ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Rebecca for personal use only.
CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

All units (excluding those above) can be broken down

1. Physical Quantities and into the base units
Homogeneity can be used to prove equations.
Units An equation is homogenous if base units on the left side
are the same as those on the right side.
1.1. Physical Quantities Multiples
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude Multiple Prefix Symbol
and a unit: Tera
1012 (T )
109 Giga (G)
106 Mega (M )
3 (k)
10 Kilo

Sub-Multiplesㅤ
Estimating Physical Quantitiesㅤ
Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol
Quantity Estimate 10−3 Milli (m)
Height of an Adult Human 2m 10−6 Micro (μ)
The mass of an adult human 70 kg 10 −9 Nano (n)
Mass of a car 1000 kg 10−12 Pico (p)
Power of a lightbulb 60 W
Speed of sound in air 330 ms−1 1.3. Errors and Uncertainties
Speed of a car on the motorway 30 ms−1
Weight of an apple 1N Systematic Errors:
Density of water 1000 kgm−3 Constant error in one direction: too big or too small
Errors made by instruments used and wrong
Time taken for a sprinter to run 100m 10 s
techniques
Current in a domestic appliance 13 A It cannot be eliminated by repeating or averaging
E.M.F of a car battery 12 V If systematic error is small, measurement is accurate
Atmospheric pressure 1.0 × 105 P a Accuracy: the degree of agreement between the
Young’s modulus of a given material Something × 1011
result of a measurement and the true value of
quantity.
Random Errors:
1.2. SI Units Random fluctuations or scatter about a true value
Caused by the observers and environmental
Quantity Base Unit techniques
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg) This can be reduced by repeating and averaging
Length (l) Meter (m) When random error is small, measurement is precise
Time (t) Second (s)
Precision: the degree of agreement of repeated
measurements of the same quantity (regardless of
Temperature (T ) Kelvin (K)
whether it is close to the true value or not)
Electric Current (I) Ampere (A)
Calculations Involving Errorsㅤ
ㅤ
For a quantity x = (5.0 ± 0.2)mm

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Absolute Uncertainty Δx = ±0.2mm Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction

Fractional Uncertainty = Δx Displacement: shortest distance in a certain direction
x = 0.04
​

Percentage Uncertainty = Δx Speed: distance traveled per unit of time, no direction

x × 100% = 4%
​

Combining errors: Velocity: the rate of change of displacement

When values are added or subtracted, add absolute Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
error
If p = 2x+y
3 or p =
​
2x−y
3 ​​
,then Δp = 2Δx+Δy
3 ​ 2.2. Equations of Motions
When values are multiplied or divided, add % errors
When values are raised to a certain power (e.g., s = ut + 12 at2 ​

squared), multiply the percentage error by the power v = u + at

If r = 2xy 3 , then Δr Δx
r = x + y
​
3Δy
​ ​
v 2 = u2 + 2as
(v +v )
s = 12 2 × t
​ ​

1.4. Scalars and Vectors

2.3. Linear Motion
Scalar: has magnitude only, cannot have direction
e.g., speed, energy, power, work, mass, distance Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction
Vector: has magnitude and direction Displacement: distance in a certain direction
e.g., displacement, acceleration, force, velocity, Speed: distance traveled per unit of time, no direction
momentum, weight, electric field strength Velocity: the rate of change of displacement
Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
Both scalars and vectors have magnitude and unit.
Displacement-time graph:
Gradient = velocity

2.4. Non-Linear Motion

Velocity-time graph:

Gradient = acceleration
A force vector can be split into its vertical and horizontal The area under graph = change in displacement
components, which are independent.
Pythagoras theorem (a2 + b2 = c2 ) and vector
parallelograms can add coplanar vectors.

