Psychological Foundations of Learning and Development

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definition of Psychology

The meaning of the word ‘psychology’ is derived from two Greek words- ‘psyche’ and
‘logos.’ While ‘psyche’ refers to mind, soul or spirit, ‘logos’ means study, knowledge or
discourse. Therefore, the term ‘psychology’ simply refers to the study of the mind, soul, or spirit
and it is often represented by, the Greek letter psy (‘sy’).
Definition of Psychology: Most psychologists today would agree that ‘Psychology’ is the
scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The scientific study implies the use of systematic
methods such as observation and experimentation to gather information about human and animal
behavior and cognition (mental processes). Psychology’s methods are not casual. They are
carefully and precisely planned and conducted. Psychology doesn’t accept assumptions about
human nature at face value, however reasonable they may sound. It is a rigorous discipline that tests
assumptions.

While behavior in the definition refers to actions that can be readily observed (such as physical
activities and speaking), mental processes are more difficult to define. They are the thoughts,
feelings and motives that each of us experiences privately. These include perceiving, thinking,
remembering, and feeling.

1.2. Goals of Psychology

The study of psychology has four basic goals:

1. Describe – The first goal is to observe behavior and describe, often in minute detail, what was
observed as objectively as possible

2. Explain – While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond what is
obvious and explain their observations. In other words, why did the subject do what he or she did?

3. Predict – Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate what will
happen in the future.

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4. Control – Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the
future, we can excerpt control over it. In other words, if we know you choose abusive partners
because your father was abusive, we can assume you will choose another abusive partner, and can
therefore intervene to change this negative behavior. Not only do psychologists attempt to control
behavior, they want to do so in a positive manner, they want to improve a person’s life, not make it
worse.

1.3. The Beginnings of Psychology as a Science

Until the 19th century, psychology was not a formal discipline. Of course most of the great thinkers
of history raised questions that today would be called psychological. For instance, the early Greek
philosophers Socrates and Aristotle urged us to know ourselves, to use logic to make inferences
about mind, and to systematically observe behavior. It was Aristotle who argued that an empirical
approach, rather than dialogue, was the best route to knowledge. Direct observation remains an
important dimension of psychology today.

It wasn’t until the 19th century, in Germany, that psychology emerged as a science. Hence, credit
for the establishment of psychology as a science usually goes to Wilhelm Wundt [VIL-helm-voont),
who formally founded the first Psychological laboratory in 1879, in Leipzig, Germany.
With Wundt Psychology began as the science of mental life. His focus was on understanding
mental processes, focusing on inner sensations, feelings and thoughts. Until the 1920’s,
psychology remained as the science of mental life.

From 1920’s to 1960’s, American psychologists led by J.B. Watson refined psychology as the
science of observable behavior. They focused only on observable and measurable behavior. After
the 1960’s, psychology is considered to be concerned both with mental processes and outer
behavior. During the first decades of psychology’s existence as a formal discipline, psychologists
came to hold quite different views about the nature of the mind and the best ways to study it. About
the same time fundamental questions were raised about what should be studied in Psychology:
Should Psychology be the study of the mind, should it study Behavior, or should both mind and
Behavior be included?

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Different influential psychologists of the time held quite different views on the nature of mind and
the proper subject matter for psychology. Schools of thought formed around these leaders as their
students adopted their ideas. These schools of thought are known as the schools of Psychology.

1.4 Early schools of Psychology

a. Structuralism
One of such students was Edward Bradford Titchner who gave Wundt’s approach the name
Structuralism. The goal of the structuralists was to find out the units, or elements, which make up
the mind. They thought that as in chemistry, the first step in the study of the mind should be the
description of the basic or elementary units of sensation, image, and emotion, which compose the
mind.

Structuralists hoped to analyze sensations, images and feelings into basic elements, much as a
chemist might analyze water into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Structuralists wanted to strip
perception of its associations in order to find the very atoms of thought. The main method used by
the structuralists to discover these elementary units of the mind was introspection. Introspection is a
technique whereby specially trained people carefully observe and analyze their own mental
experiences.

b. Functionalism
Functionalists argued that our minds are characterized by a continuous flow of information (stream
of consciousness) about our experiences rather than by discrete components. They were interested
in the fact that mind and Behavior are adaptive- they enable an individual to adjust to a changing
environment.

The functionalists did experiments on the ways in which learning, memory, problem solving, and
motivation help people and animals adapt to their environments. The inspiration for this was partly
attributed to the evolutionary theories of British Naturalist Charles Darwin. The functionalists
developed many research methods other than introspection, including questionnaires, mental tests
and objective descriptions of Behavior. The functionalists’ emphasis on the causes and
consequences of behavior set the course of psychological science.

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c. Gestalt psychology
The gestalt psychologists argued that the mind is not made up of a combination of elements. The
German word gestalt refers to form, whole, configuration or pattern.

Accordingly, the Gestalts maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole
pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organizations with in this pattern. In brief, the
Gestalts acknowledged consciousness; they just refused to look at it in little pieces. They held that
the whole is the sum of its parts, a view that had a particular impact on the study of perception.
Their goal was to understand the phenomenon of conscious experience in holistic terms and their
subject matter was subjective experience with emphasis on perception, memory and thinking.
d. Behaviorism
These psychologists were focused on observable, measurable behavior- and nothing more. In
addition to its focus on Behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology, behaviorism had three
other important characteristics:
 Emphasis on conditioned response as the elements or building blocks of behavior.
 Its emphasis on learned rather than unlearned Behavior.
 Its focus on animal Behavior.
e. Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud, an obscure neurologist, was in his office, listening to his patients’ reports of
depression, nervousness and obsessive habits. Freud became convinced that many of his patients’
symptoms had mental, not bodily causes. Their distress, he concluded, was due to conflicts and
emotional traumas that had occurred in early childhood and that were too threatening to be
remembered consciously.

Freud argued that conscious awareness is merely the tip of the mental iceberg. Beneath the visible
tip, he said, lies the unconscious part of the mind, containing hidden wishes, passions, guilty
secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflicts between desire and duty. We are not aware of our
unconscious urges and thoughts as we go blithely about our daily business, yet they make
themselves known- in dreams, slips of the tongue, apparent accidents, and even jokes

Freud believed that unlearned biological instincts influence the way individuals think, feel, and
behave.

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1.5. Modern Perspectives of Psychology

Modern psychologists tend to examine human nature through several lenses. These lenses that
predominate psychology today are the biological, learning, cognitive, socio-cultural,
psychodynamic and humanistic perspectives. These lenses reflect different questions about
human behavior, different assumptions about how the mind works, and, most important, different
kinds of explanations why people do what they do.
a) The Neurobiological Perspective
This perspective focuses on how bodily events/ functioning of the body affect behavior, feelings
and thoughts. Psychologists have long recognized this fact and generally agree that understanding
theses biological roots is an essential component of the field. This perspective holds that an
understanding of the brain and the nervous system is central in the understanding of behavior,
thought and emotion.
b) The Learning Perspective
Within this perspective Behaviorists focus on the environmental conditions- the rewards and
punishers that maintain or discourage specific Behaviors.
Social learning theorists, on the other hand, combine elements of behaviorism with research on
thoughts, values, expectations and intentions. They believe that people learn not only by adapting
their behavior to the environment, but also by imitating others and by thinking about the events
happening around them.

In other words, these theorists believe that behavior is determined not only by its own
controlling environmental conditions, but also by how thought processes modify the
impact of environment on behavior

c) The cognitive perspective

This perspective emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our
attention, how perceive, how we remember, and how we think and solve problems. One of this
perspective’s most important contributions has been to show how people’s thoughts and
explanations affect their actions, feelings and choices.
d) The socio-cultural perspective

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The socio-cultural perspective focuses on social and cultural forces outside the individual. It
emphasizes that culture, ethnicity, and gender are essential to understanding behavior, thought and
emotion.
Within this perspective, social psychologists focus on social rules and roles, how groups affect
attitudes and behavior, why people obey authority, and how other people- spouses, lovers, friends,
bosses, parents and strangers, affect each of us.
Cultural psychologists examine how cultural rules and values- both explicit and unspoken- affect
people’s development, behavior and feelings.

e) The psychodynamic perspective

This perspective emphasizes the unconscious aspects of the mind, conflict between biological
instincts and society’s demands, and early family experiences. It deals with unconscious dynamics
within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or instinctual energy. It has its origins in
Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis, but many other psychodynamic theories exist.
Psychodynamic psychologists try to dig below the surface of a person’s behavior to get to its
unconscious motives; they think of themselves as archaeologists of the mind.

f) The Humanistic perspective

Human Behavior, in the humanists view (Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow), is not completely
determined by either unconscious dynamics or the environment. They stress a person’s capability
for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny and positive qualities. The goal of humanist
psychology was to help people express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential.

Learning Activities:
1. Define psychology in brief.
2. Describe the history of psychology.
3. List and describe early schools of Psychology
4. Mention six modern perspectives of psychology
5. Compare and contrast the differences and similarities between early schools of
psychology and modern perspective.

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UNIT TWO

2. LEARNING

2.1. Definition of Learning, Characteristics and Factors that Affect Learning

2.1.1. Definition of learning

It is very difficult to give a universally acceptable definition of learning, because various theories
developed by psychologists attempt to define the term from different angles.

Let us see some.

- Learning is an acquired tension – reduction (Murphy)
- Learning is to respond differently to a situation because of past experience to the situation
(Guthrie)
- Learning any relatively permanent change in an individual which results from experience
(Hull).
- Melvin H. Marx defines learning as follows.
“Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior which is a function of prior
experience or behaviour.”Or “learning is a relatively permanent influence on behavior,
knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience.”

The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning as a process.

1. Learning is a permanent change in behavior. Here it is important to note that the change
may be for better or worse. It does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation
and use of intoxication,
2. Learning is not directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual,
3. Learning results in some change of enduring nature, i.e. Learned changes should stay a
fairly long period of time, transient effects of drug, alcohol etc will not be considered as
part of learning. and
4. Learning depends on practice and experience, i.e. learning primarily due to maturation
(biological programming) is not learning. Example swallowing, sucking breast, stand and
walking, voice change at puberty etc.

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2.1.2. Characteristics of Learning

Do you list some characteristics of learning?

The following are some important characteristics of learning

i. Learning is growth: Through his/her daily experiences the learner grows mentally and
physically. Learning is growth through experience.
ii. Learning is Adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust him/herself adequately to the
new environment or situations.
iii. Learning is organizing Experience: Learning is not mere addition or the acquiring of new
knowledge, facts or skills. It is also the reorganization/reconstruction of experience.
iv. Learning is purposeful: The process of learning is based on purpose.
v. Learning is Active: In the process of learning active involvement of the individual in his
environment is required. This can take place by questioning, problem solving, discussion etc.
vi. Learning is both individual and social: Learning is more than an individual activity. It is a
social activity too. Social agencies like family, peers, teachers, social and religious institutions
etc. have a tremendous influence on the individual learning.
vii. Learning the product of environment: Environment plays an important role in the
individual’s learning. In learning there is an interaction of the environment with the organism.
viii. True Learning Affects the Conduct of the Learner: There is a change in the mental
structure of the learner after every experience or learning.

2.1.3. Factors Affecting Individual Learning

- Can you list some factors that affect individual learning?

There are many factors that hindered or facilitate human learning. Basically factors are three;
 Factors related to the learner
 Factors related to the teacher, and
 Factors related to the subject matter.
The problems for example are hereditary, the physical conditions of the learner, health related
problems, home environment, psychological and pedagogical conditions and natures of learners and
teachers etc. See the following detailed list of factors in the table.

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General factors that affect human learning

Additional factors that affect learners
- Objective/purpose of learning - Lack of :
- Readiness for learning - Opportunity for peer group stimulus, group
- Interest involvement
- Physical, emotional or social condition - Access to library, laboratory
- Application of full attention - Personal contact with tutor
- Strong motivation to learn - External motivation
- Active involvement of the learner - Counselling for individual problem experienced
- Feedback and reinforcement to the learner - Inadequate general education of the student to
- Practice taken the course being attempt
- Testing - In adequate allocation of time for studying the
- Age correspondence materials
- Study habits of students - Poor postal services
- Organization and presentation of learning - Poor lesson material
materials - Poor tutorial assistance
Please add

2.1.4.Types of Learning
There are many types of learning, ranging from simple to complex in educational psychology.

Different scholars classify learning differently. Robert Gage (1972) gives the following
classification of learning types:
A. Verbal information: this refers to facts about events, features, structures, processes and so
on. Example, historical events, geographical features, biological processes (listening to
lectures, reading and discussion).
B. Intellectual skills: it is ability to master symbols and think properly using the symbols.
Example, language and mathematical skills (demonstration and practice is useful for
mastery).
C. Motor skill: development of abilities which involve muscular activity. Example, typing,
operating a machine, setting a laboratory experiment (the skill should be executed in the
proper sequence; it should be executed smoothly).
D. Affective/attitudinal domain: acquisition of positive or negative tendencies to phenomena
(persons, religions, ideologies, ethnic groups, vocations etc). The development of values
such as honesty and considerateness is also affective learning. Factors contributing for

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attitude developments are need/aspirations of the individual, social pressure, individual

experience, instructor modeling etc.

2.2. Theories of Learning and their Educational Implications

There are three broad classification of learning theories. These are behavioral learning theory, social
learning theory and cognitive learning theory. In this section these three major learning theories will
be discussed one by one.

2.2.1. Behavioral Learning Theories

Basic Assumption of Behaviorists

Behaviorism is a school of thought that emphasizes the role of experience in governing behavior. A
major goal of the behaviorists is to determine the laws governing learning. Behaviorism, as
learning theory, is more interested misbehavior and how behavior changes as a result of a
person’s experiences. Behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be
observed and measured. This concern about the nature of learning has dominated academic
psychology for most of the century.

The assumption which underlie the behaviorists perspective are:

 Learning is a change in response or in the way the learners act.

 A stimulus is necessary to activate learning.
 The learner has to do something (respond to a stimulus) for learning to occur.
 Repetition of the Stimulus-Response (S-R) connection promotes learning.
 The consequences that follow the responses of the learner to a stimulus can hinder or
encourage learning.
 Learning is verified through observation i.e. the changes in the action/behaviours of the
learner should be directly observable.
Within the behavioral approach to learning there are different theories that can be seen under two
categories.
S – R theories without reinforcement such as
S- Stimulus
Pavlov’s classical conditioning paradigm R- Response

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S- R theories with reinforcement such as

Skinner’s operant conditioning theory
Key proponents in the development of the behaviorist theory are:
1. Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning theory)
2. B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning theory)

2.2.1.1. S – R theories without reinforcement

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning (CC)/ Type One Learning

- Do you list some contribution of Pavlov for the development modern theory of learning?
- Who was Ivan Pavlov?
Classical conditioning (CC) was developed by a Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov, a
Russian physiologist, won a noble prize in 1904 for his research on digestion in dog.
In his research on digestion, Pavlov would place meat powder on dog’s tongue, which stimulated
reflexive salivation. He found that after repeated presentations of the meat powder, the dog would
salivate in response to stimuli (that is environmental event) associated with the meat powder. A dog
would salivate at the sight of its food dish, the sight of the laboratory assistant who brought food, or
sound of the assistant’s footsteps. Pavlov has been studied this basic type of associative learning
which is now called classical conditioning or Pavlov’s conditioning.
What do you understand from the above discuss?
- CC emphasized on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological response such as
fear, salivation or sweating.
- CC also called respondent condition because automatic response transfers from one
stimulus to another.
- CC occurs when a person form mental association between two stimuli people tends to
form these mental associations between events or stimuli that occur closely together in
space and time.
- Sometimes classical also called as stimulus substitution; because it involves substituting a
neutral stimulus in place of natural stimulus. During the conditioning procedures the CS-
UCS pairing will enables the CS to have the capacity to activate the UCS area so that CR
will occur whenever CS is presented.

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Pavlov’s experiment had three phases

Schematic presentation of the conditioning process

Before conditioning

Step 1: Food, Unconditioned stimulus Saliva Produce

Unconditioned Response
(UCS) (UCR)

Step 2: Ringing of the bell, Produce No response

Neutral stimulus (NS)

During Conditioning
Saliva
Steps 3: Bell plus Food produces Unconditioned Respond
(NS) + (UCS) (UCR)

Ringing the bell plus food produces Saliva

(Repeated a number of firmes)

After conditioning Saliva

Step 4. Conditioned stimulus produces Conditioned response
(CR)
(CS) Ringing the bell alone Saliva

- What do you understand from the above schematic presentation of conditioning process?
- Why do we call “food” UCS, “saliva” UCR on the first step?
- Why bell is called “NS” at the second step?
- Why we call the bell “CS” and “Saliva” CR at the 4th step.
- The term unconditioned stimulus (UCS) “food” and unconditioned response (UCR)
“saliva” on the first step indicate there is unlearned, or inborn connection between the
stimulus (food) and the response (saliva)
- The bell is called neutral stimulus (NS) on the second step because it does not initially
produce any saliva as a response.
- Because the bell – food association over and over again (step 3) the bell alone eventually
(CS) causes the dog to salivate (CR) (Step – 4).

Some Phenomena of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov and his associates discovered several phenomena during their experimental studies on the
gastric secretion in dog.

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The main findings are:-

1. Acquisition 4. Generalization
2. Extinction 5. Discrimination
3. Spontaneous recovery
1. Acquisition
The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the conditioned response. Example: the dog is
learning to salivate at the sound of the bell. Order and timing of the stimuli affect the speed of
conditioning during the acquisition phase.
The following conditionings are identified based on the time interval between CS and UCS
Delayed conditioning
- CS is presented first and remains until the onset of UCS
Trace conditioning
- The CS is first presented and ends before the onset of UCS
Simultaneous conditioning
- The CS and UCS begin to present together within half a minute.
Backward conditioning
- UCS is presented first and followed by CS
- Which conditioning produce strong conditioning and weak conditioning?

2. Extinction
In Pavlov CC, if the conditioned stimulus (the bell) is repeatedly presented without being followed
by the UCS (the food) for a number of trials, the conditioned response was found to “weaken”
gradually and get “extinguished”.

