, and their future.
have had to undergo large restructuring to keep up
with the information driven demands. Business
expects that schools also have to change from COMPUTERs, REsERACH,
the industrial paradigm of large groups and mass AND THE PARADIGM sHIFT
production, to a customized education utilizing
technology. Education needs to focus on learning The use of the computer is compatible with the
and diversity to be realistic in the multicultural paradigm shift that is taking place today in psy-
world, in place of the conformity of large class chology and education. Educators are moving
instruction and sorting of individuals. from schools based on a 19th century industrial
Moving the educational paradigm to a learn- model to a more post-industrial information based
ing focus requires a shift from the teacher focus approach to lifelong learning. Researchers appear
of the past. Some of the recommendations are to be moving from the old reductionist view of the
to focus on construction in place of instruction study of small pieces of instruction in isolation, to
so that learners can build their own knowledge a more holistic view of dealing with the complexi-
as opposed to being fed information by the sub- ties of the educational experience. Past educational
ject matter expert. This new type of educational research has used a reductionist paradigm that
paradigm requires a shift of instruction to active studied computer education by breaking down the

15
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

computer relevant psychological phenomena into Is THE EXIsTINTG REsEARCH

their discrete parts for study. This has allowed for FLAWED? (Is TYPE I
well controlled studies of specific phenomena, but ERROR PREsENT?)
has the ecological limitation of not representing
the real educational experience in an authentic Part of the motivation for a paradigm shift is
way. Once the phenomena has been broken down likely caused by the media researchers that have
to the constituent parts such as the graphics and been highly critical of the past media research.
text components, these parts no longer resemble They hold the position that there are no unique
accurately the real-life instructional phenomena effects from media like television, the computer,
of interest. This lack of ecological realism due to and CD Rom because of type I error--the research
research reductionism, could explain the difficulty error of finding significance where none exists.
in taking the significant results of a research ef- An example of type I error is where the research
fort and operationalizing them in the classroom. shows that the ADAM CD Rom significantly
The positive aspect of this new paradigm is improves medical instruction when the improved
that there is a significant research movement un- efficiency of instruction may be totally due to
derway to change from studying decontextualized better teachers, better planning, or the increased
processes, to the study of computer based interven- content of the CD Rom.
tions in the context of the real classroom (O’Neil Many media studies have that have shown
& Perez, 2008). There is a move in research to educational gains have utilized a regular classroom
eliminate the reductionist nature of educational group for comparison purposes. These comparison
research and to move to the positioning of the groups have been taught by regular teachers who
research in the broader social and environmental taught the usual load of classes and had minimal
context that impacts the practice of computer time for course preparation (Clark, 1994). When
based education. The psychological theory that taking the average time to prepare one hour of
supports this research appears to be moving to CD instruction at about 228 hours (Barron &
a more holistic and social view of the learning Orwig, 1995), it is likely that the argument of
experience. It is starting to consider the whole type I error with respect to the preparation time
ecology of instruction when designing a research is realistic. The CD project usually hires the best
study. The concern is for ecological validity by teacher they can find to do the presentation, with
looking to wholes, the processes, and networks. that teacher assigned to just the CD project until
The shift in computer based instructional re- it is completed--which is not at all comparable
search is away from looking at what behavioral to the regular classroom setting. Yes, type I error
effects are present to what both internal mental can surely be present!
states and external environment variables affect Type I error may be a blessing in disguise, to
the computer human interface. Since the paradigm the overworked regular classroom teacher. The
shift to the convergence of the cognitive viewpoint, traditional teacher receives the benefit of the
the Piagetian constructivist viewpoint, and the improved teacher, increased preparation time,
social constructionist viewpoint—educational and other benefits of the media effort for the
research and practice have started to look at the price of a single CD Rom. Having the CD Rom
realistic ecologically of computer based instruc- deliver more content than the traditional teacher
tion during lifelong learning. may be type I error to the researcher, but to the
traditional teacher and student they are benefits of

16
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

the media. It means more learning! The selection position that external behavior is the only valid
of the best teacher for the CD Rom may also be a consideration in scientific experimental inquiry.
type I error, but to the computer using teacher it Following in these traditions, the more known
means improving a portion of their course. The of the Russian physiologist, Pavlov (1849-1936)
ADAM CD is a good example of a type I error, tested the hypothesis that certain reflexes could
and also an example of how the effects of media be conditioned. Of interest in the development
can make a difference in the medical curriculum. of behavioral psychology is that in his work in
That is, students are learning better and learning glandular secretions and motor movement, Pavlov
more (Barron & Orwig, 1995). initially included reference to mental states in his
research with animals but in his later writings
excluded such references, resulting in a purely
EXIsTING KNOWLEDGE objective stance. Most influential to American
BAsE: EDUCATIONAL behaviorism was his research resulting in classical
COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY or Pavlovian conditioning, the process in which an
initially neutral stimulus, called the conditioned
The knowledge base that a person has about stimulus, is repeatedly paired with a reinforcer
computer technology is all important in the un- or unconditioned stimulus, replacing the initial
derstanding of that technology. The knowledge response, referred to as the unconditioned response
base is the scaffolding that supports all future with a conditioned response.
learning. What we presently know in terms of Applying these concepts in America, Watson
declarative, procedural, and contextual knowledge (1878-1958) purposely intended to establish a
about computers in education is a foundation from new school of psychology in America, one that
which can be built better instructional designs. was to apply a purely objective and experimental
Declarative knowledge is the stable facts that rep- approach to the study of behavior, both animal and
resent “what” is to be known about computers in human. Rejecting the teachings of the American
education. Procedural knowledge is the processes functionalist school which included concepts of
and sequential knowledge that is the “how” of introspection, Watson suggested that the goal of
computer use. Contextual knowledge is the ecol- psychology was to predict and control behavior,
ogy and context in which the computer is used. thus discarding all reference to consciousness.
Watson was particularly influenced by the work
of Thorndike (1874-1949), whose work advanced
BEHAVIORAL PARDIGM (DO the development of comparative (animals as sub-
ANIMALs AND HUMANs jects) psychology that culminated in his theories
LEARN THE sAME WAY?) of trial and error learning. Reflecting on these
advances, Watson applied the method of observa-
Experimental research by Russian physiologists tion to comparative psychology in his work on fear
provided much of the foundations for behavioral responses using children and animals. Although
psychology. Sechenov (1829-1905), known as pragmatic in practice, Watson’s behaviorism was
the father of Russian physiology, suggested that foundational to the work of neo-behaviorists who
experimental approaches used in physiology were further advanced behaviorism to its position of
also applicable to psychology. He is also noted dominance in American psychology.
for his work in showing the role that reflexes and Beginning in the 1930s and progressing into
learning play in behavior. Bechterev (1857-1927) the 1960s was a second phase of behaviorism
credited for developing reflexology, advanced the known as neo-behaviorism. Proponents advocated

17
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

explanatory systems and encouraged increased the increasingly powerful microcomputer, these
precision through common methods and terminol- teaching machines became quite sophisticated
ogy. Applying postulates from both molarism and tools for industrial and military instruction by
Gestalt theory, Tolman (1866-1959) introduced the the late 1970s. However, they never caught on
concept of purposive behaviorism that utilized a in the K-12 schools because of initial high costs
systematic treatment of the data in his research and because they dealt with only the lowest level
in learning and cognitive complexity based on of declarative knowledge.
studies done with animals and mazes. Utilizing a Behavioral Software. Much of the initial soft-
more theoretical than empirical approach, Guthrie ware that was developed for mainframe computers
(1886-1959) established contiguous conditioning and later converted to microcomputers was based
based on an instrumental conditioning model that on the behavioral paradigm (Enkenberg, 1995).
suggested that learning occurs through the pair- For example, the software developed for the Apple
ing of a stimulus and a response, with reinforce- IIe was primarily of a drill and practice nature; like
ment not necessary for learning to occur. Hull Math Drill, that gave the student a math problem
(1884-1952) applied concepts of mathematics to and had the student select the correct answer in
learning resulting in his mathematico-deductive a multiple choice format. Reinforcement was in
theory of learning based on classical condition- the form of a word reward like “correct;” sound
ing emphasizing habit strength and drive. Hull’s and animation were added later as the rewards
theory was quite complex and usually stated in for correct responses. However, students found
mathematical formulations. The most famous of the short games that were part of these first math
the neo-behaviorists was Skinner (1904-1990), drills, such as the first Number Munchers, to be
developer of operant conditioning and its sched- more captivating than the drill software. This is
ules of reinforcement. Skinner proposed that if the same time period that Packman became a best
the occurrence of an operant or emitted response selling game, and which can still be found on
is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, the rate most small computer systems today. The Muncher
of responding will increase. Skinner’s theory of programs in the Apple system have since become
operant conditioning has been of vital influence to a standard instructional strategy for many subjects.
instructional development, particularly in the areas The goal of the muncher is to only eat the correct
of learning, cognition, and artificial intelligence. answers, thus providing a reward.
The application of the behavioral paradigm in Additional software for Apple based appli-
education was promoted by the use of teaching cations have been developed by teachers using
machines in the 1960’s and 1970’s. Behavior- the computer programming language BASIC
ist’s treated the computer experience as a black (Beginners All purpose System of Instructions
box, where input and output functions were the of Computers?). BASIC allowed easy construc-
observable behavioral responses of the student. tion of text and number based drill and practice
The computer managed teaching machine was a programs. BASIC is an interpreted language that
black box, where an individual student could press does not run as fast as a compiled language (e.g.,
a button to indicate which answer was correct-- Cobal or FORTRAN), but it was available for use
and then receive immediate reinforcement. An with most microcomputers by the 1980’s.
example of teaching machines during this era was Weaknesses of Behavioral Paradigm in
a closed loop filmstrip that the computer would CBI. The weakness of the behavioral position
stop so that an answer could be selected from for CBI design was the structured approach of the
the choices given. With the management control small, incremental steps followed by randomly
provided by a mainframe computer and later with presented rewards. Humans are capable of going

18
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

beyond the simple behavioral strategy of learning COGNITIVE PARADIGM (CAN

by reinforcement; they can learn by modifying WE UNDERsTAND WHAT
their actions through the cognitive process of GOEs ON IN THE MIND?)
mental reflection--a processes largely ignored
by the behaviorist. There are some powerful ex- Contemporary cognitive theories of learning are
amples of drill and practice software like the SAT having a similar effect on current instructional
Preparation materials and the latest versions of design for computer applications in education as
Math Munchers, but these employ the stimulus- the behavioral theories had on the earlier applica-
response-reinforcement instructional design tions (Tennyson, 2005a). The concern of cognitive
strategy. They all have the common attributes of theories with knowledge structures, metacognitive
restricting the user to a low level of declarative strategies for problem-solving, and integration
knowledge learning. of new and existing knowledge structures by the
learner is leading to a number of instructional
design changes, including: development of a
sPECIAL EDUCATION new theoretical basis for design of learning en-
vironments intended to facilitate exploration and
The field of special education has benefited by the reinforce context (e.g., computer “microworlds”
ongoing use of the behavioral paradigm because and hypertext); significant expansion of the role
there is a real need for drill and practice and low- of learner control coupled with an enriched dialog
level software where reduced mental capability is between the learner and the learning environment
individually diagnosed. These software programs in order to support individual learner differences,
that were developed in the late 1970’s and early facilitate integration and enhance motivation
1980’s serve a valuable function for students that (e.g., the “coach” technique in intelligent tuto-
are grades below their age-appropriate devel- rial systems); and a redefinition of the structural
opmental level and for those students that need requirements for simulations and games.
to have a large number of repetitions. Similar In outlining the history of cognitive psychol-
programs have been developed to assist in tasks ogy, Tennyson and Elmore (1997) write that
like teaching the street signs and their meanings cognitive psychology grew out of a history of
to the low functioning students. behaviorism (e.g., Skinner) and psychoanalysis
The microcomputer has also been useful in (e.g., Freud). These two approaches focused on
special education for monitoring actual behavior the individual; additionally, the measurement
in the classroom through data recording methods tools developed in cognitive psychology have
and in providing school psychologists with tools also been focused on the learner. To the extent that
for test administration and analysis. An example special education teachers and school psychologist
of the former is the Mpls. Record that allows the understand the learner, they can develop more ef-
observer to record actual student behaviors as fective instruction, but cognitive psychology has
they happen on a portable microcomputer. An not been primarily concerned with that. Effective
example of the latter is the Behavior Evaluation instruction is an implementation of the research
Scale program that allows immediate access to findings. That is, experimental psychologists
behavior assessment data and results. conducting basic research in human learning have
not traditionally been responsible for diffusion
and dissemination of their findings into the fields
of education.