2. Kinematics
Uniform acceleration and straight-line motion equations:
2.1. Kinematics Concepts v = u + at
s = ut + 12 at2 = vt − 12 at2
​ ​

s = 12 (u + v ) tv 2 = u2 + 2as
​

Acceleration of free fall = 9.81ms-2

2.5. Motion of Freefalling Bodies

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Continues to curve as
Displacement
it accelerates

Graph levels off as it

reaches terminal
velocity

s = ut + 12 at2 and u = 0 ; s = 12 at2 i.e h = 12 gt2

​ ​ ​

Continues to accelerate
Velocity
constantly 2.7. Projectile motion
Projectile motion: uniform velocity in one direction and
constant acceleration in perpendicular direction
Graph curves as it
decelerates and levels
off to terminal velocity
Acceleration Straight line

Graph curves down to

zero because the
resultant force equals
zero

Horizontal motion = constant velocity (speed at which

2.6. Determining Acceleration of Free projectile is thrown)
Fall Vertical motion = constant acceleration (caused by the
weight of the object, constant free fall acceleration)
A steel ball is held on an electromagnet. Curved path – parabolic (y ∝ x2 )
When the electromagnet is switched off, the ball
interrupts a light beam, and a timer starts.
As the ball falls, it interrupts a second beam of light &
timer stopped
Vertical distance h is plotted against t2

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Component of Velocity Mass Weight
Horizontal Vertical Measured in kilograms Measured in Newtons
Without air Increases at a constant Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Constant
Resistance rate Constant throughout the universe Not constant
Decreases to Increases to a constant W = mg
With Air resistance
zero value
Mass: is a measure of the amount of matter in a body, &
2.8. Motion of a Skydiver is the property of a body that resists change in motion.
Weight: is the force of gravitational attraction (exerted
by the Earth) on a body.

3.4. Elastic Collisions

Total momentum conserved
Total kinetic energy is conserved

Example: Two identical spheres collide elastically. Initially, X

is moving with speed v and Y is stationary. What happens
after the collision?

3. Dynamics
3.1. Newton’s Laws of Motion
First Law: if a body is at rest, it remains at rest, or if it is
in motion, it moves with a uniform velocity until it is
acted on by resultant force or torque
Second Law: the rate of change of momentum of a body X stops and Y moves with speed v:
is proportional to the resultant force and occurs in the (relative velocity before collision) = (relative velocity after
direction of force; F = ma collisions)
Third Law: if a body A exerts a force on a body B , then uA ​− uB ​= vB ​− vA
​ ​ ​ ​

body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A,

forming an action-reaction pair
3.5. Inelastic Collisions
3.2. Momentum relative speed of approach > relative speed of separation

Linear Momentum: product of mass and velocity Total momentum is conserved

Total kinetic energy is not conserved
p = mv Perfectly inelastic collision: only momentum is
conserved, and the particles stick together after collision
Force: rate of change of momentum (i.e. move with the same velocity)
F = mv − mu In inelastic collisions, total energy is conserved but Ek ​

t ​

may be converted into other forms of energy e.g. heat

Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum: when
bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains 3.6. Collisions in Two Dimensions
constant, provided no external force acts on the system.

mA u A + mB u B = mA v A + mB v B
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

3.3. Mass and Weight

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Change in momentum (impulse) affecting each sphere

acts along line of impact
Law of conservation of momentum applies along line of
impact
Components of velocities of spheres along plane of
impact unchanged
Note the direction of the velocities when calculating

4. Forces, Density, and

Pressure
4.1. Introduction
Force: rate of change of momentum
Density: mass per unit of volume of a substance
Pressure: force per unit area
Finding resultant (nose to tail):
By accurate scale drawing
Using trigonometry

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Forces on masses in gravitational fields: a region of Conditions for Equilibrium:

space in which a mass experiences an (attractive) force The resultant force acting on it in any direction
due to the presence of another mass. equals zero.
Forces on charge in electric fields: a region of space The resultant torque about any point is zero.
where a charge experiences an (attractive or repulsive) Principle of Moments: for a body to be in equilibrium,
force due to the presence of another charge. the sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any
Upthrust: an upward force exerted by a fluid on a point must be equal to the sum of all the clockwise
submerged or floating object moments about that same point.
Origin of Upthrust:
Pressure on Bottom Surface > Pressure on Top Surface 4.2. Pressure in Fluids
∴ Force on Bottom Surface > Force on Top Surface
⇒ Resultant force upwards Fluids refer to both liquids and gases
Frictional force: force that arises when two surfaces rub Particles are free to move and have EK ∴ they collide ​