3. Spontaneous recovery.

When the dog is brought out of the experimental set-up and again put in the set – up after a lapse of
time, the dog responds to conditioned stimulus (CS). This process is called spontaneous recovery.
This process explains that there is no complete extinction due to time interval but there is inhibition
of CR.

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4. Generalization
Is a process in which a CR to a stimulus is generalized to similar category of stimuli? After the dog
salivate in response to hearing one particular sound, it would also salivate after hearing other
similar sound.

5. Discrimination
Refers to the ability to respond to one tone but not to others that are similar by making sure that
food always followed only by one tone, not others.
Applications of classical conditioning
The principles of classical conditioning can be used.
1. Developing good habits: principles of classical conditioning can be used for developing good
habits in children such as cleanness (net), respect for elders and punctuality etc.
2. Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear: all learning is acquired in the
social environment. Principles of classical condition can be used to reconditioning anxiety,
fear in maladjusted children, developing risk free health behaviour.
3. Training of animals: animals are trained to show human actions, behaviours, e.g. animal
circus.
4. Use in psychotherapy. The principles of classical conditioning are used in reconditioning
emotional fears in mental patients.
5. Developing positive attitude CC can be used to develop favorable or unfavorable attitude
towards something.

Educational Implication of Classical Conditioning

- The teacher must use audio visual aids in the teaching & learning processes.
- Associate positive & pleasant events with learning tasks.
- Emphasize group competition and co-operation over individual competition.
- Help students to risk anxiety producing situations voluntary and successfully.
- Help students to recognize differences and similarities among situations so, they can discriminate and
generalize appropriately.
- Help students to associate the learning tasks to the real world situations and phenomenon.

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- Classical conditioning is typically used in behavioral therapy to remove maladaptive behaviors such
as smoking, fear bad habits, hatred, stealing and also developing good habits and desirable behaviors
such as habits of cleanliness, punctuality, respect for others, moral values, etc

Criticisms of Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning

 All learning is not conditioning, rather it is an active process.
 Learning needs intelligence and understanding but conditioning ignores it while emphasizing only
the stimulus- response relationships.

2.2.1.2. S - R theories with reinforcement

Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Learning/Type two learning

The founder of this theory is B.F. Skinner. He began with the belief that the principles of classical
conditioning account for only a small portion of learned behaviours. He suggested that most
behaviour is emitted or voluntarily enacted. The theory is called operant conditioning because it is
based on certain operations or actions. People actively “operate” on their environment to produce
different kinds of consequences. These deliberates are called operant.

In the process of operant conditioning, operant responses are modified or changed by the
consequences. Behaviour like response or action is simply a reward for what a person does in a
particular situation. To study the effects of consequences on behaviour under carefully controlled
situations skinner designed a special cage like apparatus called Skinner box. The subject of this
experiment put was rat.
The typical Skinner box is a small enclosure containing only food tray and a lever or a bar. The
lever is connected to a food hopper. In one experiment a hungry rat is placed in the box and
continues to explore it. Since a rat tend to hungry, the animal will eventually get around to pecking
the lever. Then a small food pellet drop in to tray. The hungry rat eat the food, moves around again
and pecks the lever again, more food dropped and eat continuously, the next time the rat is placed in
the box, it will go directly to the lever and begin pecking.
The above experiment explains that behaviour occurs in the environment as a result of active
actions of the animal upon the environment. What follows this action or behaviour is important.

We learn this way every day in our lives. Imagine the last time you made a mistake; you most likely
remember that mistake and do things differently when the situation comes up again. In that sense,

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you’ve learned to act differently based on the natural consequences of your previous actions. The
same holds true for positive actions. If something you did results in a positive outcome, you are
likely to do that same activity again.

Operations involved in Operant Conditioning

Some of the operations are: shaping, reinforcement, and punishment. Extinction and spontaneous
recovery, stimulus generation and discrimination are discussed so far in relation to classical
conditioning.
1) Shaping – it is the judicious use of selection reinforcement to bring change in desired
behaviour, or it is the process of reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal. The
basic process in shaping is successive approximation to the designed goal.
 For a response to be reinforced, it must first occur. But, suppose you to train a child to use a
knife and a fork properly. Such behaviors, and most others in everyday life, have almost no
probability appearing spontaneously.
 Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a
desired response are reinforced.
 In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in the right direction. Then you gradually
require responses that are more and more similar to the final, desired response. The
responses that you reinforce on the way to the final one are called successive
approximations.
2) Reinforcement – refers to the use consequences to strengthen the behaviour it follows. It is a
stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of the occurrence of a response or
behaviour.
The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything stimulus
which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if you want
your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you. The dog will
eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. This treat is
reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so.

This is a simple description of a reinforce (Skinner, 1938), the treat, which increases the response,
sitting. We all apply reinforces every day, most of the time without even realizing we are doing it.
You may tell your child "good job" after he or she cleans their room; perhaps you tell your partner

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how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe you got a raise at work after doing a great
job on a project. All of these things increase the probability that the same response will be repeated.

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Types of reinforcement

A) Positive reinforcement: - It occurs when presenting positive value stimulus strengthens the
probability of the occurrence of a response (e.g. Water, food, praise). The examples above describe
what is referred to as positive reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a
response. For example, adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will
increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive
reinforcement or praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and
receiver.

B) Negative reinforcement: - is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which strength the
probability of the occurrence of a response (e.g. loud noise, bright light, electric shock, failure,
rejection, criticism). Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative away in order to
increase a response. Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take out the garbage week
after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day performs the task
and to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination of this negative stimulus is reinforcing
and will likely increase the chances that he will take out the garbage next week. Skinner also
examined and categorized reforcers according to their power.
Primary reinforces – these are natural or innate reinforces and are those that affect behaviour
without the necessity of learning. They are satisfying basic/ biological needs – like food, water, sex
etc.
Secondary reinforces: are those that acquire reinforcing power because they have been associated
with primary reinforces-money is a good example. Facial expressions (frowning, smiling), words
(praise): privileges (appointment to leadership role), social approval etc are also some types of
secondary reinforces.
Quick Summary of the four possible consequences of behavior

Actio
n
Consequence
Desirable
consequence
Undesirable Consequence

Getting something Avoiding something Getting something Avoiding

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(Positive reinforcement) (Negative reinforcement (Positive punishment) (Negative punishment)

OR
Types of stimulus Types of consequence of an action
delivered or removed Received (on set) Removed (off set)
Positive stimulus - Praise, appreciation food, - Promotion, participation,
(desirable stimulus) recognition. playing materials
Negative punisher
Positive reinforce
Negative stimulus - Corporal punishment - Salary deduction
(undesirable stimulus) - Breathing the smoke of red - Social sanction
paper Negative Reinforcer
Positive punisher

3) Schedules of Reinforcement
In real life situations, reinforcement does not occur every time a response makes a correct response
to a given stimulus. Reinforcement occurs according to a certain schedules. The schedules of
reinforcement may be made on the basis of number, time and rate of response between
reinforcement or a combination of all these.

There are two major types of reinforcement schedules

1. Continuous reinforcement schedule
2. Intermittent/partial reinforcement schedule
1. Continuous reinforcement schedule: It is an arrangement of providing reinforcement after
every correct response.
2. Intermittent or partial schedule. It is an arrangement where sometimes we provide
reinforcement and sometimes we with hold the reinforcement.

Types of intermittent or partial reinforcement

1. Interval schedule: It is an arrangement of giving reinforcement after an interval of time.
Example after every 2 minutes.
A) Fixed interval (FI) schedule reinforcement is presented after prescribed fixed time interval.
Applying the reinforces after a specific amount of time is referred to as a fixed interval schedule.
An example might be getting a raise every year and not in between. A major problem with this
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schedule is that people tend to improve their performance right before the time period expires so as
to "look good" when the review comes around.
Example: application of fixed – interval schedule are many
(a) Students attend classes at certain fixed hours of the day.
(b) We eat at regular periods in the day.
(c) Payment of salary on 1st of every month.
(d) Administration of quiz test on every Monday to the class.

B) Variable Interval (VI) schedule in this schedule reinforcement is after various length of time.
Example, after 3’, 6’, 10’, 2’, 20’, etc. Reinforcing someone after a variable amount of time is
the other schedule. If you have a boss who checks your work periodically, you understand the
power of this schedule. Because you don’t know when the next ‘check-up’ might come, you
have to be working hard at all times in order to be ready.

2. Ratio schedule: reinforcement is administered based on the number of correct responses given
between reinforces.

A. Fixed ratio (FR) schedule reinforcement is administered after a fixed number of correct
responses. A fixed ratio schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific number of
behavoirs. Spanking a child if you have to ask him three times to clean his room is an example. The
problem is that the child (or anyone for that matter) will begin to realize that he can get away with
two requests before he has to act. Therefore, the behavior does not tend to change until right before
the preset number. In this schedule
- higher rate of response is recorded
- start with a low ratio and gradually increase the ratio
Example of Fixed ratio:
(a) A man is paid after completing certain amount of work
(b) Commission agents receive commission after selling a certain amount of commodity
(c) Student learns 25 lines and gets a coffee

When reinforcement is applied on an irregular basis, they are called variable schedules.

B).Variable ratio (VR) schedule. This refers to applying reinforces after a variable number of
responses. Variable ratio schedules have been found to work best under many circumstances and

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knowing an example will explain why. Imagine walking into a casino and heading for the slot
machines. After the third coin you put in, you get two back. Two more and you get three back.
Another five coins and you receive two more back. How difficult is it to stop playing? Example,
reinforcement is given after a varying number of maths problems are computed.

In above four cases, the variable schedules are more powerful and result in more consistent
behaviors and specifically variable ratio is the most persistent and enduring. This may not be as true
for punishment since consistency in the application is so important, but for all other types of
reinforcement they tend to result in stronger responses.

4) Punishment: - involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus (positive punishment) or with

holding of a positive stimulus (negative punishment) to decreases the probability of a response.
Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease behaviour. The most common
example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for misbehaving. The reason we do this is
because the child begins to associate being punished with the negative behaviour. The punishment
is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she will stop behaving in that manner.

Quick Summary :Examples of reinforcers

1. Consumable Reinforcers - these are edible rein forcers like candy, ice-cream, Biscuit, Gum etc...
1. Social approval and attention - giving praise and attention are extremely powerful rein forcers
especially for youngsters.
3. Stimulation and activity Reinforcers - rein forcers like listening music, playing sport, solving
puzzles etc...
4. Positive Reinforcers - All the above are examples of positive rein forcers because their onset
strengthens behavior.
5. Negative Reinforcers - The removal of unpleasant stimulus to strength behavior.
6. Primary Reinforcers - are biologically relevant rewards to satisfy basic needs like water, food,
oxygen etc...
7. Acquired /secondary/ conditioned/ Reinforcers - not biological or inherent but acquired by
associating with primary rein forcers. E.g. money, grade etc

The Pros and Cons of Punishment

 For Punishment to works there must be:
 Immediacy – When punishment follows immediately after the behaviors to be punished.
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 Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior being punished is

intermittently reinforced and therefore becomes resistant to extinction.
 Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are more effective than mild ones. But,
there are studies that indicate that even less intense punishments are effective provided
that they are applied immediately and consistently.
 When does punishment fails?
1. People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly. They swing in a blind
rag or shout things they do not mean applying punishment so broadly that it covers all
sorts of irrelevant behaviors.
2. The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear or rage. Through a process
of classical conditioning, these emotional side effects may then generalize to the entire
situation in which the punishment occurs- the place, the person delivering the punishment,
and the circumstances. These negative emotional reactions can create more problems than
the punishment solves. A teenager who has been severely punished may strike back or run
away. Being physically punished in childhood is a risk factor for depression, low self-
esteem, violent behavior and many other problems.
3. The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending heavily on the presence of
the punishing person or circumstances
4. Most behavior is hard to punish immediately.
Punishment conveys little information. An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing
because it brings attention.
5) Behavior Modification
The application of some of the principles of classical and operant conditioning to changing behavior
is called behavior modification. Its major goal is to replace unacceptable responses with acceptable
ones. The basic idea underlying this area of application is the issue of changing maladjusted and
unwanted behaviors of humans and animals alike through the use of the effects of reinforcement
and punishment.
This is actually a very important technique formulated by behaviorists so as to treat people who are
suffering from various kinds of psychological problems. The intention, in here, is molding or
changing abnormal behaviors which create some sort of malfunction in the lives of human beings.

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Behavior modification is used in many situations, ranging from therapy to child rearing. Ignoring a
child's temper tantrum but rewarding that child's polite behavior is an example of a behavior
modification procedure.

Quick Summary of Schedules of Reinforcement

 There are two major types of reinforcement schedules
 Continuous reinforcement schedule and
 Partial /intermittent/ reinforcement schedule

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement Partial (intermittent)

Schedule reinforcement Schedule

Interval Schedule Ratio Schedule

Fixed Interval Variable Interval Fixed ratio Variable ratio

Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule

a. Continuous Reinforcement schedule - give reinforcement for every correct action (responses).
- It is most useful to establish new behavior but they are quite easy to extinguish /extinct/.
b. Partial /intermittent/ Reinforcement schedule - rewards follow only some correct responses.
 Please identify the differences and similarities of classical conditioning and operant
conditioning?
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning a comparison
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
1. Conditioned stimulus is linked with - Response is linked with reinforce
the unconditioned stimulus to produce - Response oriented
unconditioned response - Learning is through response
2. Stimulus oriented modification
3. Learning is through stimulus - Behaviour is emitted
4. Behaviour is elicited - Response is voluntary
5. Response is involuntary

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Limitations of Operant Conditioning

 The operant reinforcement system does not adequately take into account the elements of
creativity, curiosity, and spontaneity in human beings.
 He has ignored the structural and heredity factors, which are very important in the
development of psychological process of language.
 It is also doubtful whether the result derived from controlled experimental studies on
animals would yield the same result on human beings in the social learning situations.
 The theory does not deal with the depth of mind and thus it is artificial in nature.

Educational Implications of Operant Conditioning

1. Focus on what you want students to do, rather than on what you want them not to do. This will
help you in using differential reinforcement. If you reinforce desirable behaviors that are
incompatible with undesirable behaviors (for instance, being on-task, which is incompatible with
being off-task), students will know what it is you want from them. In addition, tell students what
they are doing right.

2. Remember that one size does not fit all when it comes to reinforcement. It is only reinforcement if
the behavior increases. What is reinforcing to one student may be punishing to another. Extra recess
may be highly valued by many children, but not by the child whose peers have rejected him/her.
There are developmental differences in what students find to be reinforcing. What is reinforcing to
first-graders is not likely to be reinforcing to middle school students. A very popular reinforcer
among young children is lunch with the teacher. This is often used as punishment at the middle
school level.
3. Teachers often inadvertently reinforce behavior we do not want to continue. As discussed above,
this may be in the form of attention. For some students any attention (even negative) is better than
no attention. However, we do it in other ways as well. We might inadvertently negatively reinforce
a student’s disruptive behavior by sending him/her out of the classroom, and thereby removing
what the student considers to be an aversive stimulus (some content area, a test, reading aloud . . .).

4. When using the Premack principle, we give students information about what they should find
enjoyable. “If you finish your math problems, then you may use the computer.” This statement
tells young children that using the computer is preferable to completing math problems.
Is this a message you want to send?

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5. Teachers are not the only sources of reinforcement and punishment in the classroom. Classmates
often reinforce behavior that we are trying to extinguish. For instance, the class clown is reinforced
by laughter from peers. As children develop peers have greater influence, thus reinforcement from
peers may become more important than reinforcement from teachers.

6. Punishment is not punishment unless the behavior decreases. Just as reinforcement is not one-
size-fits-all, neither is punishment. We see similar individual and developmental differences in what
children see as punishing.

7. Taking away recess as punishment (response cost) is a bad idea. Children need unstructured time
to engage in physical activity, play, and socialize. Breaks such as recess can increase young
children’s attention to academic tasks. Older children and adolescents benefit from recess in
similar ways.

8. Given the problems associated with punishment, it should be a last resort. Try other ways of
getting students to do what it is you want them to do before you resort to punishment.

2.2.2. Social learning /Observational Learning Theory

Developed by Albert Bandura, Social learning theory accept most the principles of behavioural
theorists but focuses to much greater degree on the effects of cues on behaviour and internal mental
processes, emphasized the effects of thought on action and action on thought. Bandura noted that
the Skinnerian emphasized on the effects of the consequences of the behaviour largely ignored the
phenomena of modelling (the imitation of others behaviour) and of vicarious experience (learning
from others’ successes or failure).

He felt that much of human learning is not shaped by its consequences but is more efficiently
learned directly from a model. The physical education teacher demonstrates jumping jacks, and the
students imitate. Bandura calls this no-trial learning, because students don’t have to go through a
shaping process but can reproduce the correct response immediately.

Observational learning is learning a type that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone
else’s behaviour. This theory states that social and cognitive factors, as well as behaviour, play
important roles in learning. Cognitive factors might involve the students’ expectation, beliefs,

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attitudes, thinking, self efficacy, etc for success; social factors might
include students’ observing their parents’ achievement behaviour
Bandura developed a reciprocal determinism model that consists of three
main factors: behaviour, person (cognitive) and environment. These
factors can interact to influence learning. Environmental factors
influence behaviour, behaviour affects the environment, person
(cognitive) factors influence behaviour and so on.
Environmental events

Person (cognitive) Behavioral Factors

Fig: Reciprocal Determinism model

One of the classical experiments in social learning theory is a study done by Bandura. Children
were shown one of three films, in which a model beat up an adult size plastic toy called a Bobo
doll. In the three, an adult modeled aggressive behavior. In one film the model was severely
punished. In another the model was praised and given treats. In a third the model was given no
consequences. After viewing one of the films, the children were observed play with toys through a

one-way mirror.

The children who had seen the model punished engaged in significant fewer aggressive acts in their
own play than did the children who had seen the model rewarded or had viewed the no
consequences films.

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A second important point in this study focuses on the distinction between learning and
performance. Just because students don’t perform a response doesn’t mean they didn’t learning
it. He suggested that we all may know more than we show. Learning may have occurred and may
not be demonstrated until suitable conditions take place. That means, when a child observes
behaviour but makes no observable response; the child may still have acquired the modeled
response in cognitive form.