19
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

That this attitude is changing somewhat, is the internal. External information enters the cognitive
ideal exemplified by Ausubel, Novak, and Hane- system through the standard sensory mechanisms
sian (1978), where they emphasize a stronger rela- while internal information is constructed as a
tionship between theories of learning and theories result of the output/input relationship between
of teaching, suggesting they are interdependent the three system components. External behavior
and not mutually exclusive. An adequate theory is exhibited through the output of the sensory
of learning is essential to a theory of teaching receptors component.
because it is unproductive to experiment with Sensory Receptors Component. External
varying teaching methods without some basis in information enters and behavior exits the cognitive
learning theory (Tennyson, 1990). Discovering the system through the sensory receptors. Basically,
most effective teaching methods is dependent on these sensory receptors are the learner’s ears (au-
knowing the status of the learner and the variables ditory) and eyes (visual). The information in this
that affect learning. register decays rapidly and is easily interrupted.
Computers have enabled cognitive science External stimuli include those aspects of instruc-
theorists to analyze the learning process in new tional design referred to as delivery systems; such
ways, and much of the work in cognitive theory as, text materials, visuals, audio sources, graphics,
has been done by those familiar with computers illustrations, drawings, etc.).
(O’Neil & Perez, 2008). Computer programs and Perception Component. Information com-
system flowcharting have made it possible to ing from the external receptors or from internal
simulate cognitive procedures and mental models knowledge sources passes through the perception
such as student problem solving methods. Breuer component which performs the functions of be-
et al. (2008) point out that while mental models ing aware of and evaluating the potential value
which children use have been identified, they are and worth of that information and knowledge
rarely taught. Children invent them; because all respectively. The perception component can be
mental models may be different, children may be viewed as a filtering device for the cognitive
giving the same answers but using entirely dif- system. Overtime, the perception component
ferent methods, some more or less effective and performs this filtering task in an autonomous or
efficient than others, to arrive at their conclusions. subconscious matter; all within a short time period
Rather than focusing on the answers provided by 0.5 – 2.0 seconds.
students (basically the methodology paradigm of Short-Term (Working) Memory Compo-
behaviorism), cognitive methodology focuses on nent. There is considerable debate as to the divi-
the mental procedure being used (the cognitive sions or architecture of memory, but in a broad
model); the outcome is information that may sense, the exact details are not important to the
allow transforming a learning theory into an instructional implications of the various theo-
instructional theory. ries. In general, there is agreement that memory
A primary application of computer techniques comes in two forms, a store for previously learned
in describing learning has been the development information and a store for information which
of information processing (IP) models. The basic are currently being processed. This latter form,
components of the IP model of learning include short-term (working) memory, is defined with
the following components: sensory receptors, these salient aspects: (a) it is limited in storage
perception, short-term (working) memory, and capacity and time (approximately 20 seconds); (b)
long-term memory. Contemporary IP models, items in working memory are subject to manipula-
unlike the behavioral models, have two primary tions such as rehearsal, comparison, or matching
sources of knowledge acquisition: external and and reordering by the processes that operate in

20
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

short-term memory; and, (c) items are selected for sis/synthesis process. Recent AI based models of
inclusion in short-term memory either by some neural functions allow the computer to see edge
consciously active process or by automatic action detail in modeling vision systems, and to pick up
of well developed processes in such activities as an egg with a sensitive feedback system similar
reading, processing of verbal discourse, imagery to the human neurological system.
evoking processes, etc. The 1996 well publicized chess match between
Long-Term Memory Component. The ac- Big Blue (a mainframe chess software program
quisition of knowledge and the means to employ developed by IBM and associates) and a world-
knowledge occur within the storage and retrieval class chess master is an excellent example of AI.
subsystems of the long-term memory component. It was a close contest, till the human adapted
Within the storage subsystem information is his playing style to take advantage of the rigid
encoded into the knowledge base according to rules that the computer was using in its game.
various representations (i.e., declarative and pro- The human still won the chess match, but by the
cedural knowledge), while the retrieval subsystem narrowest margin ever. This may foreshadow the
uses cognitive abilities to employ knowledge (i.e., future progress possible in mental modeling by
differentiation and integration). computer software design.
The storage subsystem is where coded knowl- Intelligent Tutor Systems. The need for
edge is assimilated into a learner’s existing knowl- individual diagnoses and prescription has been
edge base. A knowledge base can be described as present for years in American schools and has been
an associative network of concepts (or schemas) given added impetus through the individualizing
which varies per individual according to amount, capabilities of the microcomputer. Intelligent tutor
organization, and accessibility of its knowledge. systems (ITS) software design methodology pro-
Amount refers to the actual volume of knowledge vides a level of intelligence adequate to measure
coded in memory, while organization implies the student achievement level, and to prescribe the
structural connections and associations of that appropriate remediation to facilitate the student’s
knowledge, and accessibility referring to the mastery of instructional content. For those students
processes used in servicing the knowledge base. that lack the self-regulation capability to make
The latter two forms of knowledge are those that accurate instructional decisions, an ITS can be
separate an expert from the novice. That is, a large designed to provide a depth of instruction to match
amount of knowledge is not the key to expert student needs and performance level.
performance, but rather the ability to both find An example of a basic ITS tutor for mathemat-
and employ knowledge appropriately. ics is the BUGGY program that was built using
Artificial Intelligence. The mind can be the detailed analysis of mathematical mistakes
viewed as similar to a computer (e.g., the IP made by students and how to correct them. More
model), and vice versa—the computer can be than 232 bugs (mistakes) in the subtraction of two
modeled after our developing understanding of and three digit numbers can be remediated by
the human mind. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a the computer-based tutor. The tutor is designed
field in computer science that has been working to respond intelligently to the bugs, or mistakes,
on efforts to model mental processes since the that are made and to remediate specific problems.
middle 1960’s, and has some reasonable success. Another ITS is the MAIS system that can re-
AI is based on computer logic where the computer spond accurately to a student’s past performance
is taught a number of rules that it adheres to, in and offer at the moment adaptive instruction. The
order to make decisions at each step in the analy- main decision making process for the MAIS is

21
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

provided through the use of Bayesian statistics CONsTRUCTIVIsM PARADIGM

(Tennyson, 1994). Bayesian statistic utilizes the (Is THE LOCUs OF LEARNING
probability of prior success combined with the PRIMARILY IN THE MIND?)
probability of present success, to predict when the
student has had enough instruction on a particular The constructivism paradigm appears to be moving
topic to achieve the learning goal desired. This to a dominant position in educational technology
type of intelligent tutor overcomes the limitations research today. In direct contrast to the behavioral
of the novice in making accurate judgments about paradigm, constructivism holds that the learner
when to go on to the next section, based on suc- uses their existing mental structures to form or
cessfully learning the present material. construct a new idea or problem and knowledge.
Instructional Learning Systems. The cogni- For example, the Piagetian model states that this
tive approach to learning research has resulted in understanding is accomplished through a process
a number of attempts to develop comprehensive of fitting the new information into the existing
instructional learning systems (ILS); for example, knowledge structure (assimilation) and/or by
the WICAT system. WICAT, as implemented in revising the existing knowledge structure (accom-
Minnesota K - 8 programs, is a large program to modation). Restructuring of existing knowledge
deliver the major curricular content of a school. It structures is the central focus of the constructivist
has a track record of success in providing instruc- thinking, with the educational process changed to
tion at a level equal to or better than conventional match this model. The constructivist emphasis
instruction, with a rather substantial initial invest- since 1930s has held that the child from the young-
ment that is recovered over the years of its use. est age is a seeker after the goal of making sense
While WICAT lacks much in individual flexibility of the world around them through the process of
and creativity, it does deliver English, Mathemat- constructing better and always more complicated
ics, and other curricular subjects to a reasonable mental models of what they perceive as reality.
level of quality, in place of or in cooperation with Once the neurological growth is well along in the
the traditional teacher. womb, the unborn child begins to hear the sounds
Weaknesses of Cognitive Paradigm. The of the mother and the world around them. Touch
weaknesses of the cognitive paradigm include the also is active in the unborn infant as they have
assumption that the computer and human mind already started to explore the limits of their world
are similar--when in fact they may be two totally by pushing, moving, and touching the limits of
unrelated systems serving similar functions, and their environment.
that what goes on in the mind of the learner is of Furthermore, constructivists emphasize the
highest importance to instruction--when in reality role of social interactions (e.g., student to student,
the lack of a breakfast may be a much more im- teacher to student, student to media) as influencing
portant environmental concern than any cognitive what students’ learner. Educational constructivists
memory function. The ability of research to deal differ in the degree to which they ascribe knowl-
with the multiple variables that are involved with edge construction to the student. On one hand,
education goes far beyond the limitations of the certain constructivists view mental models as re-
cognitive paradigm. The investigations of situated flective of external realities, whereas, on the other
cognition that emphasize the contextual aspects hand, some constructivists see no independent
of the cognitive experience are a recent attempt reality external to the mental model of the indi-
to consider the ecology of education along with vidual. However, for educational purposes, most
the cognitive and behavioral aspects. constructivists agree on the following attributes

22
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

of instructional design for a learning environment: sentation, collecting the information from diverse
(a) that students are active in constructing their sources, and matching still pictures or live video
own knowledge and (b) that social interactions to the text content. The final multimedia product
are important to knowledge construction. can become part of a student’s portfolio, and is
The Logo computer language is a good ex- a unique example of the constructivism process.
ample of both the positive and negative aspects The student has to reorganize new information
of the constructivism paradigm as it is applied to and integrate it into their thinking process through
education. Researchers at MIT developed logo the use of technology.
in the early 1970’s, as a way that young children Weaknesses of the Constructivism Para-
could construct mathematical meaning by creat- digm. The weakness of the constructivism position
ing drawings on a computer (Papert, 1980, 1990). is that it deals with only one aspect of computer
Logo has the student write a program to direct an instructional interaction—those interactions that
imaginary or actual turtle to draw pictures. Typing are going on from the viewpoint of the individual
the words that were their titles, and could also be constructing meaning from the exchange of infor-
combined into larger pictures by combining the mation. The teacher is considered to be a resource
Logo words in different ways would run these to the instruction, but in many cases the teacher
pictures. Logo allows the young child to construct has to become the major information source—not
pictures for words and then to creatively com- just a guide. From a social perspective, the teacher
bine those pictures to draw even more complex is pictured as a required mediator of knowledge,
pictures. Research testing the basic constructs of when in fact there may be a number of mentor
Logo has shown some gains in specific cognitive situations to consider. From the social constructiv-
skills such as mathematical problem solving but ist viewpoint, the teacher is needed to mediate the
not in general transferable skills. Logo is, and knowledge and to serve as a mentor and scaffolding
remains a good example of the constructivism assistant to the developing learner, but in reality
paradigm in action. these functions may be accomplished by other
The multimedia tools such as Linkway Live means (programmed instruction, help screens,
for PCs and HyperStudio for Apple computers, intelligent tutors, etc.). The expectation that the
allow the student to construct meaning during novice learner can make accurate judgments on
the multimedia writing experience. HyperStudio their learning may also have its limitations.
allows the integration of text, still pictures, sound,
video, and animation on a page. The student plans
a presentation using a storyboard to show graphics CsI sYsTEM DEsIGN (WHERE DO
in miniature and a script next to each graphic. Then, WE GO NOW WITH TECHNOLOGY?)
the final graphics are constructed on a card (page)
using the integrated paint program. Pictures can be The use of computer technology in all areas of
imported directly as paint files and placed on the education has expanded immensely since the
background, or they can be imported as graphic 1960s. Compared to other educational media,
objects on any level in the foreground. The use of computer technology offers several advantages
multiple levels like in a computer aided drafting within an educational environment for students
(CAD) program, allow graphic objects to overlay with disabilities. The interactive capabilities of
each other, and also to be animated where they pass computer supported instruction (CSI) are attractive
in-front-of and behind other objects. The student to learners as it allows the individual to become an
has to construct information by planning a pre- active partner in the learning process resulting in

23
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

increased interest and motivation. Furthermore, in- communication lines, “down-time” and batch-
struction and testing can be individualized to meet oriented processing often failed to meet the needs
the needs of the individual learner and students of students in a timely manner (Suppes, 1979).
can self-pace and manage themselves according In the later 1970s the development of mi-
to their specific rate of learning. The flexibility crocomputers had a major impact on the CSI
offered by CSI makes it an invaluable tool for movement. By using a microcomputer to deliver
delivering instruction and administering tests. instruction, many of the problems associated
The first uses of computers in education began with CAI on larger computer systems such as the
in the late 1950s and early 1960s. As Stolurow downtime dilemma were eliminated. In addition,
(1962) described in, “What is Computer-Assisted the devices were much less expensive than previ-
Instruction”, the early applications of CSI involved ously available computers making CSI accessible
mainly drill-and-practice lessons with large com- to more students. This growth became evident in
puters linked to teletype machines and electric the 1980’s with the increased presence of micro-
typewriters. One such application in schools was computers in the schools.
an elementary mathematics program developed in During the 1980s, advances in technology
1964 by Patrick Suppes and Richard Atkinson of continued to create increasingly powerful and
Stanford University’s Institute for Mathematical efficient computers available at reduced costs.
Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS). This pro- There was also a tremendous growth in the area
gram provided daily arithmetic drill-and-practice of educational software. According to Barron and
lessons in the classroom on a teletype machine Orwig (1995), more than 10,000 packages were
connected by phone lines to the main computer produced by 700 educational software publishers,
located at IMSSS (Suppes & Macken, 1978). providing drill-and-practice programs, tutorials,
Another well-financed CSI project of the simulations, and games. Unfortunately, not all
1960s was the (PLATO) system, a joint effort of the software available was high quality. Often
of the National Science Foundation and Control manufacturers and purchasers were more con-
Data Corporation managed at the University of cerned with the attractiveness and availability of
Illinois under the direction of Donald Bitzer. The the software than the educational effectiveness,
use of student terminals with display graphics and suggesting a clear need for improvements in the
symbol capabilities provided a major improve- process of evaluation of such programs (Roblyer,
ment over earlier CSI systems (Suppes, 1979). Edwards, & Havriluk, 1997).
The PLATO courseware system is still in use Advantages of the more advanced and emerg-
today for applications ranging from library use ing computer capabilities of the 2000s include in-
to role-playing games (Foshay, 1995). creased flexibility, greater potential for interactiv-
In 1972, with funding from The National Sci- ity, and improved individualization of instruction.
ence Foundation, Victor Bunderson at Brigham In addition, significant advances have occurred
Young University began work on Time-shared, in development of alternative ways to access the
Interactive Computer-Controlled Information computer. Innovations in this area include touch
Television (TICCIT). This system was designed screens, light pens, bar codes, and voice activation
to use minicomputers and modified televisions to as well as more commonly used joy sticks and
deliver CAI lessons in English and Mathematics to mouse technology. In addition to making computer
community college students; further developments use more efficient and flexible, these adaptations
in CAI in the 1970’s brought continued improve- allow persons otherwise unable to use a computer
ments in student terminals. Minicomputers helped keyboard manually to have computer access via
reduce the high costs of CAI, but problems with alternative input modes. Adapted switches and