Always opposes relative or attempted motion with each other and the container. This exerts a small
Always acts along a surface force over a small area causing pressure to form.
Value varies up to a maximum value
Viscous forces:
A force that opposes the motion of an object in a
4.3. Derivation of Pressure in Fluids
fluid;
Only exists when there is motion. Volume of water = A × h
Its magnitude increases with the speed of the object Mass of Water == density × volume = ρ × A × h
Centre of gravity: point through which the entire weight Weight of Water == mass × g = ρ × A × h × g
of the object may be considered to act Pressure = Force
Area =
ρ×A×h×g
A
​
= ρgh ​

Couple: a pair of forces which produce rotation only

To form a couple:
Equal in magnitude 5. Work, Energy, Power
Parallel but in opposite directions
Separated by a distance d 5.1. Energy Conservation
Moment of a Force: product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action to the pivot Law of Conservation of Energy: the total energy of an
ㅤ isolated system cannot change—it is conserved over
time. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but
ㅤM oment = F orce × ⊥Distance f rom P ivot can change form, e.g. from g.p.e to k.e
ㅤ

Torque of a Couple: the product of one of the forces of 5.2. Work Done
the couple and the perpendicular distance between the
lines of action of the forces. Work done by a force: the product of the force and
ㅤ displacement in the direction of the force
W= Fs
T orque = F orce × ⊥Distance between F orces
ㅤ

5.3. Gravitational, Elastic and Electric

Potential Energy

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Gravitational Potential Energy: Power: work done per unit of time

Energy possessed by a mass due to its position in the
P ower = Work Done
gravitational field Time Taken ​

Arises in a system of masses where there are

attractive gravitational forces between them. Deriving it to form P = F v
Elastic potential energy: P = W.d
Energy stored in a body due to a change in its shape T ​& W .d. = F s
​

∴ P = Fs
T = F (t)
s
Arises in a system of atoms where there are
​ ​

attractive / repulsive short-range inter-atomic forces ∴ P = Fv

between them Efficiency: ratio of (useful) output energy of a machine
Electric potential energy: to the input energy
Arises in a system of charges where there are
attractive / repulsive electric forces between them Eff iciency = Useful Energy Ouput
× 100
Total Energy Input
​

5.4. Deriving Gravitational Potential

Energy
6. Deformation of Solids
W = F s & w = mg = F 6.1. Stress and Strain
∴ W = mg.s
Deformation is caused by a force
s in direction of force = h above ground
Tensile force
∴ W = mgh
Act away from each other, object stretched out and
increased in length (extension)
5.5. Deriving Kinetic Energy Compressive force
Act towards each other, object squashed and
W = F s & F = ma decreased in length (compression)
∴ W = ma.s
v 2 = u2 + 2as ⟹ as = 1 2
2 (v
​ − u2 )
∴ W = m. 12 (v 2 − u2 )
​

∴ W = 12 mv 2
​

5.6. Internal Energy

Internal energy: sum of the K.E. of molecules due to its
random motion & the P.E. of the molecules due to the
intermolecular forces.
Gases: k.e. > p.e.
Molecules far apart and in continuous motion = k.e
Weak intermolecular forces so very little p.e.
Liquids: k.e. ≈ p.e. 6.2. Elastic and Plastic Behaviour
Molecules able to slide to past each other = k.e.
Intermolecular force present and keep shape = p.e. A spring produces an extension when a load is attached
Solids: k.e. < p.e. Hooke’s law: the extension produced is proportional to
Molecules can only vibrate ∴ k.e. very little the applied force (due to the load) as long as the limit of
proportionality hasn't been reached.
Strong intermolecular forces p.e. high
F = ke
5.7. Power and Efficiency Where k is the spring constant (unit: force per unit
extension); e is the extension.