Learning by observing others

People can learn through modelling and imitation. If they learn by watching, they must be focusing
their attention, constructing images, remembering and making decisions that affect learning.
Two modes

1) Observational learning can take place through vicarious reinforcement. This takes place when we
see others being rewarded or punished for particular action and modify our behaviour as it we had
received the consequence our selves.

2) In the second kind of observational learning, the observer imitates the behaviour of a model with
no reinforcement and punishment received by the model. The model shows something the observer
wants to learn. Imitation also can take place when the observer wants to become more like an
admired or high status model. The observer may also use fictional characters as models and try to
be having as we imagine to model.

Bandera’s steps to observational Learning

Bandura analysis of observational learning involves four phases

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Paying Attention Remember Reproduction Motivation
(Retention) and Reinforcement

Steps of observational learning

1. Attention – first paying attention to the model.
2. Retention – mentally represent to the model’s action in some ways as verbal or visual images or
both.
3. Production – showing /acting out/ or performing the behavior.

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4. Motivation and reinforcement – we are more likely to feel motivated to learn if the model has
been rewarded.
Bandura believes that reinforcement is not always necessary for learning. Learning can be occurred
with or without reinforcement in observational learning. But if the child does not reproduce the desired
behaviors, there could be missing one or more from the above four step/s. Three types of
reinforcement can help do the trick:
1. Reward the model
2. Reward the child
3. Instruct the child to make self reinforcing, statements such as ‘Good, I did it!’

Educational Implications of Using Observational Learning

1. Think about what type of model you will present to students. Every day, hour after hour, students
will watch and listen to what you say and do. Just by being around you, students will absorb a great
deal of information. They will pick up your good or bad habits, your expectations for their high or
low achievement, your enthusiastic or bored attitude, your controlled or uncontrolled manner of
dealing with stress, your learning style, your gender attitudes, and many other aspects of your
behavior. A good strategy, then, is that you behave as you want your students to behave.

2. Demonstrate and teach new behaviors. Demonstrating means that you, the teacher, are a model
for your students’ observational learning. Demonstrating how to do something, from solving a
math problem, reading, writing, thinking, to controlling anger or performing physical skills, is a
common task for teachers. For example, a teacher might model how to diagram a sentence, develop
a strategy for solving algebraic equations, or shoot a basketball. When demonstrating how to do
something, you need to call students’ attention to the relevant details of the learning situation.
Your demonstrations also should be clear and follow a logical sequence.

3. Think about ways to use peers as effective models. The teacher is not the only model in the
classroom. Children can also pick up their peers’ good and bad habits, high or low achievement
orientations, and so on, through observational learning. Remember that students are often motivated
to imitate high-status models. Older peers usually have higher status than same-age peers. Thus, a
good strategy is to have older peers from a higher grade model how to engage in the behaviors you
want your students to perform. As children develop, peers increase in importance and therefore
their influence increases as well. Older children and adolescents are much more likely to look to

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their peers as models. For students with low abilities or who are not performing well, another low-
achieving student who struggles but puts considerable effort into learning and ultimately performs
the behaviors can be a good model.
4. Think about ways that mentors can be used as models. Students and teachers benefit from
having a mentor—someone they look up to and respect, someone who serves as a competent
model, someone who is willing to work with them and help them achieve their goals. Just
spending a few hours a week with a mentor can make a difference in a student’s life, especially
if the student’s parents have not been good role models. As a teacher, a potential mentor for
you is a more experienced teacher, possibly someone who teaches down the hall and has had a
number of years of experience in dealing with some of the same problems and issues you will
have to cope with.
5. Evaluate which classroom guests will provide good models for students. To change the pace of
classroom life for you and your students, invite guests who have something meaningful to talk
about or demonstrate.

2.2.3. Cognitive Theory of Learning

 Cognitive theorists explain that the ways we think about situations along with our knowledge,
expectations, fleeing and interaction with others, influence how and what we learn. They emphasize
internal process, apply to human functioning and provide explanations, which emphasize
manipulation and structure of information.
 The cognitive and behavioral views differ in their assumptions about what is learned. In cognitive
view, knowledge is learned and change in knowledge makes changes in behavior possible. In the
behavioral view, the new behaviors themselves are learned.
 The other point of difference is that the cognitive view sees people as active learners who initiate
experiences, seek out information to solve problems, and recognize what they already know to
achieve new insights. Instead of being passively influenced by environmental events, people
actively choose, practice, pay attention, ignore and make many other divisions as they pursue goals.
 Both behavioral and cognitive theorists believe reinforcement is important in learning but for
different reasons. Behaviorists maintain that reinforcement strengthens response; on the other
hand cognitive theorists see reinforcement as source of feedback about what is likely to happen if
behaviors are repeated.

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 Under cognitive learning theory, there are two theories. These are gestalt theory of learning and
information processing model of learning. Let’s discuss gestalt theory of learning but information-
processing model of learning shall be left for your independent reading based on your interest.

2.2.4: Information Processing Model (IPM):

The Information Processing Theory approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of
the American experimental tradition in psychology. Information processing theorists proposed that
like a computer, a human mind is a system that processes information through the application of
logical rules and strategies. The mind has a limited capacity for the amount and nature of the
information it can process.

Figure 2.3.2.1: Information processing model

The terminology of the Information Processing Model as illustrated in Figure 5.12 emphasizing the
significance of “encoding” (input) of information, the “storage” of information, and the
“retrieval” (access) of information. The language and the metaphor often used is one of the minds
of as computer. IPM theorist, U.Neisser, maintains that the correlation between cognition and

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computers is a powerful one (Benjafeld, 1992 in Tan, 2003). Most IPM theorists see the computer
as only a metaphor for human mental activity.

Finally, just as the computer can be made into a better information processor by changing its
hardware and its software (programming), so do children who become more sophisticated thinkers
through changes in their brains and sensory systems (hardware) and in the rules and strategies
(software) that they learn.


Activity
 Describe the features of three stages of memory storage in Information
Processing model.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of memory. The dominant view is
labelled the “stage theory” and is based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The
Atkinson-Shiffrinmodel(also known as the Multi-store model, Multi-memory model and the Modal
model) is a psychological model proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin as a
proposal for the structure of memory. It proposed that human memory involves a sequence of three
stages, which are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory as shown in Figure
2.3.2.2.

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Figure 2.3.2.2: Multi-store model of memory (also known as the, Multi-memory model and the
Modal model)

The multi-store model is a very common model of memory assuming that there are different types
of memory used for different tasks. It is an explanation of how memory processes work. You hear,
see and feel many things, but you can only remember a few. These link together in an effective
sequence as explained below.

a) Sensory Memory

The first stage is sensory memory, which contains receptors that briefly hold on to only that
information that enters through our senses. Sensory memory is affiliated with the transudation of
energy(change from one form of energy to another). The environment makes a variety of sources of
information(light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.) available, but the brain only understands electrical
energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transducer (change from one form of
energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of
transudation, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about
3 seconds for hearing).

Figure 2.3.2.3: Sense organ

The sense organs have a limited ability to store information about the world in a fairly unprocessed
way for less than a second. Example:

• The visual system possesses iconic memory for visual stimuli such as shape, size, colour and
location (but not meaning)

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• The hearing system has echoic memory for auditory stimuli.

Coltheart et al (1974) have argued that the momentary freezing of visual input allows us to select
which aspect of the input should go on for further memory processing. The existence of sensory
memory has been experimentally demonstrated by Sperling(1960) using a tachistoscope.

b) Short-term memory

The second stage is short-term memory, a temporary storage facility. Short-term memory is also
called working memory and relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time.

According to Freudian:
“Short term memory is conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention to an external
stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds
unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available for up to 20
minutes”. Freudian

Figure 2.3.2.4: The frontal lobe, the structure associated with working memory.
The hypothalamus is a brain structure thought to be involved in this shallow processing of
information. While the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex as labeled in Figure 5.15 is the structure
associated with working memory.For Example,you are processing the words you read on the screen
in your frontal lobes. However, if I ask, “What is your telephone number?” Your brain
immediately calls that from long-term memory and replaces what was previously there.

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Another process that is sometimes used to expand the capacity of short-term memory is called
chunking. Chunking is a process by which we group individual bits of information into some types
of large, more meaningful unit.

c) Long-term memory

The third stage is long-term memory (LTM). LTM provides the lasting retention of information,
from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory appears to have an almost limitless capacity to
retain information, but it could never be measured, as it would take too long.

Contemporary psychologists agree that long-term memory can be divided into subtypes of
declarative and procedural memory (Santrock, 2008). Declarative memory is subdivided into
episodic memory and semantic memory

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• Procedural memory is nondeclarative knowledge in the form of skills and

Procedural memory
cognitive operations.
• Procedural memory cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form
of specific events or facts.
• Procedural memory is sometimes called “knowing how,” and recently it also
has been described as “implicit memory.”
• When students apply their abilities to perform a dance, their procedural
memory is at work.
• Declarative memory is the conscious recollection of information, such as
Declarative memory
specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.
• Declarative memory has been called “knowing that” and more recently has
been labelled “explicit memory.”

• Demonstrations of student’s declarative memory such as describing a

basic principle of math.
• Episodic memories are the memories we have for times and places (like first
Episodic
day Aidilfitri celebration).

• Information encoded in our episodic memory is in the form of images.

Semantic memories Semantic memories are our memories for general facts and concepts. Most
of what we learned in school (instructional content) is stored in our
semantic memories.

Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconscious memory in Freudian terms.

• Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily recalled (although it may take
several minutes or even hours) while
• Unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness.
It is the preconscious memory that is the focus of cognitive psychology as it relates to the long-term
memory. The levels of processing theory, however, has provided some researches that attest to the
fact that we “know” more than we can easily recall.
According to Brynes,
There are two process in appear in facilitating our efforts, they are rehearsal (practice) and
elaboration (Byrnes, 1996). Elaboration of information processing strategy emphasizes links

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between the information stored in the long-term memory and the new information. When we talk
about information processing model, we cannot avoid discussing memory and forgetting, how to
enhance student’s long-term memory and what factors contribute to forgetting. We will discuss it
later in the next chapter.
Steps To Enhance Long-Term Memory
According to Santrock, “Long term memory meaning information is retained in the long term
memory over time”. (Santrock, 2007)
storage, and retrieval. Teacher can help students store the information in the long-term memory
using methods such as positive transfer, dual coding theory, rehearsal, instructional strategies,
mnemonics, and memory gadgets or devices. Descriptions of these methods are explained in Figure
2.3.2.5.
Table 2.3.1: List of methods to help students store the information, in the long-term memory
Positive transfer
 Teacher may transfer learning using appropriate strategies or activities.
 Schema theory suggest teacher to activate prior knowledge and make connection with new
knowledge to enhance student’s learning.

Dual coding theory

 In dual coding theory, theorists suggest that we remember better when two processes are engage such
as visual learning and verbal learning.
 For example, a teacher guide young children to write the digit “8” may provide verbal
instruction as well as visual presentation. She may begin with pencil on the chil’s paper
saying, “Let’s start by writing the letter S and then curving back to join the open end joining
something like that looks like two circles touching each other on the side.”

Rehearsal
 Student may use two types of rehearsal that is maintenance and elaborative.
- Maintenance rehearsal is rote repetition of the information in STM, like repeating phone
number a few dozen times.
- - Elaborative rehearsal is not based on mere repetition but occurs when the
information is expanded, embellished on, and related to other concepts already in
LTM.

Instructional strategies
Teacher may use instructional strategies that actively involved students in learning such as group
discussion, singing and reading aloud, cooperative learning, inquiry, discovery, experimenting or
leaning by doing.
Mnemonics
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- Teacher may use mnemonic devices such as acronyms whilst teaching important facts.
- Example of acronym is SMS for short messages service or FELDA for Federal Land
Development Authority.
• Another type of mnemonic such as peg word..
• - Example of pegword is “EmakSuka Pizza” for types of memory in long term memory
that is Episodic, Semantic, and Procedural.

Memory gadgets or devices

• Students may use memory device such as mind mapping, graphic organizer, fish –
bone diagram, tree diagram, etc to enhance their understanding and good memory.

2.2.5. Gestalt Theory of Learning

- The gestalt theory of learning also named as Learning by Insight is the contribution of German
psychologists who were studying the mature of perception. The founder of Gestalt psychology
is Max Werthiemer (1880-1943). Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka were the other German
psychologists associated with Werthiemer.

- Gestalt is a German word, which means configuration or more simply it means an organized whole
in contrast to a collection of parts.
- According to Gestalt theory, learning occurs neither as a result of trial and error nor as a
conditioned response to a natural or conditioned stimuli. It occurs rather by insight into the whole
situation to be learned. Learning does not occur by random steps, or by trial and error or by
conditioning but by insight, introspection and understanding.
- The Gestaltians tend to place for more emphasis on the intrinsic organizing capacity in the brain of
the individual and emphasize the dynamic interaction of the elements in the entire perceptual field.
Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists of problem- solving by understanding the relative
position of the elements in the enter perspective or situation.
- Gestalt theory of learning makes a strong attack on Thorndike theory of trial and error’ and asserts
that learning is not making of correct response through trial and errors. Gestalt theory is revolt
against S-R approach to learning. It points out two weaknesses in the theory of conditioning. These
are:

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a) Conditioning reduces complex human behavior to an accumulation of simple conditioned

responses.
b) S-R theorists attribute learning to reduction of basic organic drives.
o Gestalt psychologists explain that an individual perceives wholes and not parts. According to them,
learning is viewed as purposive, explorative, imaginative and creative enterprise in which the
learner takes the total situation into account.

o Kohler and Koffka conducted many experiments on chimpanzees. Based on the results of the
experiment, hey stressed the totality of the process of learning. They took the process of learning
as a synthetic activity that brings forth complete solutions of problems. From the many
experiments made, let us narrate one as an illustration.

E.g. In one of his experiments kohler shut the chimpanzee. Sultan by name, in a big cage. A
banana was placed outside, at a considerable distance of the cage. Inside the cage there were two
sticks –one of them a long one and the other a bit shorter. The shorter stick could be screwed into
the long one. The long stick could not reach the banana but if the other one was screwed into it
the banana could be touched. Sultan tried to get at the banana. He tried the longer stick but it did
not reach the fruit. The other was still smaller. He sat down and began to play with the sticks. But
he was still brooding ever the matter. Suddenly an idea flashed to him. He thrust the smaller stick
into the hole of the longer one and thus managed to get at the banana with the help of the
combined sticks.

Basic Principles of Gestalt Theory of Learning

- On the basis of their experimental studies, certain laws of perceptual organization, which can be
equally applicable to learning, have been developed. Some of the basic laws are described below.
1. The Law of Pragnanz “Pragnanz” is the German word which means compact but significant.
This law suggests that the direction of events. Psychological organization tends to move in one
general direction, always towards the state of pragnanz, towards good gestalt. A good gestalt has
the properties as regularity, simplicity, stability etc. So this law speaks the movement of our
psychological organization towards the direction of stability, i.e. we accept only those experiences
that do not disturb our psychological organization (equilibrium).

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2. The Law of Similarity. Suggests that similar things tend to associate in a group and easy to recall
than dissimilar thing. Thus learning similar things is easier than learning dissimilar ones.
3. The Law of Proximity. States that objects, which are close in space and time, tend to from a
gestalt. This means that we perceive all closely situated or located things as groups.
4. The Law of Figure- Ground. States that everything we perceive stands against a background.
There is close relationship between figure and ground.
5. The Law of Closure. State that closed areas are more stable than unclosed ones and therefore
more readily form figures in perception.
6. The Law of Good Continuation. This law states that organization in perception, which appears
to go in a particular direction, appears to be going innately in the same direction. So there is a
tendency of factors to give direction, movement and continuation to perpetual organization.
7. The Law of Transposition. States that thing may undergo extensive changes without losing
their identity.
 In general gestalt theory of learning explains that insight learning involves the following activities:

 The learner perceives the situation as a whole and relationship among all relevant parts of the
problem before insight can occur in solving a problem.

 The learner tries to understand the relationships between various factors involved in situation.

 As a result of the understanding of the relationship the learner is helped in the sudden grasping
of the solution of the problem.

 Once the organism learns to solve a problem by insight, there is every possibility of high degree
of transfer to similar problems.

 The main factor in Gestalt theory of learning is the development of insight. The individual and
his/her environment form a psychological field. According to Gestalt psychology, the perception of
the field and gradual restricting of it is insight.

Educational Implication of the Theory of Insight

 The gestalt theory brings the following points into focus:

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1) From whole to parts. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Therefore, the teacher should
the picture of a topic or sub topic as a whole.

2) Problem – solving approach. The theory rejects memorization and rote learning. It stresses that
the learners must be given opportunities for using their thinking power and power of observation.
The students should be placed in the position of discoverers. They should be provided training to
ponder over questions. Spoon- feeding in no way results in constructive and critic thinking.

3) Integrated approach. The content of a subject should not be treated as the mere collection of
insulated facts. They could be closely integrated into a whole. In the same way, all subjects and
activities of the curriculum should reflect unity and cohesion.

4) Motivational aspect. The learner’s curiosity and interest must be aroused. He/she should be fully
familiarized with specific aims and purposes of every task that is being undertaken.

Learning Activities
 Define what learning is. You are expected to write comprehensive definition for learning.
 List out the characteristics of learning
 What are the factors that affect learning?
 List four types of learning
 Describe Pavlov’s classical conditioning and indicate educational implication of classical
conditioning
 Explain Skinner’s Operant conditioning and operations involved in operant conditioning
 State educational implications of operant conditioning
 Describe Bandura’s Social learning theory and its implications for learning
 Explain Gestalt theory of learning, basic principles and its implications for learning.

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UNIT THREE
3. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Essence of Human Development

3.1.1. Meaning and Focuses of Developmental Psychology

 Definition
Please read the following vignette:

There was a famous person in ancient Greece named Sphynx was going to the city of Thebat. On his way to
Thebat, he met king Oedipus; a king best known for solving puzzling questions. Realising the king’s talent,
Sphynx wanted to check this and asked him. “Who is the creature that is four legged in the morning, two
legged at noon, and three legged in the evening?” the king thought for a while and then gave an answer that
proved he was indeed a Wiseman. He correctly answered the question saying that the creature is “man” who
crawls as an infant with two legs and two arms, walks on two legs as a young adult and then, walks on two legs
with the support of a cane as an old man.