24
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

keyboards have also made computers accessible enthusiastic about it that they voluntarily explore
to almost anyone regardless of disability. new bodies of knowledge. (Jonassen, 1995, p. 5)
Just as the audiovisual arena identified a void The above quote describes one of the dreams
in empirical foundation in the 1960s, so too, in the of special education teachers: To have students so
2000s, educational computer developers identi- taken with the educational experience, that they
fied the need for supporting the technology with freely explore new learning situations without
research. Specifically addressed was the need to prompting. The last two days of the 2007-2008
bring contributions from the fields of cognitive school year were like that in Duluth, Minnesota,
psychology and educational research into the when two special education students came in to
design of computer-supported instruction. Debate explore music on the Internet. This was very un-
over the educational effectiveness of instructional usual because those two days were teacher-only
media and the ability to meaningfully research it work days and after school was officially closed
continues in the literature (Clark, 1994; Ross, Sul- for the year. The two students who were working
livan, & Tennyson, 1992; Tennyson & Jorczak, in so diligently were experiencing education in one
press). According to O’Neil and Perez (2008), the of the best ways--through personal involvement
presence of modern technology in schools does not with interactive Internet based learning. The key
guarantee it will be used wisely. However, they component activating these students excitement
go on to say that we have the capability to solve for learning was the interactive instruction pro-
the increasing problems in education if we utilize vided by the Internet. It is most important to look
past experience to plan for the future. at the requirements of interactive instruction that
As advances in technology continue to shape instill such deep student involvement in students-
and promote educational media and methods of -the same ones that will not sit still to learn from
delivering instruction, the educational experience a lecturing teacher giving what students call a
will become rapidly more flexible, more interac- boring lesson.
tive, and more individualized. Further exposing
these tools to academic scrutiny will more clearly
define the extent of meaningful application and INTERACTIVE INsTRUCTION
use. Needless to say, and contrary to the opinion (VARIABLEs LINKING
of earlier critics of audiovisual media, technology REsEARCH AND PRACTICE)
has not replaced teachers. There is no evidence,
empirical or otherwise, to support that the future Key constructs of interactive Internet based in-
will be any different. Instead, advanced technology struction are learner control, self-regulation, and
has provided teachers and special education spe- continuing motivation. Once defined in measur-
cialist with new methods for delivering effective able form as variables, they give some important
and efficient instruction and testing to address the insights into interactive instruction:
unique needs of the individual student.
• Learner control is the active manipulation
of the situation, experience, or effort while
EMERGING KNOWLEDGE BAsE: under the control of the involved learner.
INTERACTIVE INsTRUCTION It is based on the premise that each learner
will know what is best for him or her. In
Imagine students who are not only capable of the case of the Internet example, the stu-
regulating their own learning, but who are so

25
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

dents could select the content from a large Web Internet niche is a good example of the com-
resource base of music on the Internet. bined behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist
• Self-regulation is the learner actively re- experiences that will motivate future learners: The
ceiving and selecting of information. It students were in control of the learning experi-
is based on the premise that the more ef- ence, but were using the search techniques that the
fective that the individual feels they are in teacher had provided them via prior instruction.
managing their own instruction, the better The teacher served as a mediator and a resource
they will do. to the students, but the students determined the
• Continuing motivation is the self involve- direction and content of instruction. They were
ment of the individual in the activity so in control of their learning, and were intrinsically
that the involvement itself is found to be motivated to explore new knowledge on the Web.
pleasant and rewarding. The activity itself Students sensed their effectiveness in exploring
is the equivalent to the behaviorist’s posi- the Internet environment and this provided them
tive reinforcement, and is recognized cog- with continuing motivation to explore further; and
nitively as being an activity that is enjoy- the students interpreted their findings and captured
able to continue. The Internet example was the sounds based on their interest or use to either
individually satisfying for the two students, of the two students. They could also regulate the
because finding the music made their per- speed and direction that the net searches took, and
sonal internal reward system complete. the choices of topics at each new Web page. The
Internet niche is a learning environment that is very
Interactive Niches (Internet).Niche is a term responsive to the learners’ choices and makes very
from biology that describes the relevant physi- attractive choices available to the learner. Learner
cal, social, emotional, and other characteristics control can assist the student in developing the
of the ecology that supports a living organism. self regulation necessary to make decisions on the
The interactive niche for the two students in my music choices available on the Internet.
example is a portion of a very potent educational
ecology. They are involved in a learner controlled
process of finding new sounds and their creators FUTURE THEORY, REsEARCH, AND
(musicians, bands, etc.) on this hypermedia form PRACTICE WITH COMPUTERs
of telecommunication (i.e., Internet niche). Hy-
permedia allows the linking of one idea (picture Fifteen students are scattered about the room
or text) to another so that a person can click on in-groups of threes and fours; a dozen of their
one and go immediately to the next idea. The In- classmates are doing scientific fieldwork at a
ternet niche allowed the students to self regulate nearby state forest, scanning plant samples for a
their experiences through their decisions that are multimedia presentation with a hand held digital
made as part of the Internet niche. The combina- camera. The rest of the kids are logged on to
tion of learner control and self regulation are the school from home or elsewhere. In the classroom,
motivators that allow the students natural interest one group of students is exploring a simulated
and creativity to lead them to be part of a cycle excavation site of an ancient Greek City, while a
of continuing motivation. The computer affords few others join a group of students from England
these students a unique learning environment on a virtual-reality bike expedition to study local
(Internet niche) that has never existed prior to the flora in the Yucatan in Mexico. The teacher is a
two students turning the computer on during that guide on their journeys, not just a lecturer.
Thursday and Friday in June. This World Wide

26
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

Although the above scene represents a technol- DIsTRIBUTED LEARNING

ogy based future for education described in the (LEARNING FROM A VARIETY OF
early 2000s, such a possibility is readily available LOCATIONs AND sOURCEs)
in some schools today. Schools like those in Eagan
and Edina, Minnesota have all the technology in Distance learning will be transformed into distrib-
place to enact the above scene today. Yet, other uted learning through the ongoing development
schools a few miles down the road have only the of global communications and high-performance
teacher lap-tops and some out-dated Apple com- computing (Salomon et al., 1991). Distributed
puters for drill-and-practice because of financial learning takes place in the new instructional niches
limitations. We have pieces of the future present that are afforded learners through new forms of
in our society as schools like those in Eagan and expression such as knowledge webs, virtual com-
Edina that are well funded by a combination of munities, synthetic environments, and sensory im-
public and private sources. What have we seen mersion. Knowledge webs use telecommunication
in these future schools in the way of teaching, to provide distributed access to experts, archival
learning, and materials that would be valuable resources, authentic environments, and shared
to be aware of when planning and implementing investigations. Virtual communities supplement
learning niches today? face-to-face interactions with support from people
who share common “joys and trials” and provide
future learners with access to new people, new
TEACHING BEYOND 2000 experiences, shared ideas, humor, and fellowship.
(TEACHERs ROLE IN Synthetic environments are learning niches that do
INTELLIGENT MEDIATION) not yet exist, but are shared synthetic environments
that extend our experiences beyond what we can
We already have the teachers’ role in the 2010’s encounter in the real world. Sensory immersion
redefined as a mediator within the constructivist is an extension of the learning niche created by
learning process, but the future will not be that the computer development of artificial realities,
simple. With the development of information and allows the learner to see the patterns and
infrastructures across the globe, teachers will relationships in large amounts of information
mediate a learning niche without barriers of time gathered from diverse sources.
and distance (Salomon, Perkins, & Globerson, Distributed learning via technology will be
1996). With the wide range of students social, an accepted instructional method because of the
emotional, and intellectual development, the increasing economics of schooling, and the need
teacher needs to be more intelligent and utilize for one teacher to handle an increasing student load
artificial intelligence in providing a full range of to meet efficiencies of scale. Student-teacher ratios
learning choices as part of curricular planning. of 50 to 1 will be common, but will be compen-
Learners with mature capabilities can benefit sated for by intelligent tools like computer based
from the teacher that provides nurturing and personal assistants that are designed to match each
cognitive guidance, while the immature learner students needs. As computers decrease in cost in
needs a teacher that provides more in the way of the future and the simple networked computer
direct instructional guidance and direct instruc- for each learner becomes a reality, individual-
tion. Intelligent computer diagnostic tools and ized instruction may become possible in future
tutor programs will allow the teacher to focus on education. Until that time, we will deal with the
creativity and adaptations of curriculum. small group and large group capabilities of the
microcomputer, as we presently know it.

27
 Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

CLAssEs AND sCHOOLs (WHAT mature to integrate learner control of sound, text,
DO sCHOOLs AND CLAssEs and graphics. Newspapers (pines) will be delivered
AFFORD sTUDENTs?) and printed in the home, with learner control over
subjects, story type, and extent of coverage--but
A physical school building will still exist beyond allow hyperlinking to all relevant supportive in-
2000, but “it won’t be necessary” (Winn, 1990). formation through intelligent agents in software
With computer technology that is cheap and in- form. These agents will be available to provide
visible in the future, the classroom can be where research and retrieval functions to support any
it can have the most impact on the learner. With direction of investigation that is motivating to a
distance learning the norm, the only limit in the particular student due to their individual differ-
learning experience will be the creativity of the ences. A fully accessible video interface (vine) at
instructor and student. “. . . classroom walls will each computer will allow access to any and all
become more permeable, boundaries between media forms on demand, with the teachers role one
community and school reduced” (Winn, 1990, p. of providing the level of mediation required for
39). In the Ojibwe sense, the whole community development of the individuals intellect and their
will be part of the education of every developing discipline. Mathematics will be integrated into all
child. The experiential learning of the 1990’s will activities, as it is in real life--with the emphasis
mature into community based cooperative learning on ever increasing levels of applied mathematics
where students will, for example, assist the city in business, industry, and sports. Computer video
government in researching development options interface (vines) will become three dimensional
such as the GLEAM (Great Lakes Environmental through technology, where students can project
Action Mentors) team of students from Anoka their presence into any experience, and through
High School. Teaching could be by a University visual, tactile, and olfactory feedback can experi-
of Minnesota professor one day, a computer tutor ence such things as the whales pod type of fam-
the next, and the city zoning commissioner the ily structure by becoming a whale for a learning
next—with students providing valuable services experience.
at all levels.

Is THE MEDIUM THE

READING, WRITING, AND MEssAGE? (INsTRUCTIONAL
MATHEMATICs (HOOKs, DEsIGN IN THE FUTURE)
ZINEs, PINEs, AND VINEs)
The start of the media revolution and the criticism
Reading, writing, and mathematical skills will of scientific reductionism can be dated back to
become even more important in the time beyond 1966, when Marshal McLuhan declared, “In a
2000 when intellectual production will exceed culture like ours, long accustomed to splitting
manufacturing production in America. The book and dividing all things as a means of control, it
will take on new hypermedia forms (hooks) that is sometimes a bit of a shock to be reminded that,
are adaptable to student choices in selection of in operation and practical fact, the medium is the
plot, characters, settings, and actions—not unlike message” (McLuhan, 1966, p. 23).
the game of Dungeons-and -Dragons. Magazines The use of the computer in education has al-
(zines) designed for networks are just starting to lowed a true McLuhan type extension of ourselves,
take on an Internet form of their own, and will as we come to better use this new and developing

28
Computer Interventions for Children with Disabilities

digital technology. It has restructured our work instruction. Learning experiences are filed with
and our play, and will continue to restructure niches in niche spaces, in which the dynamic
our schools. We cannot believe that the message interactions using computers takes place. This
brought to us by the computer is the ecological new systemic approach will unify the behavioral,
change that this powerful mental tool evokes. cognitive, constructivism, and social viewpoints
McLuhan made us aware of the changes wrought through the use of multiple, integrated variables
by technology of his time, but could not have that represent more of the realistic educational
predicted the effects that were triggered by min- situation in Niche space.
iaturization of the silicone chip.
Instructional Design. The instructional design
industry is also changing, with the movement from TECHNOLOGY TOOLs (COsT Is
the behavior paradigm of the past to the cogni- NO LONGER A LIMITATION)
tive paradigm of the 1980’s and the constructivist
paradigm of the 1990’s (Salomon, 1993). The The future of technology use in education appears
more complex understanding of mental processes to be unlimited, with the microcomputer technol-
resulting from the cognitive paradigm has led to ogy providing a wonderful tool for individual
sophisticated software that can be run on micro- students. The student will be able to utilize the dis-
computers. The adoption of constructivist models tributed knowledge of the Internet with the touch
will make software more user controlled and allow of a keyboard, a pen, or voice access in the future.
for more creative individual use of software tools. For example, the price of the calculator has been
reduced from the 1965 high of $799, to the 1975
Texas Instrument for $29, to the 2005 Scientific
sYsTEMIC APPROACH (THEORY/ for $9. This economy of scale has provided the
PARADIGM CONsIDERATIONs) financial incentive to drive the computer revolu-
tion of the 1980’s and 1990’s. By 1978 the cost
A new systemic approach to research and practice of the microcomputer was low enough to support
is required, one that considers the educational ex- efforts by Apple Computer Corporation to market
perience in all of its complexity and keeps intact the Apple II to the schools in quantity. We will
all of the variables that are involved at each level see similar major cost reductions in educational
that they occur. We can no longer just look at the computing. The 200 MHz computer that is capable
behavior that the students exhibit their internal of running full frame video will drop to prices that
mental state, what they construct, or the computer allow their use as a standard teaching computer by
environment that they are functioning in. We must the year 2010 and beyond. Each classroom will
consider the Gestalt of all of the factors that affect be able to afford a computer for the teacher, and
the ecology of learning. at least one matching for every four students--in
The term Niche has been introduced to help addition to having access to computer labs and
us to understand the new systemic approach to digital media centers. The cost of wiring the
the educational paradigms more clearly. The schools of America seems high now, but in just a
educational ecology is composed of a number of few years the network power will pay for itself in
niches (activity spaces), which contain the behav- better quality education and in improved national
ioral, cognitive, biological, and constructivism output from our schools.
attributes that are relevant to the computer based

29
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Auf jener kurzen Fahrt nach Berck besann er sich erst, daß er jede
Stunde seines Lebens bemitleidenswert gewesen. Gleich einer
fürchterlichen Anklage rief er im Geiste den Seinen zu: Ich liebe
euch nicht! Er verdammte den Freund, weil er sich keine
ungebührliche Behandlung hatte gefallen lassen, machte es den
Frauen zum Vorwurf, aus ihm keinen Mustermenschen gemacht zu
haben, und verzweifelte bei dem Gedanken, daß ihm das
wunderthätige Feuerbad einer großen Liebe versagt geblieben war.
Dazu seine Aussichtslosigkeit nach jeder Richtung! Am liebsten hätte
er sich aus dem Waggon gestürzt, um Tod und Leben los zu werden.