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Limit of proportionality: the point beyond which the

extension is no longer proportional to the force
Calculating effective spring constants:

Series Parallel
1
kE ​
​ = k11 +
​
​
1
k2 ​
​ kE = k1 + k2
​ ​ ​

6.3. Determining Young’s Modulus

Measure diameter of wire using micrometer screw gauge
Set up arrangement as diagram:

Gradient = Young’s modulus

Area under the curve = work done per unit volume =
energy stored per unit volume

Elastic deformation: when deforming forces are

removed, the spring returns back to its original length
Plastic deformation: when deforming forces are
Attach weights to end of wire and measure extension removed, the spring does not return to its original length
Elastic limit: maximum stress that can be applied before
causing plastic deformation

Force-Extension Graph:

Calculate Young’s Modulus using formula

6.4. Stress, Strain and Young’s Modulus

Stress: the force applied per unit cross-sectional area Gradient = Spring constant
The area under the curve = work done = strain energy
σ= A ​(N
F ​
m−2 ​or Pascals) stored
Strain: fractional increase in original length of wire Strain energy: the potential energy stored in or work
done by an object when it is deformed elastically
ε = xl ​(no units)
Strain energy = area under force-extension graph
​

Young’s Modulus: ratio of stress to strain

W = 12 F x = 12 kx2
​ ​

−2
ε ​in N m ​or Pascals
σ
E=
7. Waves
​

Stress-Strain Graph:

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7.1. Progressive Waves 7.4. Wave Graphs

Wave motion: a propagation of disturbance that travels
from one location to another.
Displacement: distance of a point from its undisturbed
(equilibrium) position
Amplitude: maximum displacement of a particle from
an undisturbed position
Period: time taken for one complete oscillation
Frequency: number of oscillations per unit time
1
f= T ​

Wavelength: distance from any point on the wave to the

next precisely similar point (e.g. crest to crest)
Wave speed: speed at which the waveform travels in the Displacement-distance graph: for a fixed time
direction of the propagation of the wave Displacement-time graph: for a fixed position
Progressive waves transfer energy from one position to
another. 7.5. Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
7.2. Deducing Wave Equation
Speed = Distance
Time ​

Distance of 1 wavelength is λ and time taken for this is T

∴ v = Tλ ​

f = T1 ​so v = f λ
​

7.3. Phase Difference

Phase difference between two waves is the difference in
terms of fraction of a cycle or in terms of angles (A B)
Wave A leads wave B by θ or Wave B lags wave A by θ Used to determine frequency and amplitude
Y-gain: increase in voltage per unit (determine
Phase difference = λx × 2π (unit: radians or degrees)
amplitude)
​

Time-base: increase in time per unit (determine period

and frequency)

7.6. Intensity
Rate of energy transmitted per unit area perpendicular
to direction of wave propagation (unit: W m−2 )
Power
Intensity = Cross Sectional Area ​

Intensity ∝ Amplitude2
Power Power
For a point source: Intensity = Cross Sectional Area ​ = 4πr2 ​

∴ Intensity ∝ r12 ​

∴ Amplitude ∝ 1r
In phase (in step): phase difference = 0, 2π , …, 2nπ
​

Antiphase: phase difference = π , 3π , …, (2n + 1)π

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7.7. The Doppler Effect

Arises when source of waves moves relative to observer
Can occur in all types of waves, including sound & light
Source stationary relative to Observer:

Longitudinal Waves
Source moving towards Observer: Oscillations of wave particle parallel to direction
of propagation
Polarization cannot occur
E.g. sound waves

Source moving away from Observer:

7.9. Polarization

Change in wavelength leads to change in frequency

Observed frequency (f0 ) is different from actual
​

frequency (fs ​); related by equation:

​

fs v
f0 =
​
​

v±vs ​
​

source moves towards observer: v − vs ,​f0 increases;

​ ​

blue shift
source moves away observer: v + vs ,​f0 decreases; red
​ ​

shift Polarization: the action of restricting the vibration of a

transverse wave wholly or partially to one direction.
where v is speed of wave and vs ​is speed of source relative
ONLY transverse waves can be polarized.
​

to observer
Malus’ Law: I = I0 cos2 θ ​

7.8. Transverse and Longitudinal waves A = A0 cosθ, I ∝ A2

​

where I is the intensity, A is the amplitude, θ is the angle

Transverse Waves between the
Oscillation of wave particles perpendicular to
direction of propagation
Polarization can occur
E.g. light waves

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS
transmission axis of the polaroid and the plane of the
incident polarized wave.