Though Sphynx and Oedipus might not imagine that time, the content of their puzzle indeed
revealed an important feature of human nature (i.e. growth and development) that eventually
became a full-fledged field of study called development psychology. This is a field in psychology
that studies changes of human being from womb (the beginning of life) to tomb (or the end of life).
A branch of developmental psychology that specifically focuses on studying children is child
psychology, studying adolescents is psychology of adolescence, studying adults and old people is
psychology of adulthood and aging.

Developmental psychology is concerned specifically with changes that occur over time.
Accordingly life span developmental psychology is the discipline that studies changes that occur
from conception through adulthood and that looks at the processes and influences that account
for these changes.
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of age-related changes throughout the human
life span. As a discipline of scientific inquiry, developmental psychology recognizes humans of all
societies and cultures as beings who are “in process,” or constantly growing and changing. This
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discipline identifies the biological, psychological, and social aspects that interact to influence the
growing human life-span process. It covers a range of developmental areas including physical,
social, emotional, and cognitive and language development as well as relationships with wider
social agents such as peers and family.

3.1.2. Focuses of Developmental Psychology

During the century or so since the beginning of scientific psychology, most studies of human
development focused on the early years of life, because we expect children to change, and there is
a wide acceptance that what happens in the early part of life is crucially influential for later
development.
To support this claims there are different sayings
 And the first step, as you know, is always what matters most, particularly when we are
dealing with those who are tender and young.
 Train ups a child in the way he should go; and when he is old, he will not depart from it.
 Give me a child for the first 7 years and you may do what you like with him afterwards.
 The child is the father of the man.
 But once a child’s character has been spoiled by bad handling, which can be done in a few
days, who can say that the damage is ever repaired.
 As the twig is bent the tree is inclined.
 You cannot teach an old dog with new tricks.
 The child shows the man as the morning shows the day.
The study of human development originally focused on describing the origins and changes in
behavior over time in order to develop age norms. Today, developmental psychologists want to
explain why behavior occurs by looking at the factors that influence development. In addition to
understanding cause effect relationships of changes that appear to be universal, that appears to
occur in all children in all cultures. They are also interested in the explanation of children of
individual differences in behavior development. Moreover, developmental psychologists are
concerned with explanations of:
Deviant behavoirs such as autism, drug addiction, delinquency and mental deficiency, and

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Social problems such as juvenile delinquency, school failure, mal adjustment, drug abuse,
adolescent pregnancy and emotional disturbances.
The next focus of developmental psychology is to predict behavior. The goal is to modify
development through training or therapy. Another focus of developmental psychology is
modification involves finding ways to change behaviour.

3.1.3. Definition of Development

Meeting a child whom you left almost six months ago, you definitely get surprised with the
number of changes the child has registered. You may even feel as if you are rather meeting a
different child.
By the way, what do you mean when you say “oh this person is changed... this child has
developed, grown up?”
In fact, defining the concept of development is not an easy task. This concept is the most complex,
elusive and controversial one to define. Any way let us try some here. As you proceed, compare
these definition with that of yours.
In the words of Hurlock (1959) and many other developmental psychologies, the term
development denotes:

“..... A progressive serious of changes that occurs in an orderly and predictable

pattern. It is a series of orderly progression of changes towards maturity”

Would you please identify key concepts in this definition?

First, development is accompanied by some kind of change. The change could be small or big, slow
or rapid, observable or hidden and so on. But as far as there is development, there is always an
element of change in an individual.
Second, development changes are progressive. It implies adding to what we already have. It is a
forward movement. Because it is forward or progressive and not backward or regressive, it brings
with it more capacity, achievement, strength, or maturity in general.
Third, development changes are orderly; not just haphazard. Orderly implies the sequential
arrangement of changes. This means that each change at each stage is dependent upon what

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preceded it and it affects what will come after it. The fact that developmental changes are orderly
also implies that they are age related.
What is important in the study of human development is the process, not the state. Emphasis on
the ongoing and never ending process of change –on the dynamism of developmental process is
one of the things that distinguish the contemporary life span view from an older and more
restricted view of development.

To sum up, the term development refers to a progressive serious of changes that occurs as a result
of both maturation and learning. Development eventually occurs in an orderly manner and in
predictable patterns. It indicates the overall changes in shape, form or structure, which result in
improved working or functioning. It involves changes in quality or character more than changes in
quantity or amount.

3.1.4. Development and related terms

What do you think the term growth is referring to? How does growth differ from development?
Growth: is referring to internal, structural, physiological and physical changes, and development is
concerned with growth as well as those changes in behaviour which result from environmental
situations. So, changes in height, weight, number and amount of vocabulary, and muscles and
bones in a child are definitely growth than development.

Growth is a bodily increase in size, height and weight. It is directly observable and measurable
because it is quantitative in nature. Physical growth is quantitative in nature and is usually
measured in inches and pounds or their equivalent. Generally, changes in quantitative aspects
come under the domain of growth. But development is psychological and observed and measured
only indirectly. Development is usually measured by test and exams of different kinds, hence there
is an element of subjectivity and lack of precision and accuracy in measuring development while of
growth is objective, precise, and accurate.

Normally, growth contributes to development but not always. A child may grow very fat and
heavy, but such growth can hardly be considered development in the sense of advancement to a
higher level of maturity. Actually a person has developed if she/he is now physically healthier than
before, and/or has acquired more skills that make his her physical condition is conducive to

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greater personal effectiveness. Thus by improving his/her skills and thereby utilizing better the
capacities she/he had received from his/her, growth, a person can continue to develop even after
his/her physical growth had stopped.

In general, development is a process of change in capacity overtime, as a function of the

interaction of biological and environmental forces. Here, the word biological represents growth
and maturation. The word environment represents learning.

Maturation: denotes the unfolding, through growth, of the characteristics the individual is
endowed with. It is the concept used to explain changes in body or behaviour due to aging
process. It is age-related physical, physiological or behavioural changes.
The term maturation typically refers to changes in the body or behavior that result from the aging
process. Maturation largely explains such things as the time a child’s teeth erupt, a child develops
the ability to grasp objects and to walk and the time at which a female first menstruate. The
maturational process depends most strongly on the individuals’ genetic master plan. This master
plan, which functions as a timetable, largely determines when certain events will occur. The
genetic master plan may limit progress as well. For example, before a baby can walk, he seat, he
or she must have the necessary strength and balance- prerequisites that are determined largely by
maturation. The child is thus ready to walk only when prerequisite are met.
Maturation represents the readiness or ripening of a certain growing body to start its function, as
ripening of the brain to begin to think, the ripening of sex organs for reproduction and soon.
Hence, in this case, maturation follows growth. These changes in maturation are primarily under
the control of heredity or genetic programming.

Learning: on the other hand, refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of
experience or practice. The term permanent is used in the definition to distinguish learning from
change due to drug usage, fatigue, illness, or time. For instance, when child recites the alphabet,
imitates a brother’s fear of spiders, sings along with father, learning has occurred. Unlike
maturation, learning strongly depends on environmental influence.

The concept learning implies making practice and experimentation or performing activities using
the grown & maturing body. Examples of learning can be ability to write, read, swim, play a certain

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game etc. When the practices, experimentations or performances are repeated time and over
again, they may lead to changes. When a number of these specific changes are integrated, then
they lead to development.

A child understands of gender roles, morality, language and problem solving is dependent on
learning. Yet we cannot see learning directly; we can only infer it from behavioural changes. A
child who solves a mathematical problem that he or she could not solve a week before is said to
have learned.

In contrast to maturation, learning is extremely dependent on the environment. Children learn

what they see and experience. A child whose parents habitually fight scream at their children, and
encourage their children to take an aggressive stance towards other people by their example will
learn to become aggressive also.

What is then the relationship among development, growth, maturation, and learning? Which
occurs first and which comes last?
The fact is that development is a process that integrates growth, maturation and learning. Growth
leads to maturation and maturation to learning and learning in turn to development.
Development is therefore, so broad a concept that encompasses growth, maturation and learning.

Growth + Maturation + Learning = Development

3.1.5.Aspects of Human Development

Do you think that human development is one-directional?
If your answer is “No” you are right. But, in what way do you think our development proceeds?
The basic reason why we say human development is complex is due to the fact that the change
and continuity occur in various aspects of the self. Although, development proceeds interms of
physical, language, intellectual, emotional, moral, social, personality and in many specific ways, we
may generally classify aspects of development in to three major categories, as:

 Physical Development

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 Cognitive Development
 Psycho-social Development
These aspects of development occur in various periods of life span, though the rates of
development vary across the periods. Actually, they are interrelated, i.e., each affects the other.

1. Physical Development: refers to any physical change in all aspects of the body in terms of
height, weight, size, and /or amount. Changes in the height or weigh of physique, in the size of the
brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health are part of physical development.
Physical development is generally considered as basic aspect of development since it establishes
foundation for any other aspect of development. For example, a child’s language development
depends on the growth and maturity of parts (the tongue, lips, tooth, etc) important for speech.

2. Cognitive Development: refers to changes in underlined cognitive processes or mental abilities,

such as thinking, perception, reasoning, learning, language, memory, imagination that help us
interact with the world around us. Human cognitive development is highly related with the
function of the brain.

3. Psychosocial development: psychosocial development refers to changes in an individual’s

psychology and social relationship. It involves changes in the child’s relationships with other
people, changes in emotions and changes in personality. More specifically it includes changes in
Personality, a person’s unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviour;
Social development, relationships with other people as friendship, love, obedience, power etc;
Emotional development, change related with feelings such as anger, joy, jealousy, fear,
depression, surprise etc; and
Moral development, change in reasoning and evaluating ethical issues, i.e., what is right or wrong
good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable.

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Figure: Biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes interact to produce the periods of
development.

Conceptions of Age
In lifespan development the concept of age has many meanings, and some of these are
 Chronological age—number of years elapsed since person’s birth.
 Biological age—age in terms of biological health.
 Psychological age—individual’s adaptive capacities.
 Social age—social roles and expectations related to person’s age.

3.1.6. Stages of Human Development

Developmental psychologists basically stress the fact that over the years of the life span, human
beings change tremendously in many ways physically, cognitively, psycho-socially. In the study of
developmental psychology, human life span with each stage is characterized differently in many
ways of development, i.e., each stage is qualitatively different from other stages. However, this
does not mean that one stage is independent from another since development is a continuous
process. Throughout these stages development does not occur at a constant rate, rather at a given
period it may be rapid and dramatic while at other it may proceed at a gradual and consistent
manner.

Many literatures generally classify human life span development in to two major stages, and in to 3
and 7 sub stages (or periods) in the first and second stages respectively. This classification is
presented as follows:

Stages Periods and characteristics

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I. Prenatal stage 1. Germinal / zygote period

- refers to the time - conception to weeks
period which ranges - it is free – floating organism since the ovum moves through the mother’s
from conception to reproductive track until it reaches the womb or uterus.
birth - the ovum divides itself frequently
2. Embryonic period
- 9 months of life in - end of 2nd week to end of 2nd month
the - at the beginning of this period, the ovum becomes implanted in the wall of
mother’s uterus the uterus and develops rapidly
- The embryo develops into a height of one and legs are present.
- It is subdivided in to - Similarly, all major interval organs have begun to form.
3 periods 3. Fetus
- end of 2nd month to birth
- shows an increasingly human face
- different parts of the body grow at different rates
- at first, the head grows rapidly; later the lower parts of the body (trunks,
and legs) grow more rapidly.
- By the end of the 12th week the fetes is 3 inches long and weighs 21 grams.
II. Postnatal stage 1. Infancy ( 0 to 2 years)
- refers to the whole 2. Early Child hood ( to 6 year)
development after 3. Late Childhood (7 to 11 years)
birth 4. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
5. Early Adulthood (18 to 40 years)
6. Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
7. Old Age (> 65 years)

3.1.7. Principles and Facts about Human Development

From the scientific knowledge gathered through observation, some general facts and principles
have emerged. These facts and principles enable us to understand how children develop, what is
expected from us, and how to guide them and provide opportunities for optimum development.
Development does not occur in a haphazard of disorderly manner. Rather, it progresses along
logical lines that are similar for all human beings. This means that development follows a definite,
predictable and consistent pattern. It is governed by principles that are now well understood.

We may classify the principles and the facts of development into two: general and specific, the
general principle and facts consist of issues that describe development a common trait for all

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human beings. The specific principles and facts comprise of the areas in which development could
differ from individual to individual.
1. Development is cumulative, interactional or correlated
The ordinary meaning of cumulative is the sum total of the past. Hence when we say development
is cumulative it means that the present status of an individual is the result of his past experiences.

This simply means that the various changes are not mutually exclusive or independent, but are
rather interactive. In other words, what happens in one aspect of development affects what is
going to happen in another aspect of development. If for instance, development of thinking is
faster in a child, then the child is going to start speech earlier than the time normally expected.
This in turn may facilitate the development of emotional and social behavior. If on other hand
development of thinking is retarded in then the child may also experience retardation in speech,
emotional or social development as in mentally retarded children.
The cumulative effect of development does not only apply to the types or aspects of development,
but also to stages of development. On other words, development occurring in one stage is likely to
hinder or facilitate developments in another stage. For instance, development in early years
affects development in later years. However, there are differences in the relative importance of
changes occurring at the various stages.

2. Childhood is the Foundation Period in Life

Evidences suggest that early foundation is critical. That is attitudes, beliefs and patterns of
behavior that are established during the early years seem to determine how successfully individual
will adjust to life as they grow older.

In an extreme way, Sigmund Freud once argued “the child is the father of the man: this statement
is a sharp contrast to the commonsense view that “the man is the father of the child”.

3. Development Follows Definite and Predictable Patterns

Now let us consider the third general principle- “Development follows a definite and predictable
pattern”. This principle states that development always follows define and predictable orders,
sequences or directions.

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The pattern of physical and motor development illustrating the laws of developmental direction.
What are these predictable sequences or patterns?
Consider some of the following sequences:
I. The cephalou-caudal sequence
II. The proximo-distal sequence
III. The sequence of developmental complexity
IV. The sequences of developmental specificity

Let us consider each of the above in briefly:

i. The cephalou-caudal sequence

What does the cephaloucaudal sequence mean to you?
The cephaloucaudal sequence suggests that development proceeds from the head (or cephalou)
to the tail (or caudal) region. In other words, the first part of the body that grows and the first part
of the body that we are able to control is the head region and then development continues
downwards. The following result of research works illustrates this principle. Researchers indicate
that just before birth, almost 75% of the body proportion is covered only by the head region. This
proportion reduced to 66% at birth. And, the reduction continues with age.
Does this mean that the size of the head is to decrease with increase in age?

ii. The proximo-distal Sequence

The proximodistal (proximo = near or centre and distal = distant or far) principle states that
development spreads outward from the central axis of the body to the extremities.
By the way that is why we control our abdomen before controlling our fingers and toes because
the later are far from the central axis of our body than the former are. This same principle works
in other types of development including social, emotional, language, and intellectual

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development. Evidences further support that this principle also works in other aspects of
development. For example, a baby first knows his/her mother immediate surrounding (as his/her
mother) and further continues to know other people.

iii. Principle of Developmental Complexity

According to the principle of developmental complexity, human beings get more and more
complex in their behavior with age. Because of this, it may be easier to understand a child than an
adolescent, an adolescent than an adult. Children are simple because they say and they do what
they say. Adults, on the other hand, disguise their mind and behavior; they may not mean what
they say and what they do.

iv. Principles of Developmental Specificity

According to the principle of development specificity, we get more and more specific in our
behavior with age. That is we have a general behavior, knowledge and personality and this
generality is going to lead to the birth of specific abilities.
The principle also explains our ability to control of mass/gross muscles first then develop to the
control of specific ones. For example, an infant will be able to control and direct his/her hands
before he/she gets control of his/her fingers.
This indicates that development progresses from the very simple, broad, general involuntary and
undifferentiated to the very complex, fine, specific, voluntary, and differentiated ones. This means,
for example, it is only later in life that the child gains dexterity to use finger muscles in a
coordinated manner.
4. Development Occurs in Stage
Our forth principle says, development occurs in stages or phases. This implies that although
development is continuous like a flowing river, new behavoirs that appear different from
behavoirs in the past or in the future are likely to emerge at a certain age.
You may take intellectual development as an example. As the child grows, he/she continuously
increases in knowledge. But this increase in knowledge may, at certain ages bring a new ability
that is qualitatively different from the abilities of both the proceeding and subsequent stages. For
example before two years, the child does not have the ability to think, at six the child can think but

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lacks logical reasoning, at eleven the child can reason logically but not in abstract ways, at twelve
reasoning begins.
The principle that development occurs in stages generally suggests that each stage:
 Has its own characteristics behaviour or developmental tasks to be accomplished
 Is a critical moment (or an ideal or important time) for developing is mastering certain
kinds of activates in the best way, and
 Is marked by a period of disturbance or hazards to adjustment difficulties.

5. Development Comes from Maturation and learning

This principle has to with the sources or determinants of development which is already discussed
in the previous section. This principle states that development comes from maturation and
learning.

6. Facts about Individual Differences in Development

So far we have seen the general principles and facts about the nature of development in all human
beings. Next you will consider the principles that explain individual differences in development.
Note that in all individuals development is continuous, but occurs in stages, and that development
is predictable and so on. But this does not mean that there are no differences among individuals in
development.

According to this principle, as a result as variation genetic makeup each of us inherit from our
parents and the environment we grow up, we develop as unique individuals. Children of the same
age are different interims of their mental ability, skills, emotional control, social interaction, and in
general in their personality.

Researchers indicate that there are individual differences with regard to the following issues.
There are differences in the:
o Rate of change
o Specific factors affecting development
o Specific type of development achievement, and
o Level of development reached by individuals
7) Each stage of Development has Characteristics Behavior

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The biological changes experienced at different stages of development interacting with contextual
setting or environmental will make each stage characteristically different from the previous as well
as she future stages, i.e., each stage of development is marked by unique behaviors that differentiate
it from other stages.