III.

Das Meer ergoß sich in den Himmel. Himmel und Meer waren eins,
und das Fischerboot am Horizont bewegte selig seine Schwingen, als
wäre es im Himmel drin.
»Sie sind nicht intelligent,« sagte Andrée zu Karl, der vor ihr im
Sande lag.
»Wieso?«
»Weil Sie Gott nicht fassen. Sie haben ja keinen Gott.«
»Wie kann ein junger, unerfahrener Mensch einen Gott haben?«
meinte er. Vorläufig glaubte er nur an Engel. Den schönsten hatte er
vor sich. Ihr dunkles Auge verführte, ihr frischer Mund plauderte
unschuldig, und ihre feine Nase schien zu sagen: Gieb acht, denn ich
bin klug! Er war berauscht, ganz Bewunderung und Mitleid.
Was wird dereinst aus dir werden? dachte er voll Angst und
Schrecken, aus deinem Lächeln? deiner Stimme? deiner süßen
Natur? Sie aber meinte:
»Kommen Sie, Croquet spielen« und lief zu Toto und Bébé, ihren
Brüdern. Frau Espinas spielte mit. Sie schien die Schwester ihrer
Kinder zu sein.
Hart am Ufer stand ihr Haus, im norwegischen Stile erbaut. Dort
wurde gemalt, musiziert, gedichtet. Der Vater war tot. »Ein Glück für
mich, daß er mein Vater war,« sagte von ihm Andrée, »denn sonst
hätt' ich ihn tödlich geliebt!« Sie waren wohlhabend, fromm,
genußsüchtig, und alles bot ihnen Genuß. Beim geringfügigsten
Gespräch gaben sie sich zärtliche, drollige Namen. Wie liebte Karl
seine neuen Freunde! Schon seit einem Monat weilte er in ihrer
Nähe. Ihm war, als wäre er ewig dagewesen. Er war wie im Paradies,
er war unter glücklichen Menschen. Hätte ihm nur der Schrei des
Totenvogels nicht in die Ohren gegällt! Ach, nichts vermochte ihn zu
übertäuben, keine Belustigung, keine Freude, so viele es deren auch
gab. Was waren das für Zeiten!
Wenn man z. B. auf Krabbenfang ging – wie war das schön!
Meilenweit lag nichts als verlassener Meeresgrund, fern schweifte
das Meer. Wo hörte es auf? Wo fing der Himmel an? Es gab weder
Himmel noch Meer, nichts als Luft, lichtdurchtränkte, goldige Luft, es
regnete Sonnenstrahlen. Oder man wandelte nach dem nahen Hain,
um im Schatten dürftiger Bäumchen Urwäldler zu spielen. Man
nannte sich wie die Wilden. Toto, ein prächtiger Knabe, machte den
Häuptling und sagte zu Karl und Andrée: »Ihr seid Bruder und
Schwester und müßt zusammen hausen.« Und Abends konstatierte
Karl: heute bin ich wieder nicht gestorben. Gottlob! Das Leben war
doch schön! Es gab nichts Schöneres als das Leben und nichts
Lustigeres als ihre Ausflüge auf Eselsrücken in großen Kavalkaden:
die Mäntel flogen im Winde, doch kam man nicht vorwärts vor
Lachen, und weil die Tiere nicht fortzubewegen waren. Dann der
Abend, wo es so pechschwarz auf dem Strande war. Im Grab ist's
noch dunkler, dachte Karl, und von fern Stimmen vernehmend, rief
er fröhlich:
»Hoho!«
Und eine weibliche Stimme hallte zurück: »Hoho!«
 Worauf sich das Gespräch entspann: »Guten Abend, Madame, ich
hab' doch die Ehre, mit Frau Durand zu sprechen?«
»Ganz recht, mein Herr.«
»Ich bin entzückt, Sie nicht zu sehen.«
»Das Vergnügen ist ganz meinerseits« u. s. w. und am anderen
Tag stellte sich heraus, daß die nächtliche Schöne keine andere als
Andrée gewesen. Wie er da lachte! Er lachte und dachte: Lange
währt's ja doch nicht!
Ja, er konnte noch lachen. Am Jahrmarktstag bei der großen
Vorstellung im Zirkus kugelte er sich. Es war aber auch zum
Totlachen. Die Öllampen rochen so schlecht, und der Zirkusdirektor
ersuchte die Herrschaften, tüchtig zu applaudieren. Eine Ziege war
das einzige Pferd, das sich produzierte, doch damit hatte es auch
seine Schwierigkeiten, und ungehalten rief der Direktor:
»Applaudieren! applaudieren! Ohne Applaus giebt's keine Kunst!«
Und unter losbrechendem Beifallssturm produzierte sich das Zieglein,
produzierte sich in jeder Beziehung!
Und ihre wilde Jagd über die Dünen! Hügelauf gings, hügelab. Ein
Zug Möwen folgte ihnen, und Blanche, Andrées prüdes Cousinchen,
fiel, den Kopf nach unten, die Beine nach oben, wo die übrige
Gesellschaft sich befand. Allein Karl dachte: Alles Lüge, es giebt
einen unfreiwilligen Tod.
An hellen Abenden, wenn die Dünen gleich Schneehügeln
traumhaft dalagen, Strand und Meer silberweiß erglänzte, und Frau
Espinas in seliger Verzweiflung ausrief: »Das ist zu schön! das kann
kein Mensch aushalten!« oder wenn die Schwärmerin ihn sonst auch
zu Hilfe rief, um in Bewunderung zu schwelgen, indem sie zum
Beispiel sagte: »Sehen Sie nur das Hälmchen im Sand, ich bitte Sie!
Und dort die Dünenkette, sehen Sie doch!« Wie drehte sie ihm das
Messer in der Wunde! Die Natur, vor der sein Herz im Staube
gelegen hatte, erschien ihm verächtlich, doch wie man an einer
Verlorenen hängt, hing er an ihr voll Gram über die eigene Treue.
Einmal auf dürrer Heide um sich blickend, geriet er selbst in Ekstase:
Ein Stück Land und ein Stück Himmel darüber, es gab nichts
Schöneres auf der Welt! Doch Schmerz und Bitterkeit übermannten
ihn: Bin ich verurteilt? Muß ich ins Grab steigen? Seine heimatlose
Seele klammerte sich an die Erde, um als ihr Richter und Märtyrer im
Pfuhl ihrer Schande zu wühlen.
Am Namensfest der Mutter gab es ein Feuerwerk im Garten. Die
Raketen blitzten auf und rieselten hernieder in blauen, grünen und
roten Feuertropfen. Andrée hielt ihr Brüderchen empor, ihr Gesicht
strahlte lichtübergossen, und sie fragte ihren Liebling:
»Ist das nicht schön? Ist das nicht wunderbar?«
Was wird aus dir werden, was wird aus dir werden? dachte Karl
gemartert.
Morgens beim Erwachen betastete er sich, um zu sehen, ob er
noch am Leben war. Ja, er war noch warm, er glühte! ...
Auf dem Marktplatz raste unter Musikgebraus ein Riesenringelspiel
im Kreise dahin. Zum Spaß bestiegen sie manchmal die hölzernen
Rosse. Wie im Winde ritt Karl, sein Roß schien Flügel zu haben, er
jagte durch die Lüfte, doch im fliegenden Gewand schwebte vor ihm
Andrée wie das Glück, wie ein Traum, wie etwas Unerreichbares! ...
Zur Flutzeit badete Alt und Jung. In ihrem roten Schwimmkleid
entstieg sie, eine kleine Schaumgeborene, den Fluten. Er sah die
Muttergottesbrüstchen, die herrliche Rückenlinie, den zarten, rosigen
Fuß, ihre zierliche, himmlische Schönheit –
Dem Gott, der dich schuf, glaube ich alles! dachte er überwältigt,
es muß ein Jenseits geben! Deinetwillen! Ich glaube es, glaub' es
wenigstens, zu glauben! Gott, ich glaub' an Dich! Was willst Du noch
mehr?
Und es war eine glühende Mondscheinnacht. Wie in lichten Rauch
gehüllt lag der Himmel, unter jeder Wolke glimmte es, das Meer war
entzündet, die Wellen hatten Feuerränder. Andrée, Karl und die
anderen ergingen sich am Strand. Wohin sie den Fuß setzten,
schlugen Funken empor, ein jedes Sandkörnchen erglänzte, als wäre
die Welt in Brand gesteckt, stand alles in Feuer und Flammen. In
Karl brannte es lichterloh. Da fragte ihn Andrée, was sein Herz
bedrückte.
»Es ist die Furcht,« rief er kühn, »sterben zu müssen, eh' ich Sie
zur Frau gewann!«
»Davor bewahr' uns Gott!« entfuhr es ihren Lippen.
Ein Jubelschrei war sein Dankgebet. In später Nachteinsamkeit
irrte er noch berauscht am Ufer umher. Erbebe, Erde, ein Liebender
schreitet über dich hin! Glühe, Himmel, Meer erschauere, ein großes
Glück kehrt ein in die Welt! Reuig, gerührt hätte er sich Gott, wie
einem Vater, in die Arme werfen mögen, als ein Klagelaut die Luft
durchschwirrte.
Es wird wohl eine Möwe sein, dachte er: Hier giebt's keine
Totenvögel. Tausend neue Kräfte überkamen ihn, die ihn zum Leben
bestimmten und drängten, seiner Bestimmung zu leben. Er dünkte
sich ein gar gewaltiger Herr, es war keine Ader in ihm, die nicht
königlich gewesen wäre ... Da plötzlich durchzuckte es ihn:
Vielleicht sterbe ich an meinem Hochzeitstag! ...
Doch mußte er lachen. Der Tod hatte kein Recht mehr über ihn.
Die Seele war ja unverwüstlich, und jede Faser in ihm war Seele,
Liebe, jauchzendes Verlangen!
Glitzernd rauschte die Flut heran, purpurn brannte es in der Höhe.
In ihm, um ihn Leben, Feuer, Erdenglut. Nur sein Schattenbild
zitterte häßlich wie ein dunkler Fleck auf all der Pracht.
Kann man nie allein sein, Tod? dachte er; kann man nicht einmal
in Ruhe an sein Mädchen denken? ...
Umsonst, sein Herz war angefressen; was Gram und Angst
begonnen, das Glück vollendete es. Im Glück ereilte ihn die Wut.
Denn wie bald konnte seine Stunde schlagen!
Hilfeflehend klammerte er sich an das Lichtbild der Geliebten:
»Rette mich! Ist das deine ganze Liebe?« ...
Schon sah er sich verloren. Ja, ihm war, als erhöbe sich das Meer
und wollte ihm ans Leben. Also jetzt? jetzt? ... Es packte ihn wie
Wahnsinn. »Mörder!« schrie er und stürzte dem Feinde entgegen ...
Zurück! Zurück! warnten die Wellen. Doch der Rasende stürmte
vorwärts, seinen Angreifer zu fassen. Sie schleuderten ihn ans Land:
Wir kämpfen nur mit Männern, Wahnsinnige sind vor uns gefeit! Er
brauchte nur Grund zu fassen, und Luft und Leben waren wieder
sein. Doch um sich seiner Haut zu wehren, warf er sich wieder ins
Wellengewühl. Ein fürchterlicher Kampf begann. Er glaubte mit Gott
zu ringen. »Wer ist der Stärkere, das wollen wir sehen!« Wild schlug
er drein, als wollte er das Meer zermalmen. »Ich will nicht sterben,
nie und nimmer!« schrie er und ertrank.
 Die Erbschaft.