7.10. Electromagnetic Waves

As electromagnetic wave progresses, wavelength
decreases and frequency increases

n = 1, 2, 3, …

8.3. Two-Source Interference

Visible light: 400 nm - 700 nm

All electromagnetic waves:

All travel at the speed of light: 3 ∗ 108 ms− 1

Travel in free space (don’t need medium)
Can transfer energy
Are transverse waves

8. Superposition
8.1. Principle of Superposition Conditions for Observable Two-Source Interference:
Meet at a point
When two or more waves of the same type meet at a Must be of the same type
point, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum of Must be coherent
the individual displacements Must be unpolarized or have the same plane of
polarization
8.2. Interference and Coherence Must have approximately the same amplitude
Demonstrating Two-Source Interference:
Interference: the superposition of two or more waves in
Water Ripple generators in a tank
similar or same direction to give a resultant wave whose
amplitude is given by the principle of superposition. Light Double slit interference
Coherence: same type of waves having same Microwaves Two microwave emitters
frequency/wavelength and a constant phase difference.
Constructive 8.4. Formation of Stationary waves
Two sources in-phase: path difference = nλ
Two sources anti-phase: path difference = n λ2 ​

Destructive
Two sources in-phase: path difference = n λ2 ​

Two sources anti-phase: path difference = nλ

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A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves

of the same frequency, amplitude and speed, travelling
in opposite directions are superposed.
Node: region of destructive superposition where waves
always meet out of phase by π , ∴ displacement = zero
(closed end)
Antinode: region of constructive superposition where Microwaves:
waves meet in phase ∴ particle vibrate with max
amplitude (open end) A microwave emitter placed a distance away from a
metal plate that reflects the emitted wave.
By moving a detector along the path of the wave, the
nodes and antinodes could be detected.

Neighboring nodes & antinodes separated by 12 λ​

Between 2 adjacent nodes, particles move in phase; they

are out of phase with the particles between the next two
nodes by π Air Columns:
Stationary waves cannot transfer energy.
A tuning fork held at the mouth of an open tube projects
Stationary wave at different times: a sound wave into the column of air in the tube.
The length can be changed by varying the water level.
At certain lengths tube, the air column resonates
This is due to the formation of stationary waves by the
incident and reflected sound waves at the water surface.
Node always formed at surface of water

8.5. Stationary Wave Experiments

Stretched String:
String either attached to wall or attached to weight
Stationary waves will be produced by the direct and
reflected waves in the string.
8.6. Stationary and Progressive Waves

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Stationary Waves Progressive Waves
Stores energy (cannot transfer
Transmits energy
energy)
Have nodes & antinodes No nodes & antinodes
Amplitude increases from node Amplitude constant along
to antinode length of the wave
Phase change of π at node No phase change

8.7. Diffraction
Diffraction: the spreading of waves as they pass
through a narrow slit or near an obstacle
For diffraction to occur, the size of the gap should be
equal to the wavelength of the wave. λ = ax
D
​

Where a = split separation

D = distance from slit to screen
x = fringe width
If white light is used:
Central fringe is white: all wavelengths are in step
Other fringes show colored effects: different
wavelength (red light will be further than violet light
because λred > λviolet )
​ ​

Increase amplitude of one Decrease amplitude of one

source source
fringe spacing does not change fringe spacing does not change
bright fringes are brighter bright fringes are darker
dark fringes are darker dark fringes are brighter

Experimental Arrangement
Add a single slit before the double slit: ensure that
the two waves are coherent (needed when using light
bulbs).
Use lasers: light is more concentrated; light is
monochromatic (makes fringes clearer); no single slit
needed.
Gap Width Amount of diffraction
smallest
>> λ
8.9. Diffraction Grating
λ < Gap < 2λ limited
≤λ greatest

8.8. Double-Slit Interference

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Q = Charge, I = Current, t = time taken to flow through

point
Coulomb: charge flowing per second passes a point at
which the current is one ampere
Charge is Quantised: charge values are not continuous;
they are discrete.
All charges are multiples of charge of 1e: 1.6 × 10−19 C
Potential Difference: two points have a potential
difference of 1V if the work required to move 1C of
charge between them is 1 joule
Volt: joule per coulomb

W =VQ
d sin θ = nλ W = Work Done
1
Where d = distance between successive slits = N ​