8) Each stage of development has developmental hazards/challenges/or risks

What do developmental hazards, challenges or risks refer to?
As the biological changes and the environment that individuals live in are sources of unique
characteristics of each stage, they can also be sources of development hazards or risks. For
example, if we take the period of adolescence, it is relatively highly exposed to such environmental
risks as wars, sexually transmitted disease (including HIV/AIDS), unwanted pregnancy, abortion,
street life, indulgent acts, abuses and trafficking and many others, Moreover, while the
environments in which adolescents live are certainly important, it is also crucial to note that theses
environments interact with characteristics of adolescents themselves to generate the developmental
hazards.

9) Development is aided by stimulation

For our purpose, the term stimulation refers to the process of causing somebody to become more
active or to grow faster. While most development will occur as a result of maturation and
environmental experiences much can be done to aid development so that it will reach its full
potential/ this can be done by stimulating development through directly encouraging the individual
to use an ability which is in the process of developing. It has been found that stimulation is
especially effective at the time when ability is normally developing, though it important at all times.

10) There are social expectations for each developmental period

What kinds of behaviors and skills does your society expect from you and your age mates?
Social expectations are skills, approved patters of behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs etc that society
expects younger generation to master and/or manifest at a given developmental period. These social
expectations are also referred as developmental tasks, or skills, or behaviors that are expected of
individual at a certain developmental period. The social expectations are different at different
developmental periods. For instance, an infant is expected to start walking at a year of one.
However, we need to be informed that the social expectations of different developmental periods
may differ in different society.
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According to Havighurst (1953), a developmental task is “a task which arises at or about a certain
period in the life of an individual, successful achievement of which leads to happiness and to
success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks”.
Some tasks arise mainly as a result of physical maturation, such as learning to walk; others develop
primarily from the culture pressures of society, such as learning to read, and still others grow out of
the personal values and aspirations of the individual, such as choosing and preparing for a vocation.
In most case however, developmental tasks arise from these forces three forces working together
(Hurlock 1980).
Developmental tasks are based on aspiration and needs of the society. Every society is age related
or age graded and every society has a system of social expectations regarding age appropriate
behavior. The individual passes through a socially regulated cycle from birth to death as he passes
through the biological cycle; and there exists a socially prescribed time table for the rendering of
major life events (Aggarwal, 1994). Although the norms vary somewhat from one socio economic,
ethnic, or religious group to another, for any social group it can easily be demonstrate that norms
and actual occurrences are closely related.

3.1.8. Developmental Tasks

What purposes do developmental tasks serve?

Developmental tasks serve three useful purposes.
 First, they are guidelines that enable individuals to know what society expects of them at a
given age.
 Second, developmental tasks motivate individual to do what the social group expects them
to do at certain ages during their lifespan.
 Thirdly, developmental tasks show individuals what lays a head and what they are expected
to do when they reach their next stages of development (Hurlock, 1980).
What do you think should be the responsibility of parents in assessing children to develop the
essential developmental tasks at particular age?
Hazards of developmental tasks
What are the serious consequences of failure to master developmental tasks?

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Because developmental tasks play such an important role in setting guidelines for normal
development, anything that interferes with their mastery may be regarded as a potential hazard.
There are three very common potential hazards related to developmental tasks. The first is
inappropriate expectations: either individuals themselves or the social group may expect the
development of behavior that is impossible at the time because of physical or psychological
limitation. A second potential hazard is the bypassing of a stage of development as a result of
failure to master the tasks for that stage of development.

The crisis individual experience when they pass from one stage to another comprises the third
common potential hazards arising from developmental tasks. Even though an individual may have
master the developmental tasks for one stage brings with it tension and stress conditions that can
lead to crisis. Generally, although most people would like to master development tasks at an
appropriate time, some are unable to do so, while others are ahead of schedule.

Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks during the Lifespan

Havighurst identified the important developmental tasks for different phases in the lifespan as
follows:
1. Babyhood and Early childhood (birth to six years)
o Learning to walk
o Learning to take solid foods
o Learning to talk
o Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
o Learning sex differences
o Achieving physiological stability
o Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality
o Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people
o Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a conscience.
2. Late Childhood (6 -12 years)
o Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
o Building wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism
o Learning to get along with age mates

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o Learning masculine or feminine sex roles

o Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating
o Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
o Developing conscience, morality and values
o Achieving personal independence
o Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions
3. Adolescence (12 – 20 years)
o Accepting one’s physique
o Accepting a masculine or feminine role
o Gaining emotional independence from parents and other adults
o Establishing new relations with age mates of both sexes
o Achieving assurance of economic independence
o Selecting preparing for a vocation
o Developing a necessary concepts for civic competence
o Developing intellectual skills
o Developing social acceptable behavior
o Preparing for marriage and family life
o Developing harmonious moral and scientific values
4. Early Adulthood (20 - 40 years)
o Getting started in an occupation
o Selecting a mate
o Learning to live with a marriage partner
o Starting a family
o Rearing children
o Managing a home
o Taking on civic responsibility
o Finding a congenital social group
5. Middle Adulthood (40 – 65 years)
o Achieving adult civic and social responsibility

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o Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults

o Developing adult leisure time activities
o Accepting adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
o Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in ones occupational career
o Adjusting to aging parents
6. Late Adulthood (65 years and older)
o Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
o Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
o Adjusting to death of spouse
o Establishing an explicit affiliation with members if one’s age group
o Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements
o Adapting social roles in a flexible way

3.4.Controversial Issues in Development

Imagine the genetically inheritance you received from your parents, and think of the influence of
the social & physical environment (the family, the peers, the teachers, the classmates, the neighbors
the culture, and so on) on your development.
Which one do you think affects your overall development, the nature (the genetically inheritance) or
the nurture (the environment)?
Since long ago, scholars have been arguing & debating on the nature and factors of human
development. These debates, in the modern study of psychology, are known as Nature and Nurture
controversy; the issue of continuity and discontinuity; and the issue of plasticity let’s disuses these
issues of controversy.

1) Nature and Nurture Controversy

The nature and nurture controversy in psychology deals with the role of heredity and environmental
experiences in determining human development.
Historically, the hereditary or nature side of the controversy is associated with the nativists, who
argued that behavior is determined by innate or inherited factors. The nativists’ position was that
individuals are born with an inherited “blue print”. Behaviors that are not already present at birth
will develop as though they were on a genetic time table; that is, through the process of maturation.

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The environment has little to do with individual development, and there is little any one can do to
change what nature has provided.

Do you agree with the argument? Now look at another point of view.
Environmentalists or empiricists are associated with the environment or nurture side. They argue
that behavior is mainly determined by experience. The empirist position was that the baby’s mind
at birth is like a blank slate (tabula rasa, white paper) on which experience in the environment will
start to write on it. Behavior that is acquired as the baby grows is the result of experience, especially
learning. Therefore, changes in the environment produce changes in the individual within their
physical limitations. Anyone can become anything provided the environment is right.

It follows from these two views that learned behavior are within our control; innate one are not,
unless they are modified through genetic engineering.
Changes in the emphasis of heredity environment question. The heredity environment debate is
older than psychology itself and is still as vigorous as ever. Its emphasis has altered over the years.
These changes can be summarized as follows.
 The debate on the question, “Which One?”
 The debate on the question, “How much?”
 The debate on the question, “In what way?”
Recently, a new alternative view on this issue has developed. It is called interactions. By taking the
middle ground, interactions it’s argued that nearly all human development results from the
interaction effect of nature and nurture. This group assumed that both heredity and environment
equally play role in human development. According to the view, you are (nature), and partly are
also determined by the nutrition and exercise you get as you grow up (nurture). Theoretically, most
developmental psychologists take the interactions view as far as nature and nurture controversy is
raised. However, psychologist with cognitive are good examples of the view, because they usually
explain the dual and interactive effect of heredity and environment. Infants seem biologically
programmed to learn language (nature), but also they learn the language they often hear being
spoken to them (nurture).

2) The issue of Continuity and Discontinuity

Can development characterized be as a steady progression, or does it appear to occur in abrupt or
sudden shifts?

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Do children develop very quickly and successfully or gradually?

These questions reflect the issue of continuity and discontinuity. Developmental psychologists have
debated on the question of continuity and discontinuity in development.
 Continuity: each new event builds on earlier experiences in orderly way or gradual
improvement. Change is Quantitative, Connected, and Smooth
 Discontinuity: development occurs in discrete steps or stages; each stage is qualitatively new set
of behaviors Change is Qualitative, Disconnected, and Step-Like.

Those who support discontinuity argue that development can be seen interms of stages, each one
qualitative different from those that came before, just like a ladder with many rungs/steps. It
consists of relatively sudden laps or transitions from one distinctly different stage to the other.
The course of development is segmented or divided or into sequential and universal stages so that
development advances through a series of rather abrupt changes. In each stage new abilities and
ways of thinking and responding occur. Each stage is characterized by distinct ways of functioning,
and no stage can be skipped for the skills acquired in the earlier stages serve as a prerequisite in

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mastering the later stages. According to the position of this group of psychologist, children proceed
from one stage to other stages of development just as they would climb the rungs of a ladder.

Psychologists who argue of continuity of development see development in terms of smooth, small
steps, explained by looking at past achievements. They see no stages but rather gradual
development. This debate is ongoing, and some of the theorists will argue for a stage like
discontinuity, while others will argue that development is best seen interms of continuity.

3) The issue of stability and relevant change

Suppose you were given all the information about a group of infants or preschoolers, could you
predicate?
 Which children would turn out to be intellectually superior?
 Which would have difficulty in school? Or
 Which children would show behavior problems?
These questions reflect the issue of stability and change. If we could say that a particular behavior
at age eight is linked to a behavior later on, it gives us the necessary knowledge to try to alter the
pattern. Indeed, some constancy has been noted. Children who showed temper tantrums at eight to
ten years of age were later judged to be more irritable in the early caregiver- child relationships in
infancy may lead to difficulty in peer relationships later on.
The fact is that we can find both stability and change in development. The findings that change
occurs force us to be careful when making general statements about the future of children at
different ages. Changes in environment can, to a considerable extent, change the developmental
pattern.
In addition it is a mistake to see the developing child as essentially a passive object on which people
operate. The child experiences the environment as an individual, and individual differences in
reactions to environmental factors must be taken into account. For instance, one child will react to a
stressful situation, such as divorce, or family turmoil, differently than another. In addition, the child
both affects an d is affected by his/or her environment.

4) The issue of Plasticity

A key developmental research agenda is the search for plasticity and its constrains. Plasticity is the
degree to which characteristics’ change or remains stable. As it was noted earlier, most
psychologists theoretically believe that developmental changes are attributed to the interaction

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effect of heredity and environment. Provider of raw material – and environment – cultivator or
developer of the raw material. However, the issue of debate in plasticity is to what extent does
environment mould the individual’s development?

According to some psychologists plasticity or the extent to which environment shape human
development has no limit. One the contrary, others argue that environmental experiences do not
affect the progress of development beyond an individual’s hereditary limit, i.e., the hereditary
endowment of an individual determines the extent to which the environment influences his/her
development. For example, can individual’s intellectual skills still be improved through education
even if they are in their seventies or eighties? Might these intellectual skills be cast in stone by the
time people are in their thirties and not be capable of further improvement? In one research study,
the reasoning abilities of older adults were improved through retaining.

Learning Activities
 Describe the meaning and focuses of developmental Psychology
 What is human development?
 Define the following terms: Growth, Maturation, Learning and development.
 List and describe three main aspects of development
 Mention at least seven principles and facts about human development
 Explain controversial issues in human development
CHAPTER FOUR

UNIT FOUR: THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVLOPMENT AND THEIR

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

4.1. What Developmental Theory is?

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Theories are general explanations about a certain state of affair. It is organized set of data or
statements that help us to understand, explain, predicate and modify pattern of human
development. A theory contains hypothesis- the possible answers that can be tested to determine
their accuracy. It is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas, definitions, statements, postulates,
hypothetical constructs, intervening variables, laws, hypothesis that helps to explain and make
predications.

Generally, a theory explains our observation of phenomenon and predicts why that phenomenon
happens. For example, theory about child’s aggression would explain our observation of
aggressive children’s and predicates why children become aggressive; and we might predict that
children become aggressive because of the coercive interchanges they experience and observe in
their families. .

Characteristics of Developmental Theory

Let us see the distinctive feature of developmental theories before proceeding to the types.
1. No single theory explains all aspects of human development. For example, cognitive
development theory explains only about change in intellect, but not other aspect. Freud’s
psychosexual theory explains about personality, emotional and moral changes but not
cognitive development or social development.
2. All developmental theories found on different general background; hence they give different
explanations for the same behavioural changes.
3. All developmental theories have the same function mean that they help to describe, explain and
predict behaviral or physical development.
4. Theory and practice usually go together. Theory arises from practical; experiences and once
theory is formulate it leads to practical application. For instance, Piaget formulated cognitive
development theory from the observation his own three children.

N.B: Simply studying children does not make a theorist a developmental theorist.
What is critical about developmental theory is that it focuses on change overtime.

Tasks of developmental theory

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1) Developmental theories describe changes overtime in one of or several areas of behavior or

psychological activity such as thought, language, social behavior, or perception.
2) Developmental theories describe aspects of psychological activity within one area of
development and ideally, among several areas of development.
3) Developmental theories explain the course of development that the other two tasks describe.

Values of Developmental theories

 A theory makes two contributions:
1) Developmental theories organize and give meaning to facts
2) Developmental theories guides’ further research.

Main issues of Developmental Psychology addressed by theories

 What is the basic nature of human beings?
 Is development qualitative or quantitative?
 How do nature and nurture contribute to development?
 What is it that develops?

4.2. Theories of Human Development

There are a number of theories on human development. Most of them can be included under the
following four categories.

4.2.1. Early Theorists (John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau)

John Locke (1632-1704)
Jon Locke believed that all children are created equal. According to Locke the mind of a child born
baby is liked to a white paper or tabula rasa (blank slate) upon which knowledge is printed
through experience and learning. Lock further asserted that children are neither innately good nor
evil. They were simply the products of their environment and upbringing- an idea that is toady
referred to as environmentalism. Sometimes Locke is called greater grandfather of behaviourism.
Locke also offered advice to parents on the best methods for raising their children. He believed
that discipline of children should involve praise for appropriate behavoirs and scolding rather than

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severe physical punishment for inappropriate behavoirs. He also

discussed the importance of stimulating children to begin learning at a
very early age.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Rousseau, an 18th century French philosopher, described his nativistic
view of child development. He believed that children are born with knowledge and ideas, which
unfold naturally with age. The child’s innate knowledge includes such things as the principle of
justice and fairness and above all a sense of conscience.
According to Rousseau whatever knowledge the child does not possess innately will be gradually
acquired from interactions with the environment guided by the child’s own interest and level of
development. The recommended approach to child to child rearing, according to Rousseau is not
to formally instruct children but rather to have them learn through a process of exploration and
discovery. Rousseau’s assertions are related to some contemporary theorist views on the
following three positions:
V. Children should be exposed to a particular body of knowledge only after they display a
cognitive ‘readiness’ to learn it.
VI. Children learn best when they are exposed to information or ideas and then allowed to
acquire an understanding of them through their own discovery process.
VII. Both education and child rearing should foster a permissive rather than a highly
disciplined style of interaction.

4.2.2. Contemporary Theories on Socio-emotional Development

Describe two contemporary theories on socio-emotional development: Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological theory and Erikson’s life-span development theory.

I. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory (1902-1994)

Our personality traits come in opposites. We think of ourselves as optimistic or pessimistic,
independent or dependent, emotional or unemotional, adventurous or cautious, leader or follower,
aggressive or passive. Many of these are inborn temperament traits, but other characteristics, such

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as feeling either competent or inferior, appear to be learned, based on the challenges and support we
receive in growing up.

The man who did a great deal to explore this concept is Erik Erikson. Although he was influenced
by Freud, he believed that the ego exists from birth and that behavior is not totally defensive. Based
in part on his study of Sioux Indians on a reservation, Erikson became aware of the massive
influence of culture on behavior and placed more emphasis on the external world, such as
depression and wars. He felt the course of development is determined by the interaction of the body
(genetic biological programming), mind (psychological), and cultural (ethos) influences.

Erikson was a German born psychoanalyst who modified and extended Freudian theory. Of course,
like Freud, Erikson concerned with the emotional development of chidden. However, he departs
from Freudian thought in emphasizing societal and cultural, rather than chiefly biological influences
on personality. Erikson believes that Freudian theory undervalued the influences of social and
cultural factors on the development of personality. Erikson also felt that Freud’s view of society
was too negative. Unlike Freud, who thought that personality was shaped and fixed during the early
childhood years? Erikson suggested that personality development is continuous throughout the
entire life span. Freud emphases sex in his theory, whereas Erikson emphases the environmental
factors theory.

The basic Assumptions/ideas

I. Personality development is the product of the interaction of our body and the environment.
II. Personality development is a continuous process of change because the interactions of our
body and the environment continuously changes and takes different forms.
III. Personality development is a process of facing and successfully resolving the various
developmental crises that emerges at different periods in our life.
IV. There are eight such sequences in the total psychosocial developmental span.

According to Erikson, human being develops according to a principle called the epigenetic
principle. This principle consists of two main elements. First, personality develops according to
predetermined steps that are maturational set. Second, society is structured so as to invite and
encourage the challenges that rise during this particular stage.

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The most important idea of Erikson’s theory is that human development consists of the progressive
resolution of conflicts between needs and social demands. Furthermore, Erikson theorized that an
individual progresses through a series of eight psychosocial stages, or crises.
What are the important factors governing individual’s healthy behavioural development according
to Erickson?
Have you ever realized what behavoirs, activates or tendencies characterized human beings at
various ages? What are the underlying causes of these behavoirs?

Erikson sees development as proceeding through eight significant turning points at different times
throughout life. During each these stages the individual confronts and must deal with specific crisis
before progress can be made to the next set of problems.
The eight Eriksonian crises emerge in a predetermined order according to the time table that is in
turn determined by maturation. Healthy ego development involves making adjustments to the
demands of the particular crisis that characterizes each stage in the life span. If the conflict is not
satisfactorily resolved, the person will continue to struggle and experience a negative outcome,
perhaps, a personality disorder. Success in each stage lays the groundwork for resolving the crises
of later and results in a positive outcome.