Als junger Bursch ging Johann Muck nach Wien, sein Glück zu
suchen. Auf Schusters Rappen und in der Glühhitze des Sommers.
Wie lechzte er danach, im Schatten auszuruhen, als sich ein Wald
vor ihm auftürmte, Baum an Baum, ein Riesendickicht.
»Wo gehts da in den Wald hinein?« fragte er einen Bauer, der des
Weges kam.
»Dumme Frage«, war die Antwort, »der Wald steht einem überall
offen.«
»Ach ja,« seufzte Johann Muck, »auch die Welt steht mir offen,
aber ich weiß doch nicht aus, nicht ein.« Und er warf sich am
Waldrand nieder, halbtot vor Müdigkeit. Zwei Tage war er unterwegs
gewesen, ohne nur einen Wanderstab zu haben. Nun hob er einen
gebrochenen Ast auf und begann ihn zuzuschnitzen, wobei er nicht
aufhörte zu seufzen.
Der arme Teufel stand da ohne Arbeit, ohne Geld. Nichts hatte er
als ein rechtschaffenes Herz. Zwar einen reichen Onkel hatte er
auch, der aber von ihm nichts wollte, der Geizhals! Auf seinem
schönen Gute hausend beklagte sich der Knauser und that, als ob
man ihm noch etwas schenken sollte. Es galt denn ohne den filzigen
Alten fertig zu werden, aber wie?
Von Kindesbeinen auf hatte er sich allein durchbringen müssen,
denn seine Mutter war eine böhmische Köchin gewesen, und seinen
Vater kannte man nicht. Arbeiten und nichts lernen! hatte seine
Schicksalsparole gelautet. Wenn er wenigstens eine Profession
gehabt hätte! Aber nichts konnte er, als höchstens Stöcke machen.
Da schwang er sein Fabrikat, einen festen, elastischen Stock. Gut, so
will ich Stöcke machen, dachte er, aber dich, meinen ersten, behalte
ich zum eigenen Gebrauch!
Zehn Jahre später war er Inhaber einer Stockfabrik. Am
Diamantengrund hatte er sich etabliert, das Geschäft florierte. Nicht
umsonst hatte er sich abgerackert. Gestützt auf seine Stöcke sah er
dem Leben froh ins Gesicht. Wer hätte gedacht, daß er so groß
dastehen würde ohne einen Kreuzer Schulden. Der
Zündhölzchenfabrikant Mayer, ein Hausbesitzer, war sein Freund. So
weit hatte er es gebracht. Und aus eigener Kraft! Kein Wunder, daß
er in die Breite ging. Ja, er konnte sich sehen lassen mit seinem
stattlichen Bauch, je einen Büschel Bart auf den glänzenden Wangen
und den bewußten Stock stets in der Hand. Der war sein stiller
Kompagnon.
Es war eine Passion zu leben! Nur das verflixte Herz! Frau Bradl
hatte es ihm angethan, die blühende Witwe eines reichen Cafetiers.
Es gab keine feschere, herzigere Frau! Also eine Hoffnung mehr im
Leben, ein Grund mehr, Gott zu danken. Das konnte er in jeder
Beziehung, denn wenn man so dastand, wie er – Nun brauchte er
nicht mehr den Schmuzian vom reichen Onkel, und zum Beweis, daß
er ihm nichts nachtrug, machte er ihm einen prächtigen Stock zum
Geschenk.
Doch da kam er gut an bei dem alten Griesgram. Der empfindliche
Herr betrachtete den Stock als Symbol und schrieb dem Spender
einen Brief voll Gift und Galle. Dieser bekam Dinge zu lesen, daß ihm
Hören und Sehen verging, aber auch die Geduld. O der Giftzahn!
Aber alles brauchte sich der Mensch nicht gefallen zu lassen. Na
warte! Er mußte ihm seine Meinung sagen. Übrigens schrieb er ganz
höflich: »Verzeihen Sie, lieber Onkel, ich bitte Sie tausendmal um
Entschuldigung, aber Sie sind ein Esel.«
Das war zu viel für den Wüterich. Er barst schier vor Zorn. Die
Todfeindschaft war besiegelt. Das bleibt dir nicht geschenkt, Herr
Neffe! dachte er. Alles Böse hätte er ihm anthun mögen. Darin war
er groß. Ja, er sollte an ihn denken! Denn als er bald darauf als ein
verhältnismäßig armer Mann starb, hieß es in seinem Testament:
»Mein Gut vermach' ich meinem lieben Neffen Johann Muck.«
Dieser verkaufte Stöcke und tauschte mit keinem König, als man
ihm die Trauer- resp. Freudenbotschaft überbrachte: »Ihr Onkel ist
tot, und Sie sind Gutsbesitzer.« Fast wäre er vor Freude gestorben,
doch hielt er sich zurück.
»Mein armer Onkel!« klagte er vielmehr. »Das Gut gehört mir? Ist
er sanft entschlafen? Welch' ein Glück! Wann wird er denn
begraben? Das freut mich herzlich! Wie viel Joch beträgt es?«
Langsam faßte er sich. Sein Glück konnte er noch immer nicht
fassen. Er freute sich, als hätte er sich sein Leben lang zu freuen.
Umsonst versuchte er an der Bahre zu jammern:
»Hab' Dank! O daß du gestorben bist!« es klang wie ein Jubelruf:
»O hab' Dank, daß du gestorben bist!«
Ist denn die Freude eine gar so anstrengende geistige Arbeit? Fast
wäre er närrisch geworden. Aber es war auch keine Kleinigkeit. Er
war froh gewesen, daß er lebte, und nun das Glück! Er war froh und
zufrieden gewesen und nun das großmächtige Glück, das Glück aus
heiterem Himmel! Kein Wunder, wenn man da gefühlvoll wird.
»Begraben Sie ihn gut, Hochwürden,« bat er gerührt den
Geistlichen. Wie weinte er! Vollends am Grabe – wie weinte der
lachende Erbe:
 »Mein armer, armer Onkel!«
Zu seinen Lebzeiten hatte er nie anders von ihm gesprochen, als:
»mein reicher Onkel« und kein gutes Haar an ihm gelassen. Aber die
Toten haben es gut. Nun sagte er: »Mein armer Onkel« und hob ihn
in den Himmel. »Mein armer Onkel! Gott, gieb ihm a Ruh'!« eine
Redensart, die er offenbar von seiner Mutter hatte, die, wie gesagt,
eine böhmische Köchin gewesen.
Nun aber kaltes Blut bewahrt! Und Courage! Und sich ins Glück
gestürzt über Hals und Kopf!
Sein Geschäft hatte für ihn ausgelebt. Man bricht mit der
Vergangenheit beim Erstehen eines neuen Glücks, da giebts keinen
Pardon, nicht mit der schönsten Vergangenheit. Das Gut war seine
Hoffnung, ihm galt seine Pietät. Verschleudern wollte er sein
blühendes Geschäft. Zum Glück fand sich kein Abnehmer sogleich.
Wie würde es ihm vollends ergangen sein mitsamt seinem Gut!
»Schade, daß es verwahrlost ist,« hieß es bei der
Erbschaftsübergabe.
»Verwahrlost?« staunte er, »aber das steht ja nicht im
Testament!«
Aber als er an einem Maitag an Ort und Stelle fuhr, um Besitz von
seinem Besitz zu ergreifen, und nachdem er an der Bahnstation
gefragt hatte, wo Himmelshof lag, sein Gut, seine Welt, und auf dem
Weg dahin immer wieder gefragt hatte: »Wo liegt Himmelshof?« bis
man ihm die Auskunft gegeben: »Na, vor Ihrer Nase!« wäre er vor
Entzücken fast in die Kniee gesunken.
Das wollte ein verwahrlostes Stück Erde sein, dieses Paradies? Mit
dem Blumenmeer von Feldern, den Blumensträußen von Bäumen,
der kristallnen Luft voll Duft und Schmetterlingen? Luftig, gewaltig
erhoben sich die Berge, ihr Atem berührte das Thal. Und was war
das für ein Himmel! Wie schien dort oben die Sonne und streute
Strahlen hernieder wie Gold. Auf goldiger Erde, unter goldigem
Himmel stand das Haus. Das Thor war aufgethan. Juchhe! Ihm war,
als hätte er eine Welt, als hätte er die Welt entdeckt. Was hatte er
gewußt, daß es eine Erde gab, einen Himmel und einen Himmel auf
Erden?
Und diesen schönen Fleck Erde hatte der Onkel wie die Pest
geflohen, davon schließlich nichts hören wollen, so daß die Felder in
schlechten Pächtershänden waren und die Waldungen verwildert.
Aber man richtet sich eben ein, daß man alles selbst bewirtschaftet;
hat man aber keinen blauen Dunst davon, so nimmt man sich einen
tüchtigen Verwalter.
Muck nahm sich einen Verwalter, einen zu Grunde gegangenen
Gutsbesitzer. Der mußte doch zu wirtschaften verstehen. Es war ein
gar unternehmender Herr mit hochfliegenden Plänen, die vorläufig
freilich nur in Anschaffungen bestanden. »In eine ordentliche
Wirtschaft gehört dies, in eine ordentliche Wirtschaft gehört das –«
und dabei hatte er eine Art, sich den langen Bart zu streichen, daß
ihm Muck recht gab und Geld – Geld ohne Ende. Entweder man hat
ein Gut oder man hat keins, rechtfertigte er sich vor sich selbst.
Wagte er aber doch zu seufzen, so hieß es: »Das ist bloß der
Anfang!« Doch der Anfang nahm kein Ende, hingegen seine
Barschaft, denn Steuern mußten ja auch entrichtet werden. Gleich
stellte sich der Staat ein mit der Rechnung: Ein Gut erben kostet so
und so viel. Was nur das Bauen verschlang! Vom Viehkauf gar nicht
zu reden. O mit deiner ordentlichen Wirtschaft! dachte Muck, bin ich
denn ein Millionär? Hätte er wenigstens mehr davon verstanden!
Schade, daß das Gut kein Zinshaus ist! bedauerte er oft, freute sich
aber doch, daß das Gut ein Gut war. Machte es ihm auch Kummer
und Sorgen, so war es doch sein Glück! Seine Sparkasse, dahin sein
letzter Kreuzer spazierte, sein Stolz, für das er sich gern zu Grund
richtete, von dessen Gnaden er nicht leben wollte.
In der That stand im nächsten Frühjahr ein schönes Haus da – er
hatte sich kein neues gebaut, weil das zu hoch gekommen wäre, nur
das alte umbauen lassen, was freilich so hoch gekommen war, wie
ein neues – und Ställe und Scheunen lagen daneben. Wohl waren
diese noch leer, doch auf den Feldern blühte die Saat. Ja, nun hieß
es ernten, die Zinsen einheimsen. Was setzte er für Hoffnungen auf
sein Gut, wie hatte er seine Freude dran!
Sonntags wenn er vor seinem Hause stand – wie dufteten die
Nelken und Rosen! So schön hatten sie die ganze Woche nicht
geduftet. Auf den Dächern girrten die Tauben, und im Hof trieben
sich still die Hühner umher, der Hahn hochbeinig, den Schnabel in
der Luft, die Henne gesetzt und bekümmert. Zwischen ihnen
stolzierte der Verwalter mit einer Miene so sicher und gelangweilt
und strich sich den wehenden Bart. Der Hahn hatte etwas
Männliches und der Verwalter etwas Hahnenartiges – eigentlich
konnte ihn Muck nicht recht leiden. Er war eine militärisch vornehme
Erscheinung und stand mit der Mutter Natur auf Du und Du – man
kam sich neben ihm vor wie Parvenü. Kinder liefen einem zwischen
den Beinen, lauter Sprößlinge von ihm. All die Mäuler mußte er
füttern. Ja, hier war er Herr, das fühlte selbst Schnapsl. Wie er ihm
schön that, wie er ihn verwöhnte! Es gab keinen spaßigeren Dackel.
Dick wie eine Walze, mit geringeltem Schweif – es war kein echter,
nur ein »imitierter«, wie sein Herr ihn neckte. Der Kopf war groß wie
von einem Flußpferd, dabei war er munter und verspielt wie ein
Kind. Der liebte ihn auch nicht wenig. Endlich ein Hund, den er
liebte. Er hatte noch nie einen besessen. Wie kann man Hunde
fremder Leute lieben? Ihm war, als hätte er auch die Welt noch nie
geliebt. Wie kann man die Welt fremder Leute lieben? Doch sich
sagen können: Das ist mein Haus, mein Hund, das sind meine
Schweine, meine Kühe!
Auch bei ihnen kehrte er ein und fand sie bei ihrem Tagewerk.
Selbst an einem Sonntag rasteten sie nicht. Für die Kuh hatte er eine
ganz spezielle Verehrung. Wie prächtig sie das frische Gras zum
Dünger verarbeitete! An dem starren Körper hob und senkte sich der
dünne, rege Schweif, es war wie eine Riesenmaschine.
Hie und da gingen Leute vorbei und grüßten mit trägem Respekt.
Der neue Gutsherr erfreute sich keiner Beliebtheit. Dafür sorgten
schon die gekündigten Pächter, die ihn ausrichteten. Ach ja, die
Bauern! Bellend lief Schnapsl auf die Straße und bellte noch, wenn
die Leute schon längst vorbei passiert waren. »Kusch dich,
Schnapsl!« Aber er bellte beim bloßen Gedanken dran, daß es
jemand gewagt. Er war ganz nervös und wollte seinen Spaß haben
auch an einem Sonntag. Wie gern hätte er Händel angefangen!
Doch mit wem? Heute durften die Kinder ihre Hosen nicht zerreißen.
So lange zu ruhen! Man war ganz erschöpft, und der Tag nahm kein
Ende. Wie wurde es eintönig im Hof! Man sah nichts als Hühner,
Gänse und Tauben. Wer bemerkte sie an Wochentagen? Der Knecht
lag vor der Stallthüre wie krank. Sechs Tage arbeiten und am
siebenten vor Langeweile sterben – war das nicht zu viel verlangt
vom lieben Gott und christlich? Das Haus stand noch am selben
Fleck, und der Garten wurde immer kleiner. Man hatte die
Rosenstöcke gezählt und man hatte die Hühner gezählt. Man wußte
alles auswendig, und der Sonntag schien hundert Jahre alt mit