V = Voltage
N = number of slits per meter Q = Charge
θ = angle from horizontal equilibrium P = V I ; P = I 2R ; P = V2
R
​

n = order number P = Power

λ = wavelength V = Voltage
double-slit diffraction grating I = Current
closely spaced bright widely spaced bright R = Resistance
pattern fringes on a dark fringes on a dark
background background
brighter and sharper
9.2. Current-Carrying Conductors
(more slits: more light pass
features less bright and sharp
through; narrower slits:
more diffracted)

9. Electricity
9.1. Introduction
Electric Current: the flow of charged particles
Charge at a point. Product of the current at that point
and the time for which the current flows, Electrons move in a certain direction when p.d. is applied
across a conductor causing current
Q = It Deriving a formula for current:
Q
I= t ​

Q t
vol. of container = LA time needed = t = L
v
​

No. of free electrons = nLA

Total charge = Q = nLAq

nLAq
∴I= L ​

v ​

I = Anvq

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Where L = length of conductor
A = cross-sectional area of conductor Filament Lamp
n = no. free electrons per unit volume Non-ohmic conductor
q = charge on 1 electron Volt ↑
v = average electron drift velocity Temp. ↑
Vibration of ions ↑
Collision of ions with e- ↑
9.3. Resistance and Resistivity Resistance ↑
Resistance: defined as the ratio of the potential
difference to the current (unit: Ω)

R= V
I ​

Ohm is defined as volt per ampere (Ω = VA−1 )

Ohm’s Law: the current in a component is proportional
to the potential difference across it provided physical
conditions (e.g. temp) stay constant
Ohmic Component: obeys Ohm’s law
R = ρLA ​

ρ = resistivity (constant for the same material at constant

temperature; unit: Ωm)
L = length Thermistor (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
A = cross-sectional area Non-ohmic conductor
Volt ↑
Temp. ↑
9.4. I-V Characteristics Released e- ↑
Resistance ↓
Metallic Conductor
Ohmic conductor
V/I constant
Temperature constant

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Semi-Conductor Diode
Non-ohmic conductor
Low resistance in one direction and infinite resistance
in opposite
Threshold voltage: the voltage at which the diode
suddenly starts to conduct \n

The voltage across resistor: V = IR

Voltage lost to internal resistance: V = E − Ir
Thus e.m.f.: E = IR + Ir
E = I(R + r)

10.3. Kirchhoff’s 1st Law

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
The sum of currents in a junction
Light intensity ↑
Resistance ↓ IS EQUAL TO
The sum of currents out of the junction.

10. D.C. Circuits Kirchhoff’s 1st law is another statement of the law of
conservation of charge

10.1. Potential Difference and 10.4. Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law

Electromotive Force
Sum of e.m.f.s in a closed circuit
Electromotive Force: the amount of energy given to IS EQUAL TO
each coulomb of charge to go around the circuit once. Sum of potential differences
Potential difference (work done per unit charge) Kirchhoff’s 2nd law is another statement of the law of
energy transformed from electrical to other forms conservation of energy
per unit charge
Electromotive force (work done per unit charge)
energy transformed from other forms to electrical 10.5. Deriving Effective Resistance in
Series
10.2. Internal Resistance
From Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law:
Internal Resistance: resistance to current flow within the E = ∑ IR
power source; reduces p.d. when delivering current IR = IR1 + IR2 ​ ​

Current constant therefore cancel:

R = R1 + R2 ​ ​

10.6. Deriving Effective Resistance in

Parallel
From Kirchhoff’s 1st Law:
I = ∑I
I = I1 + I2
​ ​

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V
R = RV1 + RV2
​

​
​

​
​

Voltage constant therefore cancel:

1 1 1
R = R1 + R2
​

​
​

​
​

10.7. Potential Divider

A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.

E1
E2 = LLXY
​

​
​

XT ​
​

10 1
E2 = 0.4
​
​ ​

E2 = 4 V ​

10.9. Circuit Symbols

Usage of a thermistor at R1:
Resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
It can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor
and control temperatures.
Usage of an LDR at R1:
Resistance decreases with increasing light intensity.
It can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor
light intensity.