Successful resolution of each of the eight crises requires balancing positive traits and corresponding
negative traits. Although the positive quality should predominate, some elements of the negative is
needed too healthy people, for example, basically trust their world, but they need to learn some
mistrust to be prepared for dangerous or uncomfortable situations. The successful outcome of each
crisis includes the development particular virtue. According to Erikson, conflict and challenged
over each of the psychological issues are needed for healthy growth and development.

As you read through the following eight stages with their sets of opposites, notice which strengths
you identify with most and those you need to work on some more.

Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust (Infancy: Birth to 18 Months)

Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs Mistrust
Basic strength: Drive and Hope
Erikson also referred to infancy as the Oral Sensory Stage (as anyone might who watches a baby
put everything in her mouth) where the major emphasis is on the mother's positive and loving

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care for the child, with a big emphasis on visual contact and touch. If we pass successfully through
this period of life, we will learn to trust that life is basically okay and have basic confidence in the
future. If we fail to experience trust and are constantly frustrated because our needs are not met,
we may end up with a deep-seated feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world in
general.
Incidentally, many studies of suicides and suicide attempts point to the importance of the early
years in developing the basic belief that the world is trustworthy and that every individual has a
right to be here. Not surprisingly, the most significant relationship is with the maternal parent, or
whoever is our most significant and constant caregiver.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years)
Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will
During this stage we learn to master skills for ourselves. Not only do we learn to walk, talk and
feed ourselves, we are learning finer motor development as well as the much appreciated toilet
training. Here we have the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as we gain more
control over our bodies and acquire new skills, learning right from wrong. And one of our skills
during the "Terrible Two's" is our ability to use the powerful word "NO!" It may be pain for
parents, but it develops important skills of the will. It is also during this stage, however, that we
can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in the process of toilet training or in learning other
important skills, we may feel great shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self-esteem
as a result. The most significant relationships are with parents.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Play Age: 3 to 5 Years)

Ego Development outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt
Basic Strength: Purpose
During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in
creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie's and Ken's, toy phones and miniature
cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it
mean to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—"WHY?"

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While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the
psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this
stage we usually become involved in the classic "Oedipal struggle" and resolve this struggle
through "social role identification." If we're frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may
easily experience guilt. The most significant relationship is with the basic family.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age: 6 to 12 Years)

Ego Development Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority
Basic Strengths: Method and Competence

During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing
numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social
stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority
among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem. As the
world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood.
Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years)

Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity

Up to this stage, according to Erikson, development mostly depends upon what is done to us.
From here on out, development depends primarily upon what we do. And while adolescence is a
stage at which we are neither a child nor an adult, life is definitely getting more complex as we
attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social interactions, and grapple with moral issues.

Our task is to discover who we are as individuals separate from our family of origin and as
members of a wider society. Unfortunately for those around us, in this process many of us go into
a period of withdrawing from responsibilities, which Erikson called a "moratorium." And if we are
unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will experience role confusion and upheaval.

A significant task for us is to establish a philosophy of life and in this process we tend to think in
terms of ideals, which are conflict free, rather than reality, which is not. The problem is that we
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don't have much experience and find it easy to substitute ideals for experience. However, we can
also develop strong devotion to friends and causes. It is no surprise that our most significant
relationships are with peer groups.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation (Young adulthood: 18 to 35 years old)
Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation
Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love
In the initial stage of being an adult we seek one or more companions and love. As we try to find
mutually satisfying relationships, primarily through marriage and friends, we generally also begin
to start a family, though this age has been pushed back for many couples who today don't start
their families until their late thirties. If negotiating this stage is successful, we can experience
intimacy on a deep level.

If we're not successful, isolation and distance from others may occur. And when we don't find it
easy to create satisfying relationships, our world can begin to shrink as, in defense, we can feel
superior to others. Our significant relationships are with marital partners and friends.

Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation (Middle Adulthood: 35 to 60 years old)

Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs Self absorption or Stagnation
Basic Strengths: Production and Care
Now work is most crucial. Erikson observed that middle-age is when we tend to be occupied with
creative and meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family. Also, middle adulthood is
when we can expect to "be in charge," the role we've longer envied.

The significant task is to perpetuate culture and transmit values of the culture through the family
(taming the kids) and working to establish a stable environment. Strength comes through care of
others and production of something that contributes to the betterment of society, which Erikson
calls generatively, so when we're in this stage we often fear inactivity and meaninglessness.

As our children leave home, or our relationships or goals change, we may be faced with major life
changes—the mid-life crisis—and struggle with finding new meanings and purposes. If we don't get

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through this stage successfully, we can become self-absorbed and stagnate. Significant
relationships are within the workplace, the community and the family.

Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair (Late Adulthood: 60 to Death)

Ego Development Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair
Basic Strengths: Wisdom
Erikson felt that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage is
recovering from it. Perhaps that is because as older adults we can often look back on our lives with
happiness and are content, feeling fulfilled with a deep sense that life has meaning and we've
made a contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls integrity. Our strength comes from a wisdom
that the world is very large and we now have a detached concern for the whole of life, accepting
death as the completion of life.

On the other hand, some adults may reach this stage and despair at their experiences and
perceived failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering
"Was the trip worth it?" Alternatively, they may feel they have all the answers (not unlike going
back to adolescence) and end with a strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct. The
significant relationship is with all of mankind—"my-kind.

Brief of the eight stages

Stages/crises Significant persons Descriptions of the stage Virtues Ages

1. Trust Vs. Maternal person Baby develops sense of whether the world Hope 0-1
Mistrust is a good and safe place.
2. Autonomy Vs. Paternal person Child develops a balance of independence Will 2-3
Shame & Doubt over shame and doubt.
3. Initiative Vs. Basic family Child develops initiative when trying out Purpose 3-6
Guilt new things and is not controlled by guilt.
4. Industry Vs. Neighborhood and Child must learn skills of the culture or Competence 7-12
Inferiority school face feeling of incompetence.
5. Identity Vs. Peer groups & out Adolescents must determines one’s own Fidelity 12-18
Identity groups; leader ship sense of self or experience confusion
Confusion models about roles
6. Intimacy Vs. Partners in Persons seek to make commitments to Love The 20s

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Isolation friendship, sex, others or may suffer from isolation and

cooperation self absorption.
7. Generativity Divided labor; Person is concerned with guiding the next Care 20s-50s
Vs. Stagnation shared household generation or feels personal
improvements.
8. Integrity Vs. Humanity; Elderly persons achieve a acceptance of Wisdom 50s and
Despire belonging one’s own life, allowing acceptance of above
death, or else despairs over inability to
relive life.

Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory

1. Encourage initiative in young children. Children in preschool and early childhood education
programs should be given a great deal of freedom to explore their world. They should be allowed
to choose most of the activities they engage in. If their requests for doing certain activities are
reasonable, the requests should be honored. Children at this stage love to play. It not only
benefits their socio-emotional development but also is an important medium for their cognitive
growth. Provide exciting materials that will stimulate their imagination. Especially encourage
social play with peers and fantasy play. Help children assume responsibility for putting toys and
materials back in place after they have used them. Criticism should be kept to a minimum so that
children will not develop high levels of guilt and anxiety. Structure activities and environment
for successes rather than failures by giving them developmentally appropriate tasks; for example,
don’t frustrate young children by having them sit for long periods of time doing academic
paper-and-pencil tasks.

2. Promote industry in elementary school children. Teachers have a special responsibility for
children’s development of industry. It was Erikson’s hope that teachers could provide an
atmosphere in which children become passionate about learning. In elementary school, children
thirst to know. Most arrive at elementary school steeped in curiosity and a motivation to master
tasks. In Erikson’s view, it is important for teachers to nourish this motivation for mastery and
curiosity. Give students meaningful tasks to accomplish that are challenging, but not
overwhelming. If students consistently have tasks to do that are too easy for them, they will not
learn to be industrious. Be fi rm in requiring students to be productive, but don’t be overly

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critical. Especially be tolerant of honest mistakes, allow students to correct these, and make sure
that every student has opportunities for many successes.

3. Stimulate identity exploration in adolescence. Recognize that the student’s identity is

multidimensional. Ask adolescents to write essays about such dimensions, including vocational
goals, intellectual achievement, and interests in hobbies, sports, music, and other areas, exploring
who they are and what they want to do with their lives. Have people from different careers come
and talk with your students about their work regardless of the grade you teach. Offer short
exploratory courses or units that allow adolescents to explore a domain without making a long-
term commitment to it. Encourage adolescents to think independently and to freely express their
views by listening to, reading about, and participating in debates on religious, political, and
ideological issues. This will stimulate them to examine different perspectives. Understand that
adolescents often express their developing identities through their appearance, language choices,
and peer group choices.
Using Art to Explore Adolescents’ Identities
My seventh-grade art students come to class the first day to read a list of classroom rules. I surprise
them by passing out sheets of art paper, old magazines, and glue with the verbal directions to tell
me about themselves—build a self-portrait—with torn paper. The students are inventive,
enthusiastic, and excited to focus on their identities, and waste no time beginning. . . . After the
opening project, my students are at ease knowing their creative expression is allowed and
encouraged, and I am better able to understand their many changing attitudes and need to express
them.
4. Examine your life as a teacher through the lens of Erikson’s eight stages (Gratz & Bouton,
1996). Your successful career as a teacher could be a key aspect of your overall identity.
Develop positive relationships with a partner, one or more friends, and with other teachers or
mentors, all of which can be very rewarding and enhance your identity as a teacher.
5. Benefit from the characteristics of some of Erikson’s other stages. Competent teachers trust,
show initiative, are industrious and model a sense of mastery, and are motivated to contribute
something meaningful to the next generation. In your role as a teacher, you can actively meet the
criteria for Erikson’s concept of generatively.
II. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

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This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the

system of relationships that form his or her environment.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines complex “layers” of environment,
each having an effect on a child’s development. This theory has
recently been renamed “bioecological systems theory” to
emphasize that a child’s own biology is a primary environment
fueling her development. The interaction between factors in the
child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal
landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple
throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child
and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.
The various terms in this graphic are links that lead to pages explaining their implications in this
theory.

Fig: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development model

Bronfenbrenner’s structure of environment:
1. The Microsystems – this is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which
the child has direct contact. The micro-system encompasses the relationships and interactions a
child has with her immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structures in the micro-system include
family, school, neighborhood, or childcare environments. At this level, relationships have
impact in two directions - both away from the child and toward the child. For example, a
child’s parents may affect his beliefs and behavior; however, the child also affects the behavior

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and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner’s calls these bi-directional influences, and he shows
how they occur among all levels of environment. The interaction of structures within a layer and
interactions of structures between layers is key to this theory. At the micro-system level, bi-
directional influences are strongest and have the greatest impact on then child. However,
interactions at outer levels can still impact the inner structures.

2. The Mesosystem – this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s
micro-system (Berk, 2000). Examples: the connection between the child’s teacher and his
parents, between his church and his neighborhood, etc. The exo-system – this layer defines the
larger social system in which the child does not function directly. The structures in this layer
impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure in her micro-system (Berk,
2000). Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are examples. The
child may not be directly involved at this level, but he does feel the positive or negative force
involved with the interaction with his own system.
3. The Exosystem- is at work when experiences in another setting (in which the student does not
have an active role) influence what students and teachers experience in the immediate context.
For example, consider the school and park supervisory boards in a community. They have
strong roles in determining the quality of schools, parks, recreation facilities, and libraries,
which can help or hinder a child’s development.

4. The Macrosystem– this layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s
environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values,
customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The effects of larger principles defined by the macro-system
have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers. For example, if it is
the belief of the culture that parents should be solely responsible for raising their children, that
culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents. This, in turn, affects the structures in
which the parents function. The parents’ ability or inability to carry out that responsibility
toward their child within the context of the child’s micro-system is likewise affected.

5. The Chronosystem – this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s
environments. Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a
parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a

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child. As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes and may be
more able to determine more how that change will influence them.

More modern child development theories accept that both a child’s biology and his environment
play a role in change and growth. Theories now focus on the role played by each and the extent to
which they interact in ongoing development. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses
on the quality and context of the child’s environment. He states that as a child develops, the
interaction within these environments becomes more complex.
This complexity can arise as the child’s physical and cognitive structures grow and mature. So,
given that nature continues on a given path, how does the world that surrounds the child help or
hinder continued development? This is the question answered by Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

Implications for practice

Bronfenbrenner’s sees the instability and unpredictability of family life we’ve let our economy
create as the most destructive force to a child’s development (Addison, 1992). Children do not
have the constant mutual interaction with important adults that is necessary for development.
According to the ecological theory, if the relationships in the immediate micro-system break down,
the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the
affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship
look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially in
adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-direction
(Addison, 1992).

This theory has dire implications for the practice of teaching. Knowing about the breakdown
occurring within children’s homes, is it possible for our educational system to make up for these
deficiencies? It seems now that it is necessary for schools and teachers to provide stable, long-term
relationships. Yet, Bronfenbrenner’s believes that the primary relationship needs to be with
someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime.
This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child’s
influence. Schools and teachers fulfill an important secondary role, but cannot provide the
complexity of interaction that can be provided by primary adults.

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For the educational community to attempt a primary role is to help our

society continue its denial of the real issue. The problems students and
families face are caused by the conflict between the workplace and
family life – not between families and schools. Schools and teachers
should work to support the primary relationship and to create an
environment that welcomes and nurtures families. We can do this while
we work to realize Bronfenbrenner’s ideal of the creation of public
policy that eases the work/family conflict (Henderson, 1995). It is in the best interest of our entire
society to lobby for political and economic policies that support the importance of parent’s roles in
their children’s development. Bronfenbrenner’s would also agree that we should foster societal
attitudes that value work done on behalf of children at all levels: parents, teachers, extended family,
mentors, work supervisors, legislator.

Evaluating Bronfenbrenner’s Theory Bronfenbrenner’s theory has gained popularity in recent

years. It provides one of the few theoretical frameworks for systematically examining social
contexts on both micro and macro levels, bridging the gap between behavioral theories that focus
on small settings and anthropological theories that analyze larger settings. His theory has been
instrumental in showing how different contexts of children’s lives are interconnected. As we have
just discussed, teachers need to consider not just what goes on in the classroom but also what
happens in students’ families, neighborhoods, and peer groups. It should be mentioned that
Bronfenbrenner (2000) added biological influences to his theory and subsequently described it as a
bioecological theory. Nonetheless, ecological, environmental contexts still predominate in
Bronfenbrenner’s theory (Gauvain & Parke, 2010). Criticisms of Bronfenbrenner’s theory are
that it gives too little attention to biological and cognitive factors in children’s development and it
does not address the step-by-step developmental changes that are the focus of theories such as
Piaget’s and Erikson’s.

Strategies for Educating students Based on Bronfenbrener’s Theory

1. Think about the child as embedded in a number of environmental systems and influences. These
include schools and teachers, parents and siblings, the community and neighborhood, peers and
friends, the media, religion, and culture.

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2. Pay attention to the connection between schools and families. Build these connections through
formal and informal outreach. There are a number of ways to do this, including inviting parents
into the classroom for special occasions, such as open houses, asking parents to read with their
children at home, bringing parents into the school as volunteers, speakers, or room parents, and
holding parent/child activity nights.
3. Recognize the importance of the community, socioeconomic status, and culture in the child’s
development. These broader social contexts can have powerful influences on the child’s
development.

4.2.2. Cognitive Theories

I. Piaget’s Theories of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s background
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was actually not a psychologist at first; he dedicated his time to mollusc
research. In fact, by the time he was 21 he’d already published twenty scientific papers on them!
He soon moved to Paris, and got a job interviewing mental patients. Before long, he was working
for Alfred Binet, and refining Burt’s reasoning test. During his time working at Binet’s lab, he
studied the way that children reasoned. After two years of working with children, Piaget finally
realized what he wanted to investigate – children’s development! He noticed that children of a
younger aged answered questions qualitatively different than those of an older age. This
suggested to him that younger children were not less knowledgeable, but gave different answers
because they thought differently.

He spent over 10 years perfecting his theory, and it is widely acknowledged as one of the most
valuable developmental theories – especially of its time. It’s no lie that there are many new,
possibly more valid theories now, but Piaget’s theory has had a lot of influence on schools,
teaching and education all over the world. So, let’s begin exploring Piaget’s theory, the key
concepts and the stages. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Piaget’s theory is based on stages, whereby each stage represents a qualitatively different type of
thinking. Children in stage one cannot think the same as children in stage 2, 3 or 4 etc. Transitions
from one stage to another are generally very fast, and the stages always follow an invariant

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sequence. Another important characteristic of his stage theory is that they are universal; the
stages will work for everyone in the world regardless of their differences (except their age, of
course, which is what the stages are based on!)

Piaget acknowledged that there is an interaction between a child and the environment, and this is
a focal point for his theory. He believed a child cannot learn unless they are constantly interacting
with their environment, making mistakes and then learning from them. He defined children as
“lone scientists”; he did not identify any need for teachers or adults in cognitive development.
Children have all the cognitive mechanisms to learn on their own, and the interaction with
their environment allows them to do so. To put this in perspective, another theory by Lev
Vygotsky suggested that the interaction is not important at all; the child will learn when
encouraged to with an adult’s assistance. I will be explaining then contrasting Vygotsky’s theory
to Piaget’s in my next post – so be sure to check back for that! With the background of his theory
explained, let’s look at

The Key Concepts of Piaget’s theory:

Before explaining the main part of Piaget’s theory (the four stages), it’s very important to look at
some of the underlying principles behind it. Rather than write a stupidly long paragraph explaining
it all, I will write the key terms in bold, then explain them in bullet points – just to keep things
simple!
Schema: (pl. Schemata, although some say “Schemas” for the plural) possibly one of the most
important concepts put forward by Piaget, Schemata help individuals understand the world they
inhabit. They are cognitive structures that represent a certain aspect of the world, and can be seen as
categories which have certain pre-conceived ideas in them. For example, my schema for Christmas
includes: Christmas trees, presents, giving, money, green, red, gold, winter, Santa Claus etc.
Someone else may have an entirely different schema, such as Jesus, birth, Church, holiday,
Christianity etc. Of course, there are schemata for all kinds of things – yourself (self schemata),
other people (people schemata), events/situations (event schemata) and roles/occupations (role
schemata). With regards to Piaget’s theory, a child might have a pre-conceived schema for a dog.
If the household has a small West Highland white terrier as a dog, the schema might be “small,

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furry, four legs, white”. When the child interacts with a new dog – perhaps a Labrador, it will
change to incorporate the new information, such as “big, golden, smooth etc.” This is known as
assimilation.
Adaptation: Assimilation and accommodation are the two parts of adaptation – which is simply
what it says – adapting our schemata to make an accurate (enough) model of the world we live in.
It is a form of learning, but an entirely different form to the kind you’d see in behaviorists
psychology for example (such as operant/classical conditioning).