seinen Rosen, Hühnern und Tauben, als man einen hohen
Flügelschlag vernahm. Ein Laut aus höheren Regionen. Die Luft
erbebte, ein Adler kreiste über Haus und Hof. Alles schauerte
zusammen, fühlte sich geschmeichelt – welch ein Sonntag!
Und welch ein Sonntag war das für Muck, als die schöne Witwe,
seine alte Flamme, ihn in die Versuchung brachte, oder vielmehr ihr
Schwager, der pensionierte Hauptmann Bradl. – Das war so:
Muck stand wieder vor seinem Haus. Wenn er drin war, sah er es
nicht und er wollte es immer vor Augen haben. Wie sich eine Frau
unter Rosen schön ausnimmt! dachte er, die Verwalterin im Garten
erblickend. In ihrem Sonntagsnachmittagsausgehkleid sah sie gar
sanft und vornehm aus und putzte ihren Kindern die Nasen. Die
ganze Naturgeschichte spielte sich ab vor seinen Augen, nur er hatte
gar keine Rolle drin. Plötzlich hätte er auch Weib und Kinder haben
mögen. Sein Hof war eine Arche Noah, darin alles gepaart war bis
auf ihn. Daß ihm Frau Bradl einen Korb gegeben! Er hatte ihr
nämlich einmal durch die Blume einen Heiratsantrag gemacht, aber
sie war halt zu reich gewesen für ihn. Leider! Alleinsein ist doch kein
Geschäft! dachte er, wo nimmt man schnell Weib und Kinder her? als
der Hauptmann in den Hof trat.
»Meiner Seel und Gott, der Herr Hauptmann!«
Er war's mit seinem Kaiserbart und der eleganten Tournüre. »Der
Herr Hauptmann! Welche Ehre!«
Der aber rief mit dröhnender Stimme:
»Gratuliere! gratuliere! Na, hören Sie, Sie haben ein Glück, Herr
Muck, daß es schon nimmer schön ist.«
Muck erschrak nicht wenig.
»Ja, denken Sie sich nur, was Ihnen passiert ist,« lachte der
joviale Herr, »ein Schatz ist gefunden worden auf Ihrem Grund und
Boden. Natürlich gehört er Ihnen. Wollen Sie ihn nicht beheben?«
»Ein Schatz?«
»Da ist er!« Und lachend zeigte der Spaßvogel auf seine
Schwägerin, die errötend und siegesbewußt hinter dem Zaun stand,
ganz erhitzt von der Sonnenglut. Wie war sie hübsch, zum
Dreinbeißen! An jeder Hand führte sie einen Buben, ja, Familie hatte
sie auch, und man wäre gleich zum Fertigen gekommen. Doch statt
das Glück beim Schopf zu fassen und mit tausend Händen danach zu
greifen, dachte Muck abgeschreckt: Jetzt bin ich ihr gut genug, weil
ich ein Gut hab', natürlich! und lachte nur bescheiden über den
freundlichen Scherz. Doch that sie, als wüßte sie von nichts, und
wollte gleich um ein Häuschen weiter. Verwandte von ihr wohnten in
der Nähe. Sie war aus der Gegend – dieser Zufall! Nein, nicht um
alle Welt wäre sie eingekehrt. Erst nach vielem Zureden ließ sie sich
herbei, den Hof zu besichtigen. Sie schien etwas von der
Landwirtschaft zu verstehen und machte Bemerkungen, wie:
»Recht schön, aber – Schade nur –« so daß Muck beleidigt
auffuhr:
 »Was aber? Was schade nur?«
»Gehen Sie!« lachte sie. »Haben Sie vielleicht kein Kreuz mit
Ihrem Gut?«
»Freilich!« gab er zu.
Freilich gehört es nicht zu den Annehmlichkeiten des Lebens, beim
Jahresabschluß eine Ziffer zu sehen, daß es einem schwindelte, aber
nicht bei den Einnahmen, nein, bei den Ausgaben. Einnahmen! Das
existierte überhaupt nicht. Ein Gut ist keine Melkkuh, sondern ein
Säugling, der trinken will aus tausend Brüsten. Freilich gehört es
nicht zu den Annehmlichkeiten des Lebens, mit offenem Säckel
dazustehen. Das Stockgeschäft konnte nicht alles bestreiten. Es
versagte einfach: Bis hieher und nicht weiter! Aber das Gut wollte
leben. Ein kostspieliges Vergnügen das, ein Gut zu besitzen. »Gott,
wie hab' ich das verdient?« seufzte er und konnte vor Sorgen nicht
mehr schlafen, vor blutigen Sorgen! Der vielfachste Familienvater
hatte es besser. Woher nur das viele Geld nehmen? Alles eins, wenn
er es nur auftrieb, galt es auch, es aus der Erde zu kratzen. Na, ich
leg' mein Geld gut an, dachte er, so gut, daß ich es nimmer
angreifen kann.
Freilich hatte er die Butter umsonst. Umsonst? Du lieber Gott!
»Was kostet Sie die Butter?« fragte er seine Kunden. »Neunzig
Kreuzer das Pfund«, hieß es. Weiß Gott, dachte er, mich kostet es
die Tausende und die Tausende!
Sein Gut war eben ein Land, wo Milch und Honig nur in geringer
Quantität floß. Eine Kuh gäbe täglich nur vier Liter Milch, berichtete
ihm erst neulich der Verwalter. Verdammtes Vieh! Es wurde gewartet
wie eine Prinzessin und gab doch nicht mehr wie vier Liter pro Tag!
Ach ja, die Berichte! Schöne Neuigkeiten das! Der Ochsenstall
müsse vergrößert werden, hieß es z. B., der Jäger habe gekündigt
und sich bei den Leuten beklagt, zu wenig zu essen zu bekommen,
die Dachrinne sei beschädigt, und Schnapsl hingeworden am Gift,
das man den Füchsen gestreut – sein Schnapsl!
 Und da staunten noch die Leute und fragten: »Was treiben Sie?
Sie werden ja ganz grau?«
Sogar Hypothek hatte er aufnehmen müssen, sein Gut
verpfänden!
Doch die Ernte sollte alles wieder einbringen.
Ei jawohl!
Tags vorher – die Lerche badete zum letztenmal in der goldigen
Kornflut – zogen Wolken heran, ein ganzes Regiment. Auf dunklen
Rossen kamen sie durch die Luft geflogen. Sie umschlangen sich mit
rabenschwarzen Armen, und nun begann das Bombardement. Der
Gutsherr zitterte, doch nicht für sein Leben. Das war ihm früher
erlaubt gewesen. »Mein Haus!« jammerte er, »meine Ställe, meine
Bäume!« Wie hätte er sie mit dem Leibe schützen mögen! Die Blitze
zuckten wie tanzende Feuerstrahlen – welch herrliches Schauspiel!
Doch hatte er andere Sorgen: Wenn es einschlüge! Es donnerte und
dröhnte, als bräche der Himmel in Scherben. Krach! es hatte
eingeschlagen! Großer Gott! Nun prasselte es hernieder, ein
Wasserfall aus Himmelshöhe, der fürchterlichste Niagara. Hätte er
doch einen Schirm halten können über Wald und Feld! Allmächtiger
Gott! Er schmeichelte Gott, kam ihm grob, als ein kalter Kugelregen
herabrieselte, das schwere Geschütz. Barmherziger Gott, und die
Felder! Und der Assekuranztermin, der neulich abgelaufen und noch
nicht erneuert worden war! Es war um wahnsinnig zu werden! Aber
da lachte der Himmel, als sei nur alles Spaß gewesen. Dem
Gutsherrn war nicht zum Lachen. Rasend vor Angst stürzte er
hinaus:
»Wo, wo hat es eingeschlagen?«
»Auf dem Nachbargut.«
»Welch ein Glück!«
Aber man kam nicht aus der Aufregung heraus und hatte keine
Ruhe. Weder vor dem lieben Gott, der die Ernte zerstörte, noch vor
den bösen Buben, die die jungen Bäume beschädigten. Die Kerle
fraßen ihm alles grüne Obst weg. Hätten sie nicht warten können,
bis es reif geworden? Aber das war noch gar nichts. Ärger als die
Obstdiebe waren die Holzdiebe, die Wilddiebe und die Tagediebe!
Die Frau fehlte an allen Ecken und Enden. Wie hätte er sich den
Kopf abreißen mögen, Frau Bradl verschmäht zu haben, eine so
tüchtige Frau, die abgesehen davon, daß er bis über die Ohren
verliebt in sie war, für eine Gutsfrau wie geschaffen schien. Die
würde Ordnung gehalten, den Knechten und Mägden auf die Finger
gesehen haben, und das Vieh wäre nicht ewig krank geworden.
Jeden Moment gab es einen Patienten. Wenn er den Verwalter zur
Verantwortung zog, indem er ihm zaghaft vorhielt: »Aber lieber Herr
Stephani« – dann strich sich dieser den Bart so unschuldig und
sanguinisch – es war um aus der Haut zu fahren! Welch eine
Mißwirtschaft! In Geschäft und Werkstatt wußte er schon Ordnung
zu machen, da nahm er sich kein Blatt vor den Mund, doch hier
traute er sich nichts zu sagen aus Furcht, daß ihn jener anfuhr: Was
verstehst du Stockfabrikant! Er konnte doch nicht überall sein,
mußte ja beim Geschäft bleiben und arbeiten, arbeiten, daß ihm der
Buckel krachte. Für wen? Für den Herrn Verwalter, die Knechte und
Mägde, das Gesindel – Wie verwünschte er sein Gut in den tiefsten
Grund der Hölle! Es schied ihn auch von seinen Freunden.
»Ein Gut erben, auch eine Idee!« spottete der
Galanteriewarenhändler Fuchs, und der Hotelier Nagel erklärte ihn
einfach für übergeschnappt. Freund Mayer konnte ihm nur das eine
raten: »Verkauf dein Gut!« Um den kleinsten Haupttreffer hätten sie
ihn eher beneidet. Er wurde lächerlich in ihren Augen. Armer Muck!
Nein, mit dem Gute wollte es durchaus nicht gehen. Zwar verlor er
noch nicht alle Hoffnung, und die Zukunft erschien trostreich, aber
bis dahin – Eine Freude oder ich vergehe! dachte er eines Tags und
fuhr zu sich hinaus.
 Es war gerade Kirchtag. Heissa! Es ging her wie im ewigen Leben.
Bis vor der Wirtshausthür stand das Volk, so überfüllt war der
Tanzsaal. Der Dudelsack brummte so rührend gemütvoll wie ein
lebendiger Bauch, und die Burschen waren so fröhlich und die
Dirnen so schön. So schön kann man nur einmal im Jahre sein, so
fröhlich nie mehr wieder. Selbst der Dorftrottel freute sich, so viel
Verstand hatte er noch.
»O ihr Glücklichen!« rief Muck laut aus. Doch ein Betrunkener
meinte: »Glücklich? Geh weiter! Lustig sind wir, das ist mehr wert!
Gescheit sein, Kinder!« Sie trieben's wie toll.
Was hieß lustig sein? Wenn man sich die Köpfe einschlug. Die
Fäuste begannen ihr Werk, die Messer wurden gezückt. Wie das
anheimelte! Nur scheinbar trennte man die Kampfhähne.
»Loslassen! loslassen!« was so viel hieß, als: Nur zu! faßt euch!
Bravo! Zumal als man Blut rinnen sah – wie die Alten die Hälse
reckten – o Jugenderinnerung! – wie die Jugend gierige Mienen
machte und etwas wie von einem großen Moment verspürte, ja, wie
selbst die so arg Zugerichteten Stolz empfanden, die Helden des
Tages! Allerseits Freude und Zufriedenheit, als man plötzlich des
Gutsherrn gewahr wurde. Man schämte, ärgerte sich – was wollte
der Störenfried? Konnte man sich nicht einmal friedlich unterhalten?
»Hier ist kein Platz für Herrenleute!« riefen die Frechsten, und Muck
machte, daß er fortkam.
So hab' ich mich denn unmöglich gemacht bei allen
Menschenklassen? dachte er bitter. Soll ich unter Schweine
gehen? ...
Auf dem Stoppelfeld grasten sie, und wie man plötzlich ein
Kunstwerk entdeckt, daran man stets achtlos vorbeigegangen, sah
er sie und sah, wie die alten Schweine etwas Tyrannisches an sich
hatten, aber wie den Jungen die Unschuld aus den Äuglein blickte,
gleich Idealisten, die im Sumpfe waten, weil dem Reinen alles rein
ist. So sahen also die Schweine aus? Wie eine Wurst mit Augen und
Ohren, mit Schnauze und Schweif. Das Tier in seiner einfachsten
Form. Ein zweijähriges Kind konnte sie zeichnen. Und diese blasse
Farblosigkeit, die roten Äuglein! Die reinen Albinos. Wie sie nur
grunzten! Was giebts? Was beliebt? dachte Muck, aber die Chinesen
würde ich ja auch nicht verstehen, sind die Chinesen trotzdem nicht
Menschen? und blieb bei den Schweinen.
Er kam sich so verlassen vor! Sein Herz war voll tausend Ängsten.
Wehmütig dachte er an die schöne Zeit, da er noch kein Gut
besessen ...
Herbstzeitlosen bedeckten das Feld mit stillen, lauen Farben. Ein
kühler Hauch entstieg der Erde. Er schlürfte ihn ein mit tierischer
Gier, mit der Gier von Menschen, die den Kalk von den Mauern
kratzen, weil ihr Körper weiß: das brauche ich! Wollüstig wühlte er
im Erdreich, daß die schwarze, feuchte Erde sich ihm in die Poren
drang, als wollte der Staub zum Fleische werden. Doch der Wurm,
der über seine Hand kroch, nahm schnell Reißaus wie aus Ekel vor
allem Lebendigen. Wer sich in Erde einhüllen dürfte! dachte Muck.
Doch dazu wirds auch noch kommen. Schade, daß ich dann tot sein
muß! Ihn erfaßte Müdigkeit und Sehnsucht, und eine Stimme tönte
aus der Tiefe – was war dagegen Nixengesang? –: Komm in meinen
Schoß, armer Mann, bist du nicht mein Kind?
Kopfüber hätte er sich ins Grab stürzen mögen, aber da kam ein
Platzregen herniedergeprasselt. Heute war ja Kirchtag, da mußte er
dabei sein. Das brachte Muck auf andere Gedanken: Mein neuer Hut!
Und die Schweine! Schöne Geschichte das!
Mit seinem Stock trieb er sie heim. Die alten Schweine brummten
in würdigem Baß:

»Würd' ich das geahnet haben,

Mantel hätt' ich umgenommen.«

Und die Jungen grunzten fein und hell:

»Auch ich! auch ich! auch ich!«

 Aus war's mit der Lustbarkeit. Die Tanzenden stoben auseinander.
Man rannte in den Regen hinaus. Die Buben mit Freudengejohle, die
ausgezogenen Stiefel schwenkend, die Weiber mit über den Kopf
geschlagenen Röcken. Sie lachten, kreischten und liefen, was sie
laufen konnten. Der Regen war ihnen in die Beine gefahren, alles
wollte naß werden. Als man heimkam, hatte es richtig aufgehört.
Doch wurde es Abend, und die Natur lag noch in Thränen
aufgelöst. Muck aber wollte sich die Kleider am Leibe trocknen. In
der Küche ging alles aus und ein. Dort setzte er sich hinter den
Herd. Man brauchte nicht erst zu sterben, um ein warmes Plätzchen
zu haben. So gemütlich war's in dieser Allerweltsküche, dem Bereich
der Verwalterin. Das Feuer prasselte, Kaninchen huschten über die
Fliesen, es duftete nach frischem Holz und Rauch, das Hühnervolk
verlief sich her, und die Kinder machten Spektakel. Doch währte die
Freude nicht lang. »Fort mit euch!« schrie die Verwalterin. Vorbei
war's mit dem Sonntag, vorbei auch mit der Vornehmheit, sie war
wie eine Wetterhexe. »Hinaus!« und jagte die ganze Gesellschaft
auseinander. Die Hühner flogen auf, die Kinder weinten, und sie
schrie: »Still, still, der Herr ist da!« Umsonst versuchte dieser, der
Scene ein Ende zu machen: »Aber Frau Stephani« – Sie that sich
noch etwas zu gute drauf, als wäre es eine Huldigung für ihn. Nun,
er bedankte sich. Das Trommelfell sprang ihm schier entzwei vor all
dem Gekreische, Geweine und Gekrächze – es war ein Hochgenuß!
Im Hof kommandierte der Verwalter und schrie mit den Leuten
herum. Er nannte die Kuhmagd »Kuh«, den Ochsenknecht »Ochs«
und nicht etwa aus Verwechslung. Dachte sich auch Muck im Stillen:
Ich jage dich ja doch zum Teufel, er imponierte ihm. Wer so
anschaffen könnte! dachte er. Es war eine Freude, ihm zuzuhören,
wie er z. B. dem Jäger Ordre gab: »Sepp! Anstalten treffen für die
Pirsch!« Daß der Wald mir gehört und nicht dir, was weiter? dachte
Muck, ich hab' die Sorgen, du das Vergnügen.
Ja, er hatte einen großen Herrn in seinem Dienst, und das war das
Malheur. Zwar ihm gegenüber war er der Respekt selber,
wahrscheinlich um ihm weiß zu machen: Wenn ich auch befehle,
drum bleibst du doch der Herr!
So kam er wieder mit der Frage, ob für das Gesinde ein Ochs
geschlagen werden sollte.
»Schon wieder ein Ochs?« platzte Muck heraus. »Alles in euren
Magen?« und vor lauter Ärger ging er hungrig zu Bett.
Sie schlachten mein Vieh und stellen mein Wild! dachte er voll
Empörung. Ihm war, als sollte er den Ochsen von Knecht aus dem
Ochsenstall, die Kuh von Magd aus dem Kuhstall, den Hund von
Verwalter vom Hofe jagen, um sein eigener Knecht, sein eigener
Herr zu sein.
»Heda, Stephani!« Er wollte nicht nur Gutsherr heißen, sondern
auch den Gutsherrn spielen. War denn das eine gar so große Kunst?
»Sie, Stephani!« befahl er und zitterte nur so vor Anstrengung,
»diesmal geh' ich mit auf die Pirsch!«
Es wurde ihm sauer, um 3 Uhr früh aufzustehen, aber er wollte
auch einmal ein Vergnügen haben. In gelber Dämmerung lag das
Thal. Die Pirschgesellschaft begann schon den Aufstieg zu nehmen,
als Sepp plötzlich ausrief: »O Salami! Der Herr hat sein G'wirr
vergessen!«
Mit dem Stock in der Hand wollte Johann Muck auf die Pirsch.
Als man eine Büchse herbeigeschafft und sie ihm umgehängt
hatte, verging ihm alle Jagdlust. Er konnte keiner Fliege etwas zu
Leide thun, und nun galt es, Hirsche über den Haufen zu schießen,
wie er sich das nämlich so vorstellte. Aber entweder hat der Mensch
Waldungen oder er hat keine, räsonnierte er und kletterte drauf los,
daß ihm der Atem ausging. Jeden Moment blieb er keuchend stehen
und wäre am liebsten umgekehrt. Wie schreckte er zurück! Ihm
wurde angst und bange. Er fühlte: nun geht's in eine neue Welt!
 Vom Himmel umgeben stand er an einem Abhang. Hie und da
blinkte ein Stern wie ein Licht aus einem fremden, nächtlichen Dorf,
von dem der Wanderer nicht wußte, woher es kam, wohin es führte,
nur daß es ein Licht war, und das war genug.
In Schweiß gebadet erreichte er die Höhe. Es war seine größte
Reise. So weit vom Leben war er noch nie gewesen. War sein Besitz
so groß, daß er bis ans Zauberland stieß? Wo bin ich? dachte er, als
er sich vom Hochwald umgeben sah mit seiner Stille, die melodischer
war wie Musik, mit seinem Atem, der ihn wie eine unsichtbare Kraft
umrauschte, und mit seiner Dunkelheit, die mit ihren weichen
Fittigen alles umhüllte wie ein guter Geist.
Er bebte. Die Angst vor dem Schönen, die Furcht vor der Freiheit
erfaßte seine Seele, die bisher in Gefangenschaft gelebt. Nur kein
Erlebnis, um Gotteswillen! dachte er. Gieb dem Verhungernden
Speise, und er stirbt am ersten Bissen. Als ihn der Verwalter am
Wechsel ansetzte mit der Versicherung: »Der Hirsch kommt Ihnen,
verlassen Sie sich drauf!« rief er zitternd: »Jesus, Maria und
Joseph!«
Bewußtlos fand ihn dann jener, wie zermalmt von einem großen,
großen Eindrucke, viel zu groß für einen Menschen. »Was ist
passiert?« fragte er. In einer Art Furcht vor dem Erwachen faßte ihn
Muck am Arm. Jede Fiber in ihm redete, sein Mund kam gar nicht zu
Worte.
»Der Hirsch!« stammelte er endlich, »der Hirsch!« und erzählte,
wie er vor Kälte und Müdigkeit eingeschlafen sei und sich dann, jäh
erwachend, ihm gegenüber gesehen habe, einem Riesen von Anmut
und Majestät. Welche Überraschung! Welche Lage! Wie habe er am
ganzen Leibe gezittert! Die Büchse habe er fortgeworfen. »Ich hab'
mich gefürchtet,« gestand er, als sei seine Furcht eine Furcht
gewesen, derer sich kein Mann zu schämen brauchte. Sein Gesicht
strahlte. Wie war ihm beim bloßen Gedanken daran, wie ihm
gewesen!
 »So 'was hab' ich noch nicht erlebt!« versicherte er. »Nein!
nein ...«
Seine Seele wuchs und wuchs. Nun hatte das Schönste, Größte
darin Platz. Aber mit dieser Seele im Leibe zurückzumüssen in das
kleine Getriebe der Großstadt, in den engen Laden, wo es keinen
Hochwald gab, keinen Sturm, keinen Sonnenstrahl. Wie er anfangs
in der neuen Welt der Alte geblieben, so wurde er in der alten Welt
ein Neuer. »Gott«, seufzte er, »ich bin aus meiner Sphäre
herausgekommen. Gott, wie komm' ich in meine Sphäre wieder
hinein? ...«
»Verkauf das Gut!« riet ihm Mayer, und der wußte, was er sprach.
Dem redete niemand 'was ein oder aus. Man brauchte nur seinen
Kopf zu sehen, diesen Koloß. Die glänzende Haut spannte nur über
der massiven Schläfe. Sein Hirn war eine feste Burg, gar schwer zu
erstürmen, doch drang ein Gedanke einmal hinein, saß er auch für
ewig fest – es gab keinen größeren Dickkopf. »Verkauf das Gut!
Verkauf das Gut!«
Als wären die Käufer vor der Thür gestanden! Auch wollte Muck
ausharren. Nur abwarten, es wird schon gehen! vertröstete er sich.
In der That schrieb ihm der Verwalter, die neue Kuh sei ein
Prachtexemplar, das Schwein habe Junge geworfen und sonstige
freudige Familiennachrichten noch mehr. Der Himmel war wieder
voller Baßgeigen, und der Freund kam ihm gerade recht mit seinem:
»Verkauf dein Gut!«
»Aus dir spricht der Neid!« rief er. Aber er wollte ja beneidet
werden, er hatte das nötig wie einen Bissen Brot. »Komm!« sagte er.
»Schau dir mein Gut an und dann rede!« Und er führte ihn hinaus.
Wie wollte er mit seiner Habe paradieren!
Daß doch alles schief gehen mußte!
Er hatte hinaustelegraphiert: »Wagen zur Bahn schicken, gutes
Nachtmahl bereiten, seltener Gast.«
 Doch statt der Kalesche stand ein schweres Fuhrwerk vor der
Station. Muck war wüthend.
»Aber Flurl,« schrie er den Knecht an, »mit was für einem Kraxen
kommst du denn daher?«
»Ja, gnä' Herr, der Wagen ist gebrochen.«
Wie zwei Ballons saßen die beiden auf dem Leiterwagen. Der
beutelte sie so zusammen, daß Mayer schließlich vorzog, zu Fuß zu
gehen.
»Das ist ja 'was für uns korpulente Leute,« meinte er. »Freilich, du
hast das nicht nötig. Ein Gut haben ist die beste Abmagerungskur.«
Unterwegs fragte er:
»Wem gehört das schöne Schloß?«
»Dem Ritter von Klein.«
»Und die Eisenwerke?«
»Dem Grafen Hardenberg.« Aber die Auskunft lautete so
verstimmt.
»Auf deine Nachbarn bist du nicht gut zu sprechen,« meinte
Mayer. Nach dem Grund fragte er gar nicht. Das lag ja auf der Hand.
»Sind wir schon da?«
»Freilich!« rief Muck.
Wie der Bach zu rauschen begann, wie die Berge sich reckten!
Man mochte glauben, das seien Berge und Bäume wie andere Berge
und Bäume – warum nicht gar! Das war seine Scholle! Zwar hafteten
Lasten drauf, gleichviel, vierhundert Joch Erdboden waren sein, und
ebensoviel Joch Himmel waren gratis. Am liebsten hätte er die Welt
assekuriert. Nur jetzt sollte sie nicht untergehen!
 »Nun, Mayer, machst Augen, was?« Er hätte es ihm auch nicht
anders geraten. War er ja doch selbst überrascht. Herbst lag wieder
auf der Gegend, so farbenprächtig hatte er sie noch nie gesehen.
Das war ein Rot, ein Gelb und ein Braun wie Gold und Purpur.
»Mayer, ist das nicht schön, sag'! Du verstehst ja nichts, ich weiß es,
aber ein jeder Dummkopf muß doch sagen: Das ist schön!«
Die Sonne saß auf einer Bergspitze, um jählings zu versinken
hinter roten Flammen. Dieser Sonnenuntergang war sein!
Glückstrahlend rief er:
»Grüß' dich Gott auf meinem Grund und Boden!« Ja, ich will dich
auf Händen tragen, dachte er, dir das Beste vorsetzen, was ich hab',
nur beneide mich!
Aber nicht einmal das kann man von seinen Freunden haben.
Wenn er z. B., auf die Felder zeigend, rief:
»Das sind meine Felder!« fragte Mayer:
»Wie war denn die Ernte?«
Oder wenn er frohlockte:
»Schau meine Obstbäume!« bemerkte jener:
»Heuer war kein Obstjahr, was? – Gehört der schöne Wald da
dir?«
»Nein, der daneben.«
»Aber der ist ja ganz abgeforstet.«
»Wird schon anwachsen!«
»Jawohl, in hundert Jahren!«
Und als Muck diese Worte überhörend, rief:
»Eine prachtvolle Gegend, was?« wollte jener vollends wissen:
 »Wie hoch kommt dich jährlich die Bestreitung des Guts?«
Aber Muck wollte an nichts denken. Es gab ja soviel Dinge, um
sich daran zu betäuben.
»Hörst du den Bach?« rief er. »Das musiziert dir wie ein
aufgezogenes Spielalbum.« Doch Mayer erkundigte sich wieder:
»Ist die Mühle einträglich?«
Der Müller schuldete den Pacht.
»Schau, das Wirtshaus!« sagte Muck ablenkend. Es war ein
Neubau, ein Heidengeld steckte drin, wenn er aber trotzdem
schimpfte, so geschah es nur aus einer Art Bescheidenheit.
»Richtig, es soll ja einen guten Apfelwein bei euch geben,« sagte
Mayer. »Also das ist das Wirtshaus? Gar nicht übel!« Ja, das
Wirtshaus gefiel ihm. Gottlob, daß ihm doch etwas gefiel.
»Saperlot!« rief er.
Muck wußte ihm dafür Dank.
»Du mein einziger Freund!« sagte er gerührt. »Bist mir treu
geblieben im Unglück, will sagen im Glück« – manchmal wußte er
selbst nicht recht, war er unglücklich oder glücklich – »Aber wir
wollen auch zusammenhalten!«
Er mußte stolz sein können, um glücklich zu sein und indem er
einerseits sagte: »Das ist mein Wald, mein Bach, meine Mühle,«
dachte er andererseits: Und das ist mein Freund, der Hausbesitzer
Mayer.
»Ah!« rief dieser überrascht. Da lag ein Haus mit grünen
Fensterläden, mit Hof und Garten davor, hart an der Straße, nah am
Bach, ein buntes Beieinander – »Das also ist dein Haus?«
»Freilich! Das heißt – es ist doch?« Muck schien sein Haus nicht
mehr zu erkennen. Ihm fehlte etwas. Hatte nicht ein Baum davor
gestanden?
 »Ja, sagen Sie mir, Stephani,« fragte er den Verwalter, der, sein
Jüngstes auf dem Arm, aus der Thüre trat: »Wo ist denn nur der
Apfelbaum?«
Dieser deutete auf den Rain jenseits des Baches.
»Aber wie in aller Welt kommt der Baum dorthin?«
Er hatte ihn umsetzen lassen, ganz einfach. So etwas! Gleich gab
es Ärger, kaum daß man die Schwelle betrat. Hundskerl von
Verwalter! Wie er nur die Honneurs machte, ihn umherführte in
seinem Eigentum. Und schöne Dinge mußte er erfahren. Die jungen
Schweine waren in den Mutterleib zurückgekehrt, das Mutterschwein
hatte sie gefressen, die neue Kuh war krank, das Heu mißraten. So
geh' ich langsam zu Grunde und muß dafür noch Steuer entrichten!
dachte er.
Doch verschluckte er seinen Ärger, damit der Gast nichts merke,
das hätte er nicht um alles wollen aus purer Eitelkeit, Gott bewahre!