10.8. Potentiometers
A potentiometer is a continuously variable potential
divider used to compare potential differences
Potential difference along the wire is proportional to the
length of the wire
It can be used to determine the unknown e.m.f. of a cell
This can be done by moving the sliding contact along the
wire until it finds the null point that the galvanometer
shows a zero reading; the potentiometer is balanced

Example: E1 is 10 V, and and distance XY equals 1m. The

potentiometer is balanced at point T, which is 0.4m from X.
Calculate E2

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11. Nuclear Physics

11.1. Geiger-Marsden α
Experiment: a beam of α-particles is fired at thin gold foil

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Nucleon number: total number of protons and

neutrons
Proton/atomic number: total number of protons
Isotope: atoms of the same element with a different
number of neutrons but the same number of protons
Simple model:
The nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.
Electrons move around the nucleus in a cloud, some
closer to and some further from the nucleus.
Nuclide notation: A ZX ​

A: nucleon number
Z: proton number
X: element
Unified atomic mass unit: u
1 mass of a carbon-12 atom
1 u = 12 ​

11.3. Nuclear Processes

During a nuclear process, nucleon number, proton
number and mass-energy are conserved

Radioactive process are random and spontaneous

Random: impossible to predict and each nucleus has the

Results of the experiment: same probability of decaying per unit time
Most particles pass straight through Spontaneous: not affected by external factors such as
Some are scattered appreciably the presence of other nuclei, temperature and pressure
Very few – 1 in 8,000 – suffered deflections > 90º Evidence on a graph:
Conclusion: Random; graph will have fluctuations in count rate
Most of an atom is empty space Spontaneous; graph has same shape even at
All mass and charge concentrated in the center of different temperatures, pressure etc.
atom ∴ nucleus is small and very dense
Nucleus is positively charged as α-particles are 11.4. Radiations
repelled/deflected

11.2. The Nuclear Atom

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α-particle β-particle γ-ray
Helium Fast-moving Fundamental Particle: a particle that cannot be split up
Identity Electromagnetic into anything smaller
nucleus electron/positron
Symbol 4 0 − 0 + 0 Electron is a fundamental particle but protons and
2 He −1 e / 1 e 0γ
neutrons are not
​ ​ ​ ​

Charge +2 −1 0
Protons and neutrons are made up of different
Relative
4 1/1840 0 combinations of smaller particles called quarks
Mass
Table of Quarks:
Slow ( v of light (3 ×
Speed Fast (108 ms−1 )
106 ms−1 ) 108 ms−1 ) Quark Symbol Charge
Continuous range Up u + 23 e ​

(because
Energy Discrete Down d − 13 e
(anti)neutrinos are
​

emitted in β-decay) Charm c + 23 e​

Stopped Few mm of Strange s − 13 e

Paper Few cm of lead
​

by aluminium
Top t + 23 e
Ionizing
​

High Low Very Low Bottom b − 13 e

power ​

Effect of Deflected
Deflected greater Undeflected Quark Models:
Magnetic slightly
Effect of Attracted to
Attracted to +ve Undeflected Proton Neutron
Electric -ve
Strong
Force Weak interaction
interaction

11.5. Types of Decays

α decay: loses a helium nucleus
A X → A−4 X + 4 α
Z​

Z−2 2 ​ ​

−
β decay: neutron turns into a proton and an electron &
electron antineutrino are emitted
A X → A X + 0 e− + B \n u}
Z​

Z+1 −1 ​ ​

d → u + 0−1 e− + B
​

2 Up & 1 Down 1 Up & 2 Down

β + decay: proton turns into a neutron and a positron & + 23 e + 23 e − 13 e = +e
​ ​ ​
+ 23 e − 13 e − 13 e = 0
​ ​ ​

electron neutrino are emitted

A X → A X + 0 e+ + \n u
Z​

Z−1 1 ​ ​

All particles have their corresponding antiparticle (same

u → d + 01 e+ + \n u
​

mass, opposite charge)

γ decay: a nucleus changes from a higher energy state to Table of Antiquarks:
a lower energy state through the emission of
electromagnetic radiation (photons) Antiquark Symbol Charge
Anti-Up u − 23 e ​

11.6. Fundamental Particles Anti-Down d + 13 e ​

These antiquarks combine to similarly form respective

antiprotons and antineutrons

11.7. Particle Families

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Hadrons: made up of quarks

Leptons: fundamental particles
Baryons: made up of 3 quarks of 3 antiquarks
Mesons: made up of 1 quark & 1 antiquark

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CAIE AS Level
Physics

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