Assimilation: Simply the process of incorporating new information into a pre-existing schema. So
with the “dog” example, the child assimilated the Labrador’s information into the old dog
schema. Assimilation is essentially fitting new information into schemata we already have in place.
Unfortunately, this can lead to stereotyping. For example, if an old lady sees a teenager mug
another person, she might assimilate “violence” or “crime” into her teenage schema. Next time
she sees a teenager, her schema will be applied to them – and although they may be a kind
person, she will probably show prejudice. Assimilation is normally a simple process, as new
information already fits the pre-existing categories.

Accommodation: when coming across a new object for the first time, a child will attempt to apply
an old schema to the object. For consistency, let’s use the dog example again. The child may have
“four legs, furry” in their dog schema. When coming across another similar animal, such as a cat,
they might say “Look, a dog!” – that’s assimilation. However, when told that it’s actually a cat –
not a dog – they will accommodate the new information into another schema. They will now form
a “cat” schema; “not all four legged furry animals are dogs – some are cats too!”. They have
accommodated the new information. The process just mentioned – of assimilation then
accommodation is known as equilibration.

Equilibrium: Piaget suggested that humans naturally strive to achieve a cognitive balance; there
must be a balance between applying prior knowledge (assimilation) and changing schemata to
account for new information (accommodation). Piaget suggested that when a child has a schema
which doesn’t fit reality, there is tension in the mind. By balancing the use of assimilation and

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accommodation, this tension is reduced and we can proceed to higher levels of thought and
learning (equilibration).

The four stages of Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

The following stages form the bulk of Piaget’s theory. I’ve kept you waiting long enough – so here
they are, explained to the fullest of my knowledge! I’ve actually studied this over about 3 years
though – so I should be able to provide some pretty useful information! If I miss anything out,
please don’t hesitate to inform me.

Stage 1: Sensory-motor stage – (occurs from birth to approx. 2 years old).

During this stage, information is received through all the senses. The child tries to make sense of
the world during this stage, and as the name suggests, only senses and motor abilities are used to
do so. The child utilizes innate behaviours to enhance this learning process, such as sucking,
looking, grasping, crying and listening. To make this even more complex, there are 6 sub-stages of
this one stage. To begin, the child uses only reflexes and innate behaviour. Towards the end of this
stage, the child uses a range of complex sensor motor skills. The sub-stages are as follows:
1. Reflexes (0-1 month): The child uses only innate reflexes. For example, if a nipple or
dummy is put into a baby’s mouth, they will reflexively suck on it. If an object is placed in
their palm, the hand will automatically grab it. These reflexes have the sole function of
keeping the child alive.
2. Primary Circular Actions (1-4 months): The child now has a fixation with its own body with
regards to behaviour(what Piaget refers to as primary behaviour); they will perform actions
repeatedly on themselves (like sucking their own hand). They also begin to refine reflexes
here to form more complex versions of them.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) : At around 4 months, the child begins to take an
interest in their environment (their behaviour is secondary). They notice that they can
actually influence events in their world, for example they can drop a teddy which bashes a
ball on the floor. Although this occurs, the infant will not make conscious connections
between what they do and the consequences, they merely observe that their actions have
interesting effects.

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4. Co-ordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months) : At this point, the child
begins to engage in goal-directed behaviour; they begin to develop cause-effect
relationships. So rather than crawl over to a teddy in a cart to pick it up, they might instead
pull the cart over with the teddy in to acquire it. The child effectively knows that their
behaviour will have a certain consequence. At this stage, object permanence is acquired -
but I will explain this after these sub-stages.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): At this stage, children like to use creativity and
flexibility with their previous behaviours, and the result of their experimentation often leads
to different outcomes. So rather than grabbing a box, they might instead try to tilt or
manipulate it.
6. Symbolic/Mental Representation (18-24 months): At this stage, the child develops symbolic
thought and the ability to mentally represent objects in their head. Normally, the child
would need to resort to trial-and-error to achieve a desired effect. Now, however, the child
can ‘plan’ to some extent and mentally construct the consequences of an action in their
head. Of course, predictions are not always accurate, but it is a step up from trial-and-error.
There are two key examples of mental representation in children: object permanence and
deferred imitation.

Object permanence is when objects exist even when out of sight. In the first three sub-stages,
children will not attempt to search for an object which is hidden from their view; in their mind, the
object simply ceases to exist as they cannot see it. At sub-stage four, however, they show this
characteristic of object permanence. If an object is hidden from them, they will attempt to find it,
but will repeatedly look in the same place – even if the object is moved (the so called “A-not-B
error”). However, by sub-stage 6, the child is able to mentally represent the object in their mind,
leading to exploration for an object even if it is moved. They will continue to look for an object
until they find it, as they understand objects exist regardless of where they are.

Deferred imitation is simply the imitation of behaviour a child has seen before. As a child can
mentally represent behaviour they have seen, they are able to enact it through playing and in
other situations. So a child might ‘talk’ down a toy telephone or ‘steer’ a toy car around the
room.

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Stage 2: The Pre-operational Stage: (Occurs from 2-7 years of age)

The preoperative stage is the second of four stages of cognitive development. Cognitive
Development Approaches. By observing sequences of play, Jean Piaget was able to demonstrate
that towards the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning
occurs.

The second stage is called Pre-operational stage (begins about the time the child starts to talk to
about age 7). Intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and
memory and imaginations are developed. The child’s thinking is influenced by fantasy (the way
he’d like things to be) and the child assumes that others see situations from his viewpoint. The
child takes in information and then changes it in his mind to fit his idea. Piaget noted that children
in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information.
Children’s increase in playing and pretending takes place in the pre-operational stage.

The mental representation of the sensorimotor stage provides a smooth transition to semiotic
functioning in the pre-operational stage. This essentially means that a child can use one object to
represent another (symbolically). For example, a child swinging their arms in a circular motion
might represent the wheels on a train, or sticking their arms out and running might symbolize the
movement of an aeroplane. This shows the relationships children can form between language,
actions and objects at this stage.

(Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the
preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate mental operations. During this stage, the
child learns to use and to represent objects by images, words, and drawings. The child is able to
form stable concepts as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs. The child however is still not
able to perform operations; tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically. Thinking is
still egocentric. The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Two sub-stages can be
formed from preoperative thought.

The Symbolic Function Sub-stage: Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 7. During 2-4 years
old, kids cannot yet manipulate and transform information in logical ways, but they now can think

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in images and symbols. The child is able to formulate designs of objects that are not present. Other
examples of mental abilities are language and pretend play. Although there is advancement in
progress, there are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism. Egocentrism occurs when a
child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person's. Children
tend to pick their own view of what they see rather than the actual view shown to others. An
example is an experiment performed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder. Three views of a mountain are
shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various angles; the child picks
their own view compared to the actual view of the doll. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects
are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities. An example is a child believing that the sidewalk
was mad and made them fall down.

The Intuitive Thought Sub-stage: Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7. Children tend to
become very curious and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning. There is an
emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are. Piaget
called it the intuitive sub-stage because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but
they are unaware of how they know it. 'Centration' and 'conservation' are both involved in
preoperative thought. Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared
to the others. Centration is noticed in conservation; the awareness that altering a substance's
appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware of conservation.
Example, In Piaget's most famous task, a child is presented with two identical beakers containing
the same amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers have the same amount of liquid.
When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger
than 7 or 8 years old typically say that the two beakers now contain a different amount of liquid.
The child simply focuses on the height and width of the container compared to the general concept.

A major characteristic of this stage is egocentrism: perception of the world in relation to oneself
only. Children struggle to perceive situations from another point of view or perspective, as shown
by Piaget and Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956). In this study, children were asked what can
be perceived from certain positions on a 3D model. See the diagram below for a clearer idea.

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Piaget and Inhelder: Three Mountains Task (1956)”

The child would have been asked, “What view does Piaget have?” In the actual study though, they
were shown around 8 cards of possible viewpoints rather than the three above. As you can imagine,
the children struggled to decentralize and pick the correct picture.

Another feature of this stage is conservation. Children struggle to understand the difference in
quantity and measurements in different situations. For example, suppose a child is shown a short,
fat beaker full of water. When that water is transferred entirely to a tall, thin beaker – we would
know the level of water is identical – only the beaker has changed. However, a child in this stage
will conclude there is more water in the tall beaker, just because the level of water looks higher.

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Children in this stage also lack the required cognition to apply reversibility to situations; they
cannot imagine objects or numbers reversed to their previous form. This will be explored in the
next stage (where reversibility IS present). When a child has the ability to decenter, they are said
to progress to the next stage.

Stage 3: The Concrete Operational Stage: (Occurs from 7-11 years of age)
The concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget's
theory. This stage, which follows the preoperational stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and
11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic.

The third stage is known as Concrete operational stage (First grade to early adolescence):
Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to
concrete objects. The child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgments
about concrete or observable phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically
to understand. Logic: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly
good at use of inductive logic. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using
deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific
event. Reversibility: An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between
mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a
Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

This stage sees another shift in children’s cognitive thinking. It is aptly named “concrete” because
children struggle to apply concepts to anything which cannot physically be manipulated or seen.
Nevertheless, the child continues to improve their conservation skills, and by the age of 11 they
can conserve numbers, weight and volume (acquired in that order). The child can also understand
principles of ”class inclusion”; perspective tasks become much easier, and children begin to
understand that other people actually have different views to themselves. Simple maths, such as
addition/subtraction becomes much easier. However, as this stage is concrete, Piaget suggests
children will struggle to apply any prior knowledge to abstract situations. For example, when
Seriation asked tasks such as “John is taller than Pete. John is shorter than Simon. Who is tallest?”

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concrete children often fail to provide a correct answer as the situation is too abstract. However,
when dolls are used to represent Pete, Simon and John, the children are able to answer – as the
situation is bought back to a concrete one with physical representations.

Important processes during this stage are:

Serration- the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other
characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.

Transitivity- the ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order, and
perform 'transitive inferences' (for example, If A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A must
be taller than C).

Classification- the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or
other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.

Decentering: where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For
example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than
a normally-wide, taller cup.

Reversibility: the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to
their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals t,
t−4 will equal 4, the original quantity.

Conservation- understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the

arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
Elimination of Egocentrism-the ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they think
incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves the
room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete
operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's under the box even though the child knows it
is in the drawer. Children in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual
(concrete) objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.

Stage 4: The Formal Operational Stage: (Occurs from age 11 onwards).

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The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in
Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around
11 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood. In this stage, individuals move beyond
concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the
information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations. The abstract
quality of the adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's
verbal problem solving ability. The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are
more likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion. Adolescents begin to think more as a
scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing solutions. They use
hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses,
and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.
During this stage the adolescent is able to understand such things as love, "shades of gray", logical
proofs and values.

During this stage the young person begins to entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated
with what they can be. Adolescents are changing cognitively also by the way that they think about
social matters. Adolescent Egocentrism governs the way that adolescents think about social
matters and is the heightened self-consciousness in them as they are which is reflected in their
sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. Adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two
types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention getting behavior, and personal
fable which involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.

The final stage is known as Formal operational stage (adolescence and into adulthood):
Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. At his
point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people
develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Logic: Piaget believed that deductive logic
becomes important during the formal operational stage. This type of thinking involves
hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics. Abstract though
emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to think very concretely and
specifically in earlier stages. Children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of

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actions. Problem-Solving is when children use trial-and-error to solve problems. Th ability to

systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.

Adolescents and adults at this stage acquire the ability to think hypothetically and “outside the
box”. Logical conclusions can be inferred from verbal information, and “concrete”, physical
objects are no longer necessary. When presented with a problem, children at this stage can
consider solutions to the problem in a logical manner. The child becomes increasingly “adult-like”
with regards to their cognitive abilities. Scientific reasoning is apparent in this stage, and is
indicated by Piaget and Inhelder’s Pendulum Task (1958). When asked to determine the effect
different weights and rope length have on the speed of a swinging pendulum, formal operational
children came to consistent and logical conclusions.

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory

Although Piaget’s theory made important contributions to the understanding of cognitive
development, there are a number of criticisms of his theory, these include:
1. Piaget’s notion of structurally distinct stages is questioned. His critics argue that Piaget
underestimated the intellectual abilities of the preschool child (age 2 to 6 years) and over
estimated the formal operations of adolescents and adults. The clinical method that Piaget
used to interview children may have contributed to this situation. For example, Some
researchers have found that children as young as 2 and half years already understand certain
number principles even though they cannot correctly perform Piaget’s conservation task.
2. Although Piaget described in detail the quality of Children’s thinking at various developmental
stages, Piaget failed to explain at the same detail how these changes in structure come about.
Piaget emphasize on the four distinct stages of cognitive development may be misleading. The
sequencing from one stage to another may be only an artifact of the evolution procedure
Piaget used. Given the way in which children’s knowledge is assessed, it would be difficult for
them to demonstrate any other pattern of cognitive development than that which is found.
The issue is whether the sequence of stage depends up on some innate maturational blueprint
or whether the stage sequence can be explained by other means. As you may recall from your
everyday classroom practice higher-order skills require prerequisite knowledge that can be

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learned. Therefore, the educator does not have to rely on the development of schemata but
instead needs to teach the necessary prerequisite skills to the child.
3. Many people assumed that Piaget was so absorbed by the child’s active search for knowledge
that he ignored external motivation on teaching. While it is confronting to think that children
develop their own schemes when they are ready, this concept implies that teachers should not
intervene when a child seems uninterested in learning to read or add.
4. Research on adult cognition suggested that Piaget’s focus on formal logic as the apex of
cognitive development is too narrow. It does not account for the emergence of of such mature
abilities as practical problem solving, wisdom, and the capacity to deal with ambiguous
situations and competing truths.
Implications of Piaget's Theory for Teaching

Piaget did not make specific educational recommendations. He was more interested in
understanding children's thinking. He did express some general ideas about education, however, He
believed that the main goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn, and that
education should "form not furnish" the minds of students (Piaget). Even though Piaget did not use
programs of educational based discussions if we understand children’s thinking, we will be better
able to match teaching methods to children's abilities.

Understanding and Building on Students' Thinking

The students in class will vary greatly in both their level of cognitive development and their
academic knowledge. As a teacher, how can you determine whether students are having trouble
because they lack the necessary thinking abilities or because they simply have not learned the basic
facts? Case (1985b) suggests you observe your students carefully as they try to solve the problems
you have presented. What kind of logic do they use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the
situation? Are they fooled by appearances? They suggest solutions systematically or by guessing
and forgetting what they have already tried? Ask your students how they tried to solve the problem.
Listen to their strategies. That kind of thinking is behind repeated mistakes or problems?

The students are the best sources of information about their own thinking abilities. An important
implication of Piaget's theory for teaching is what Hunt years ago (1961) called "the problem of the
match." Students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they

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cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be kept "just right" to encourage
growth. Setting up situations that lead to errors can help create an appropriate level of
disequilibrium. When students experience some conflict between what they think should happen
(and what actually happens (it floats!), they may rethink the situation, and new knowledge may
develop.

It is worth pointing out, too, that many materials and lessons can be understood at several levels and
can be "just right" for a range of cognitive abilities. It is also possible for students to be introduced
to a topic together, then work individually on follow-up activities matched to their level.

Activity and Constructing Knowledge

Piaget's fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding; learning is a
constructive process. At every level of cognitive development you will also want to see that
students are actively engaged in the learning process. To know an object is to act on it. To know is
to modify, to transform the object and to understand the process of this transformation, and as a
consequence to understand the way the object is constructed. This active experience even at the
earliest school levels should not be limited to the physical manipulation of objects. It should also
include mental manipulation of ideas that arise out of class projects or experin1ents). For example,
after a social studies lesson on different jobs, a primary-grade teacher might show the students a
picture of a woman and ask, "What could this person be?" After answers such as "teacher," "doctor:'
"secretary," "lawyer,""saleswoman," and so on, the teacher could suggest, "How about a daughter?"
Answers such a "sister," "mother}" "aunt," and "granddaughter" may follow. This should help the
children switch dimensions in their classification and center on another aspect of the situation.

All students need to interact with teachers and peers in order to test their thinking, to be challenged,
to receive feedback, and to watch how others work out problems. As a general rule, students should
act, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write to the teacher and each other.

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Educational implications at each stage of cognitive development

1. Preoperational
As you have just read, young children think on a different plane than older children. Following are
some effective strategies for advancing young children’s thinking.
1. Allow children to experiment freely with materials. For example, give children various sizes of
cups and a sandbox or water table. As they pour the sand or water back and forth between the
cups, they will begin to understand the concepts of reversibility and conservation. If children are
allowed to “play” with materials at a science table, they are likely to begin classifying objects.
2. Ask children to make comparisons. These might involve such concepts as bigger, taller, wider,
heavier, and longer.
3. Give children experience in ordering operations. For example, have children line up in rows
from tall to short and vice versa. Bring in various examples of animal and plant life cycles, such
as several photographs of butterfly development or the developing
4. Have children draw scenes with perspective. Encourage them to make the objects in their
drawings appear to be at the same location as in the scene they are viewing. For example, if they
see a horse at the end of a field, they should place the horse in the same location in the drawing.
5. Construct an inclined plane or a hill. Let children roll marbles of various sizes down the plane.
Ask them to compare how quickly the different-size marbles reach the bottom. This should help
them understand the concept of speed.
6. Ask children to justify their answers when they draw conclusions. For example, when they say
that pouring a liquid from a short, wide container into a tall, thin container makes the liquid
change in volume, ask, “Why do you think so?” or “How could you prove this to one of your
friends?” This will help them to think more logically.
2. Concrete Operational Stage
As you have just learned, for most of elementary school, children think at a concrete operational
level, which is a different level than young children and adolescents. Following are some effective
strategies for advancing children’s thinking at the concrete operational level.
1. Encourage students to discover concepts and principles.
Ask relevant questions about what is being studied to help them focus on some aspect of their
learning. Refrain from telling students the answers to their questions outright. Try to get them to
reach the answers through their own thinking.