Aber wo steckte nur der Gast? Vor dem Haus saß er auf der Bank,
um sich auszuschnaufen. Warum nicht gar! Und Hof und Ställe? Er
hatte ja Hof und Ställe noch nicht gesehen. Es half nichts, er mußte
das edle Mutterschwein bewundern, die kranke Kuh und die
Perlhühner. Aber wo waren diese nur?
»Sie, Stephani, wo sind unsere Perlhühner?« fragte Muck.
»Die Perlhühner? He, Poldl, Lini, Hansl!« wandte sich dieser an die
Kinder, die sich da herumtrieben. »Wo sind die Perlhühner?«
»Mutter!« riefen die Kinder ins Haus hinein. »Wo sind die
Perlhühner? Der Vater fragt, wo die Perlhühner sind.«
»Wo sollen denn die Perlhühner sein?« gab die Verwalterin zurück,
indem sie mit dem Kochlöffel in der Thür erschien. »Stasi! Wo sind
die Perlhühner?« schrie sie die Magd an, die, am Brunnen stehend,
ihre breite Rückansicht darbot. »Ich frag', wo die Perlhühner sind.«
»Die Perlhühner?« brummte Stasi, »die Perlhühner?«
 Da sollte der Blitz dreinschlagen! Muck mußte an sich halten, der
Stock in seiner Hand schien unruhig zu werden, zumal als die
Verwalterin aufschrie:
»Jesus! Jetzt ist mir der Braten verbrannt!«
Schöne Aussichten für den Gast! Muck war außer sich. So gern
hätte er ihm imponiert mit seinen Gottesgaben! Wieder mußte er an
seine Witwe denken, d. h. an die von ihm verschmähte Witwe, der
das gewiß nicht passiert wäre.
Ganz bitter schmeckte der Schweinsbraten. Nein, die Verwalterin
hatte sich nicht ausgezeichnet. Aber mit Rücksicht auf ihren Mann,
der am Mahle teilnahm, ließ Muck nichts verlauten. Hingegen fühlte
sich dieser verpflichtet, aufzubegehren, so daß es den Anschein
hatte, als wäre man bei ihm zu Gast.
Wenn wenigstens der Apfelwein besser geraten wäre! Aber Mayer
hatte recht, es war der reine Essig. Diese Blamage! Nun dafür
schmeckten die Kartoffeln. Sie waren aus eigener Ernte.
Ausgezeichnet schmeckten sie; als sich Stephani auch schon beeilte,
mitzuteilen, daß die Knollen aufgezehrt waren und neue beschafft
werden mußten. Der Mensch gönnte einem keinen ruhigen Moment!
Auch gingen Muck die Perlhühner im Kopf herum. –
»Warum machst du so ein trübseliges Gesicht?« fragte Mayer und
auf ein Bild zeigend, das über dem Sofa hing: »Wer ist der lächelnde
Patron?«
»Mein seliger Onkel,« sagte Muck, »Gott, gieb ihm a Ruh'!«
Er selbst hatte das nötiger. Zum letztenmal hatte er sich aufgerafft
zur Freude. Er war zu Ende mit seinen Kräften. Das Gut wuchs ihm
schon zum Halse heraus. Und doch als ihn Mayer wieder beschwor:
»Verkauf's! Schau, daß du's los wirst!« fuhr er wild auf, als ginge
es ihm ans Leben. Er konnte das Wort nicht hören, es machte ihn
rabiat.
 »Das werdet Ihr nicht erleben!« brach er los. »Mein Gut geb' ich
nicht her! Schneidet es aus der Erde heraus, wenn Ihr könnt!«
»Aber ich will ja nur dein Gutes, Kreuzdonnerwetter!« schrie
Mayer, »dein Onkel ist zu Grund gegangen, und du wirst zu Grunde
gehen wie noch viele andere nach dir, denn auf einem Gut müssen
erst so und soviele zu Grunde gehen, wenn es Segen bringen soll!«
»Du wirst zu Grunde gehen! Du wirst zu Grunde gehen!« ahmte
ihn Muck wütend nach. Umsonst versicherte ihm Mayer:
»Aber ich will dich ja nicht beleidigen!«
»Was hab' ich gethan, daß du mich nicht beleidigen willst?« rief
Muck schmerzlich und zu guter letzt wurde er noch grob. Aber Mayer
sagte nichts.
»Was sagst du?« rief Muck. Mayer hatte, wie gesagt, nichts
gesagt, Muck aber schrie: »Was? ich bin ein Dummkopf? Das ist eine
Infamie! Das brauchst du mir doch nicht zu sagen!«
Soviel Verstand hatte er noch, um zu wissen, daß er ein
Dummkopf war. Wozu einem noch vorhalten:
»Willst du ganz an den Bettelstab kommen?« Da mußte man doch
zornig werden.
»Freilich möchtest du das, mein lieber Freund, ich weiß es!«
»Ich sollte das wünschen, ich?« rief Mayer weinend. »Siehst du
denn nicht, wie leid du mir thust?«
Das war zu viel! Muck geriet außer Rand und Band.
»Geh,« schrie er. »Geh!« Und als Mayer gehen wollte: »Du gehst?
Du gehst?«
»Ja, ich gehe,« sagte Mayer und ging.
 Wie verfluchte Muck alle Freunde, alle Menschen, die ganze Welt!
Und wie ihm das allen Lebensmut wiedergab! Ich werde nicht zu
Grunde gehen, nein, meine lieben Freunde, dachte er, daraus wird
nichts! und schrie:
»Die Wirtschaftsbücher her!«
Aber die Haare standen ihm zu Berge, als er Einblick genommen.
Der Schweiß rann ihm von der Stirne. Und doch war alles in
schönster Ordnung. Ja, es war klar: er w a r zu Grund gegangen! Um
Mitternacht saß er noch über die Bücher gebeugt, als sich die
Gespenster einfanden: die Schulden. Er war der Verzweiflung nah.
Das hätte er doch nicht gedacht. O die Schande! Er wußte, der
Morgen würde kommen, aber die Gespenster würden bleiben und
sich gleich Furien an seine Fersen heften. Händeringend betete er:
»Gott, bin ich denn ein Schuft? Gott, sag' Nein!«
Allein Gott sagte nicht Nein.
Wie um vor sich selbst zu fliehen, floh er in die Nacht hinaus.
Leuchtende Wolken beschienen das Thal. Der Mond glich einer
matten Feuerwolke. Still schwebte er über den Bergen. Wie
durchgeistigt standen sie da, ein jeder für sich eine Größe und zum
Himmel gehörig, wie der Himmel zur Erde, da lag sie, wie ein Stück
von ihm.
Muck faßte sich am Kopf. Wie eine Erscheinung lag vor ihm die
Gegend. Ein großes Schweigen sprach aus ihr. Sie wußte nichts von
Schweinezucht und Wirtschaftsnöten. Wie fühlte er sich vollends als
ein armer Teufel, dem die Erde so wenig gehörte, wie das Leben. Wo
war sein Gut hin? Es war wie versunken. Vor ihm lag nur ein Stück
überirdisch schöne Erde.
Im Grase liegend fand ihn der Morgen. Die Gicht steckte ihm in
allen Gliedern. Ja, auch die Gicht hatte er sich auf seinem Gut
geholt.
 Unter Glockengeläute erhob er sich. Es läutete zur Frühmesse. Der
Mensch muß eine Zuflucht haben, und so ging er in die Kirche, in
dieses Spital für kranke Herzen.
Es war ein nüchternes Kirchlein. Ein Bauerssohn von Priester stand
am Altar. Wie der Diener, so der Herr. Hier wohnte nicht der
ehrwürdige, großartige Gott, der in mittelalterlichen Palästen wohnt,
dessen Geist unter Ornamenten und Spitzbögen schwebt, der einen
Hofstaat hält von Bischöfen und Prälaten, nein, ein bäuerischer Gott,
ein armer Mann von einem Gott, der Gott aus seiner Kindheit. Es war
lange her, daß sie sich gesehen. Er glaubte eine Stimme zu hören:
»Wie du dich verändert hast, Johann!« Und du dich erst, lieber Gott!
dachte er. »Wie groß du geworden bist!« – Und du so klein! – –
Eigentlich hatte er große Momente auf seinem Gut erlebt: den
Freund verloren und seinen Gott. Aber alles holt der Teufel!
Nur eins war ihm geblieben: sein Stock.
Und den brauchte er!
Heimkehrend sah er ein Wägelein daherrattern. Flurl saß auf dem
Kutschbock. Er hatte einen Kropf, das war seinem Herrn nichts
Neues mehr, dennoch mußte er sich bei seinem Anblick stets sagen:
Er hat einen Kropf.
»Wohin? wohin?« hielt er ihn an.
»Zur Bahn.«
Nun erst bemerkte er den toten Rehbock, der steif im Wagen lag.
»Und der Rehbock?«
»Wird an den Wildprethändler expediert,« und Flurl ratterte
davon, um den Zug nicht zu versäumen. Muck sah ihm nach.
Famos! dachte er, und ich beklag' mich noch, daß der Wald nichts
einträgt!
 Es war ganz früh. So früh hatte er noch nie den Hof betreten.
Reges Treiben herrschte dort. Schon von ferne sah er Milch aufladen
und die in nasse Tücher eingewickelte Butter. Gar so schlechte Leute
hab' ich doch nicht! meinte er, und der Verwalter scheint auch nicht
so untüchtig zu sein. Eigenhändig hob er einen Korb auf den Wagen,
der, wie Muck entnehmen konnte, mit Eier gefüllt war. Er bekam
ordentlich Respekt vor sich. Eierhandel treib' ich auch! Das wußte ich
gar nicht, dachte er, aber wie kommt es, daß im Wirtschaftsbuch
nichts von alledem steht, oder nur in kleinen, ganz selten
auftretenden Posten?
Er lief ins Haus, schlug die Bücher auf, um sich zu überzeugen.
Dann rief er nach dem Verwalter.
»Sie, Stephani,« sagte er, »wissen Sie, daß Sie ein Dieb sind?«
»Das nehmen Sie zurück!« rief dieser entrüstet.
»Was?« schrie Muck. »Na, warte!«
Knüttel aus dem Sack!
Er haute ihn durch, daß es eine Freude war. Das Stöcklein, froh,
seinem Berufe leben zu können, machte lustige Sprünge. »Mich
bestehlen! ruinieren!« tobte Muck, »aber ich will auch 'was davon
haben!« Er traktierte ihn so, daß er sich zu wehren vergaß und, sich
nur die schmerzenden Stellen haltend, rief:
»Das nehmen Sie zurück! Das nehmen Sie zurück!«
Aber einmal im Zug wollte Muck alles krumm- und kleinschlagen.
»Ich war ein Dummkopf, und das sollt Ihr mir büßen!« schrie er,
indem er mit dem Stock zwischen die Knechte fuhr. »Glaubt Ihr, ich
lass' mich von hinten und von vorn betrügen? Von hinten
meinetwegen, doch von vorn nicht!« Wo es einen Rücken gab, gab's
Schläge. Nun erst erschien ihm das Leben wieder schön. Klips klaps!
Klips klaps! Das Stöcklein schrie vor Freude, seine Stunde war
gekommen – höchste Zeit! Sogar die Kühe und Schweine bekamen
ihren Teil. Er behandelte sie wie Menschen. »Ich will auch 'was
davon haben! ich will auch 'was davon haben!« Ein Huhn schlug er
tot, mit einem Hieb. Ja, das Leben war schön, eine Pracht. Dennoch
seufzte er:
»Ich möcht' ein bißchen sterben!«
Sofort wollte er sich im Teich ertränken. Im eigenen Teich sich
ertränken können! Es ging nichts darüber, wohlhabend zu sein. Um
sich aber vollends einen guten Tag zu machen, wollte er sich lieber
aufhängen. Aber wo? Im Garten, im Wald oder am Rain an seinem
geliebten Apfelbaum? Die Wahl that ihm weh, als ein Brief eintraf mit
einer Neuigkeit, die ihm alle Lust zum Leben wiedergab. Wenn er
seinen Verpflichtungen bis dann und dann nicht nachkomme, schrieb
der Advokat, käme sein Gut unter den Hammer. Das Gut, das er mit
seinem Blut gedüngt!
»Da muß ich dabei sein!« rief er.
Und er war dabei.
Es war Winter. Über die Felder strich der Wind. Die Bäume waren
die reinen Skelette. Krähen saßen auf den Telegraphendrähten, und
diese glänzten in der Sonne wie Stricke aus Brillanten. Hie und da
guckte aus dem Schnee ein Stück nackte Erde hervor, es sah aus, als
trüge sie zerrissene Kleider.
Im Haus war die Versteigerung. Es prasselte im Kachelofen, doch
war die Stube nicht zu durchheizen. Man behielt die Pelze an, der
Auktionator hatte sogar die Mütze auf. Er stieß mit dem Kopf an das
Bild des Onkels, daß der Nagel sich lockerte, an dem dasselbe hing.
Unter den Kauflustigen befand sich auch Frau Bradl in einer mit
Bisam verbrämten Jacke.
Doch Muck sah sie kaum. Alle Liebe war beim Teufel. Sein großer
Kummer kurierte ihn von allen andern Kummern dieser Welt.
Die Freunde bildeten das Publikum. Der Hotelier Mayer, der
Schuhwarenfabrikant Horak, der Galanteriewarenhändler Fuchs – sie
hatten die Landpartie trotz Schnee und Kälte nicht gescheut und
schienen sich für die Prozedur sehr zu interessieren. Letzterer fragte
Muck, ob er auch das Stockgeschäft zu verkaufen gedenke, er wolle
das Geld dafür bar niederlegen, als der Versteigerungskommissär
den Schätzungspreis ausrief für das zu versteigernde Gut:
»Zwanzigtausend Gulden!«
Muck sprang in die Höhe.
»Nichts da!« rief er, »für mich ist es eine Million wert! So viel kann
ich nicht verlieren!«
»Zwanzigtausendfünfhundert!« bot einer an.
»Einundzwanzigtausend!« ein anderer.
»Einundzwanzigtausendfünfhundert!« rief Frau Bradl.
»Zweiundzwanzigtausend!« hieß es.
»Dreiundzwanzigtausend!« rief Frau Bradl wieder.
Muck stand zitternd da. Er war nur noch Haut und Knochen, kaum
zu erkennen, so alt und grau hatte ihn sein Gut gemacht. Nun aber
sollte es in fremde Hände gehen! Nie und nimmer! Lieber geb' ich
das Geschäft her, diese Goldgrube! Was mir noch fehlt, werden mir
meine Freunde leihen. Nicht umsonst sind sie hergekommen. Gott
wird ja auch helfen, er muß! Und schließlich bin ich auch noch da!
dachte er und rief:
»Vierundzwanzigtausend!« als das Bild des Onkels schmetternd zu
Boden fiel und in tausend Stücke brach. Zugleich ertönte es aus
allen Kehlen, daß es klang wie ein Ausruf der Enttäuschung aus dem
Mund des Toten:
»Er will es wieder haben!«
Doch bekam er es nicht wieder. Frau Bradl wußte es zu
erschwingen. Aber hatte er nicht immer gesagt, sie habe es auf das
Gut abgesehen?
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebookgate.com