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2. Involve children in operational tasks. These include adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing,
ordering, seriating, and reversing. Make the reversibility of these operations explicit for the
children. For instance, show them that subtracting is the reverse of adding. Use concrete
materials (i.e. manipulatives) for these tasks, possibly introducing math symbols later.
3. Plan activities in which students practice the concept of ascending and descending classification
hierarchies. Have students list the following in order of size (such as largest to smallest): Addis
Ababa, Bahir Dar, Godar, Hawasa, Adama .
4. Include activities that require conservation of area, weight, and displaced volume. Realize that
there is considerable variation in children’s attainment of conservation across different domains.
5. Continue to ask students to justify their answers when they solve problems. Help them to check
the validity and accuracy of their conclusions.
3. Formal operational
1. Realize that most adolescents are not full-fledged formal operational thinkers. Thus, many of the
teaching strategies discussed earlier regarding the education of concrete operational thinkers still
apply to many young adolescents.

2. Propose a problem and invite students to form hypotheses about how to solve it. For example, a
teacher might say, “Imagine that a girl has no friends. What should she do?”
3. Present a problem and suggest several ways it might be approached. Then ask questions that
stimulate students to evaluate the approaches. For example, describe several ways to investigate
a robbery, and ask students to evaluate which way is best and why.
4. Demonstrate how to conduct experiments that require the separation and control of variables.
Later ask students to conduct their own experiments. These might involve science concepts or
simple student-generated research questions, such as “which chewing gum retains its flavor the
longest?”
5. Encourage students to create hierarchical outlines when you ask them to write papers. Make
sure they understand how to organize their writing in terms of general and specific points. The
abstractness of formal operational thinking also means that teachers with students at this level
can encourage them to use metaphors.
So far you learned about applying Piaget’s theory to teaching children at different stages of
cognitive development. Following are five general strategies based on Piaget’s theory for
educating children.

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1. Take a constructivist approach. In a constructivist approach, Piaget emphasized that children

learn best when they are active and seek solutions for themselves. Piaget opposed teaching
methods that treat children as passive receptacles. The educational implication of Piaget’s view
is that in all subjects students learn best by making discoveries, reflecting on them, and
discussing them, rather than blindly imitating the teacher or doing things by rote.
2. Facilitate rather than direct learning. Effective teachers design situations that allow students to
learn by doing. These situations promote students’ thinking and discovery. Teachers listen,
watch, and question students to help them gain better understanding. They ask relevant questions
to stimulate students’ thinking and ask them to explain their answers. create imaginative
classroom situations to facilitate students’ learning.
3. Consider the child’s knowledge and level of thinking.
Students do not come to class with empty heads. They have many ideas about the physical and
natural world including concepts of space, time, quantity, and causality. These ideas differ from
the ideas of adults. Teachers need to interpret what a student is saying and respond with
discourse close to the student’s level. Asking the children to do something for which they are
not ready will not promote cognitive development. It will merely frustrate the children.
4. Promote the student’s intellectual health. When Piaget came to lecture in the United States, he
was asked, “What can I do to get my child to a higher cognitive stage sooner?” He was asked
this question so often in the United States compared with other countries that he called it the
American question. For Piaget, children’s learning should occur naturally. Children should not
be pushed and pressured into achieving too much too early in their development, before they are
maturationally ready.
5. Turn the classroom into a setting of exploration and discovery.
What do actual classrooms look like when the teachers adopt Piaget’s views? Several first- and
second grade math classrooms provide some good examples (Kamii, 1985, 1989). The teachers
emphasize students’ own exploration and discovery. The classrooms are less structured than what
we think of as a typical classroom. Workbooks and predetermined assignments are not used. Rather,
the teachers observe the students’ interests and natural participation in activities to determine what
the course of learning will be. For example, a math lesson might be constructed around counting the
day’s lunch money or dividing supplies among students. Often games are prominently used in the
classroom to stimulate mathematical thinking.

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II. Lev Semanovic Vygotsky’s Social Cognitive Development Theory

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-
1934), who lived during Russian Revolution. Born in Orsha, a part of the Russian Empire (now
known as Belarus) on 17th November 1896, Vygotsky was a pioneer of psychology; he contributed
much important research to the field. He graduated from the Moscow State University in 1917,
and went on to work in many research facilities and educational establishments in Moscow,
Leningrad and Kharkov. His extensive research into cognitive development has leaded his theory
to be one of the most important of its kind. But, Vygotsky’s work was largely unknown to the
West until it was published in 1962.

Vygotsky rarely conducted research; he was more focused on constructing the best possible
theory on the transfer of knowledge. Unfortunately, Vygotsky died
at the very young age of 37 in 1934 from Tuberculosis, but once his
main work was translated to English in 1962, it had a major impact
on other psychological research in similar fields. Vygotsky’s theory
is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts following
major themes:

Major themes:

1. He believed that children’s thinking is affected by their social

knowledge, which are communicated by either psychological (language, number, art) or
technical (books, calculator) means. He was – and sometimes still is often criticized for being
an idealist and his overemphasis of the role of language in thinking (more on the criticisms
later). He was also a very popular author, with 6 volumes of his work being classed as major.
2. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast
to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily
precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every
function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later,

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on the individual level; first, between people (inter psychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).” (Vygotsky, 1978).
3. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process,
or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the
MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
4. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s
ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s
ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this
zone.

Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the socio-cultural context in which they
act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools
that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments.
Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate
needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.

As stated above, Vygotsky believed children’s thinking is affected by their knowledge of the social
community (which is learnt from either technical or psychological cultural tools). He also
suggested that language is the most important tool for gaining this social knowledge; the child can
be taught this from other people via language. He defined intelligence as “the capacity to learn
from instruction”, which emphasizes the fact there is a requirement for a more knowledgeable
other person or ‘teacher’. He referred to them as just that: the More Knowledgeable Other

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(MKO). MKO’s can be parents, adults, teachers, coaches, experts/professionals – but also things
you might not first expect, such as children, friends and computers. He described something
known as the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is a key feature of his theory. There are
two levels of attainment for the ZPD:

 Level 1 – the ‘present level of development’. This describes what the child is capable of
doing without any help from others.
 Level 2 – the ‘potential level of development’. This means what the child could
potentially be capable of with help from other people or ‘teachers’.

The gap between level 1 and 2 (the present and potential development) is what Vygotsky
described as this zone of proximal development. He believed that through help from other, more
knowledgeable people, the child can potentially gain knowledge already held by them. However,
the knowledge must be appropriate for the child’s level of comprehension. Anything that is too
complicated for the child to learn that isn’t in their ZPD cannot be learnt at all until there is a shift
in the ZPD. When a child does attain their potential, this shift occurs and the child can continue
learning more complex, higher level material.

Fig: Diagram to demonstrate the ZPD.

Another important feature of this theory is scaffolding. When an adult provides support for a
child, they will adjust the amount of help they give depending on their progress. For example, a
child learning to walk might at first have both their hands held and pulled upwards. As they learn

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to support their own weight, the mother might hold both their hands loosely. Then she might just
hold one hand, then eventually nothing. This progression of different levels of help is scaffolding. It
draws parallels from real scaffolding for buildings; it is used as a support for construction of new
material (the skill/information to be learnt) and then removed once the building is complete (the
skill/information has been learnt).

Relationships between scaffolding and ZPD

Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructions model in which a teacher or
lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning
contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are
therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate
meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the
students and teacher.

Quick summary
 Emphasized the role of a teacher in cognitive development, and the need to have support
from a More Knowledgeable Other, or MKO.
 The zone of proximal development, or ZPD, differentiates between a learner’s current
development and their potential development when being taught from a MKO.
 Scaffolding provides an effective way to reach potential levels of development, but only
when different levels of assistance are given when required.

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 Social and cultural tools are an important means of gaining intelligence.

 There is a close link between the acquisition of language and the development of thinking.
 Internalizing monologues, and therefore becoming a verbal thinker, is a stepping stone to
higher levels of thinking.
Vygotsky provided a very influential theory which provided a meaningful social context in the
development of learning. The emphasis of cultural knowledge was something unseen in
Piaget’s theory.

4.2.4. Implications of Vygotsky's Theory for Teachers

The cultural tools can be passed from one individual to another: Imitative learning (where one
person tries to imitate the other), instructed learning (where students internalize the instructions of
the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate), and collaborative learning (where a group of
peers strives to understand each other and learning occurs in the process. Most concerned with
instructed learning though direct teaching or through structuring experiences that support another's
learning, but his theory supports the other arms of cultural learning as well. Thus, Vygotsky's ideas
are relevant for educators who teach directly and also create learning environments. One major
aspect of learning in either situation is assisted learning.
Assisted Learning

Vygotsky's theory suggests that teachers need to do more than just arrange the environment so tl1at
students can discover on their own. Children cannot and should not be expected La reinvent or
rediscover knowledge already available in their cultures. Rather, they should be guided and assisted
in their learning-so Vygotsky saw teachers, parents, and other adults as central to the child's
learning and development (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

Assisted learning, or guided participation in the classrool11, requires scaffolding giving

information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right lime and in the right amounts, and
then gradually allowing the students to do more and more on their own, as Tamara did with her
class. Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problem' to students' current levels;
demonstrating skills or thought processes; walking students through the steps of a listed problem;
doing part of the problem (for example, in algebra, the students set up the equation and the teacher

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does the calculations or vice versa); giving detailed feedback and allowing revisions; or asking
questions that refolds students' attention.

Instructional Implications of Vygotsky’s Social Cognitive Development Theory

Strategies for Applying Vygotsky’s Theory to Children’s Education
Vygotsky’s theory has been embraced by many teachers and has been successfully applied to
education. Here are some ways Vygotsky’s theory can be incorporated in classrooms:
1. Assess the child’s ZPD. Like Piaget, Vygotsky did not think that formal, standardized tests are
the best way to assess children’s learning. Rather, Vygotsky argued that assessment should focus
on determining the child’s ZPD. The skilled helper presents the child with tasks of varying
difficulty to determine the best level at which to begin instruction.
2. Use the child’s ZPD in teaching.
Teaching should begin toward the zone’s upper limit, so that the child can reach the goal with help
and move to a higher level of skill and knowledge. Offer just enough assistance. You might ask,
“What can I do to help you?” Or simply observe the child’s intentions and attempts and provide
support when needed. When the child hesitates, offer encouragement. And encourage the child to
practice the skill. You may watch and appreciate the child’s practice or offer support when the
child forgets what to do. In Through the Eyes of
Teachers, you can read about John Mahoney’s teaching practices that refl ect Vygotsky’s
emphasis on the importance of the ZPD. In contrast to in-class work, homework should be aimed at
the zone’s lower limit so that the child will be capable of completing it. Keeping instruction in the
ZPD is likely to require differentiation as children’s zones of proximal development are not
uniform. that help students subsequently solve problems on their own. Mahoney also never gives
students the answers to math problems. As one student commented, “He’s going to make you
think.” His tests always include a problem that students have not seen but have enough knowledge
to figure out the problem’s solution
3. Use more-skilled peers as teachers.
Remember that it is not just adults that are important in helping children learn. Children also
benefit from the support and guidance of more-skilled children (Gredler, 2009). For example, pair a
child who is just beginning to read with one who is a more advanced reader. It is also desirable to
use cross-age tutoring.
4. Monitor and encourage children’s use of private speech.
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Be aware of the developmental change from externally talking to oneself when solving a problem
during the preschool years to privately talking to oneself in the early elementary school years. In the
elementary school years, encourage children to internalize and self-regulate their talk to themselves.
5. Place instruction in a meaningful context.
Educators today are moving away from abstract presentations of material, instead providing
students with opportunities to experience learning in real-world settings. For example, instead of
just memorizing math formulas, students work on math problems with real-world implications.
5. Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas. Tools of the Mind is a curriculum that is
grounded in Vygotsky’s (1962) theory with special attention given to cultural tools and
developing self regulation, the ZPD, scaffolding, private speech, shared activity, and play as
important activity.

Learning Activities
1. Describe Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development and its educational implications in brief
2. Explain Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and its educational implications
3. Describe basic concepts in Piaget’s Theories of Cognitive Development.
4. List and elaborate four stages of Piaget’s cognitive development
UNIT SIX
5. Explain practical implications of Piaget's Cognitive Theory for learning
MOTIVATION
6. Describe AND
Vygotsky’s Social ITSDevelopment
Cognitive IMPLICATION
Theory andFOR LEARNING
its instructional for learning.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5. MOTIVATION
5.1. What is Motivation?

- The word motivation is derived from Latin meaning to "move."

- Motivation is a force that energizes, sustains, and directs behavior toward a goal.
- It is concerned with factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms.
- Just as a force moves an object, motivation moves a person.
 Needs, drives and incentives are concepts related motivation.
Needs- are specific states with in the organism which is the base for some deficit (Physiological or
psychological deficits) and that may elicit behavior.
E.g. the need for food is a physiological deficit where as the need to earn high mark is a
psychological deficit.
Drives- are internal states within the organism in to an action toward a particular goal.
- Drives activate responses needed to obtain the goal that will satisfy the need.
Incentives- are external motivating stimuli such as money, praise, fame or attention.
- Incentives pull a person towards a goal
5.2. Types of Motivation

5.2.1. Extrinsic motivation

It involves doing something to obtain something else (a means to an end). Extrinsic motivation is
oft en influenced by external incentives such as rewards and punishments.
For example, a student may study hard for a test in order to obtain a good grade in the course. The
behavioral perspective emphasizes the importance of extrinsic motivation in achievement; the
humanistic and cognitive approaches stress the importance of intrinsic motivation in achievement.

5.2.2. Intrinsic motivation

It involves the internal motivation to do something for its own sake (an end in itself). For example,
a student may study hard for a test because she enjoys the content of the course. Current evidence

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strongly favors establishing a classroom climate in which students are intrinsically motivated to
learn.

For example, a study of third- through eighth-grade students found that intrinsic motivation was
positively linked with grades and standardized test scores, whereas extrinsic motivation was
negatively related to achievement. When goals are framed extrinsically, students show a lower level
of independent motivation and lower persistence on achievement tasks.
5.

Parental intrinsic/extrinsic motivational practices are also linked to children’s motivation. In one
study, children had higher intrinsic motivation in math and science from 9 to 17 years of age when
their parents engaged in task-intrinsic practices (encouraging children’s pleasure and engagement
in learning) than when their parents engaged in task-extrinsic practices (providing external rewards
and consequences contingent on children’s performance). Students are more motivated to learn
when they are given choices, become absorbed in challenges that match their skills, and receive
rewards that have informational value but are not used for control. Praise also can enhance
students’ intrinsic motivation. To see why these things are so, let’s first explore four types of
intrinsic motivation: (1) self-determination and personal choice, (2) optimal experiences and flow,
(3) interest, and (4) cognitive engagement and self-responsibility.
6.

Then we’ll discuss how extrinsic rewards can either enhance or undermine intrinsic motivation.
Next we will identify some developmental changes in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as students
move up the educational ladder. Finally, we will offer some concluding thoughts about intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.

Self-Determination and Personal Choice: One view of intrinsic motivation emphasizes self-
determination. In this view, students want to believe that they are doing something because of their
own will, not because of external success or rewards. The architects of self-determination theory,
Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2009) refer to teachers who create circumstances for students to
engage in self-determination as autonomy supportive teachers.
7.

Researchers have found that students’ internal motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks
increase when students have some choice and some opportunities to take personal responsibility for
their learning. In one study, teachers were encouraged to give the students more responsibility for
their school programs in particular, opportunities to set their own goals, plan how to reach the
goals, and monitor their progress toward the goals. Students were given some choice in the

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activities they wanted to engage in and when they would do them. They also were encouraged to
take personal responsibility for their behavior, including reaching the goals that they had set.
Compared with a control group, students in this intrinsic motivation/self-determination group had
higher achievement gains and were more likely to graduate from high school.

Strategies for Enhancing Student Self-Determination and Choice/Intrinsic motivation

Here are some ways that you can enhance students’ intrinsic motivation /self-determination
1. Take the time to talk with students and explain why a learning activity is important.
2. Provide students with opportunities to make choices that are meaningful to them. If students are
given choices that are personally meaningful to them, they are likely to be more motivated.
3. Work to spark student interest, enjoyment, and sense of challenge. Students are more likely to
persist at something in which they are interested, find enjoyable, and challenging. Find ways to tap
into this for your students.
4. Be attentive to students’ feelings when they are being asked to do something they don’t want to
do. Accept
negative affect from a student and use it to help you structure the learning environment.
5. Manage the classroom effectively, in a way that lets students make personal choices. Let students
select topics for book reports, writing assignments, and research projects, and let them decide how
they want to report their work—for instance, reporting to you or to the class as a whole,
individually, or with a partner.
6. Establish learning centers where students can work individually or collaboratively with other
students on different projects and can select their activities from a menu that you have developed.
7. Create self-selected interest groups and let students work on relevant research projects together.
8. Use informational rather than controlling language. When giving students feedback, explain to
students what they are doing well and how they are progressing. Look at poor performance as a
problem to be solved rather than as a personal deficit in the student

5.3. Classification of Motives

- Motives can be divided in to three major categories.

1. Primary (biological) or physiological motives
- They are rooted to a large extent from physiological state of the body.

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- Primary motives are innate in nature and must be met for survival.
- The most important primary motives include hunger, pain avoidance, a need for oxygen, sleep, and
elimination of wastes and regulation of body temperature.
- Many biological motives are trigged in part, by departures from balanced physiological conditions of
the body. The body tends to maintain a state of equilliburm called homeostasis, which is the
tendency of the body to maintain itself in a steady stable condition with regard to the physiological
processes.
2. Secondary (Acquired) or social motives
 Social Motives are the complex motive states, or needs that are the source of many human
actions.
 They are learned from social groups or social environment that is why they are social motives.
 They are rooted in physiological motives and emerge out of them gradually with advancing age of
the child.
 Social motives are general persisting characteristics of a person, and since they are learned, their
strength differs greatly from one individual to another.
 Social motives are important components of personality.
 Some of important social motives are social approval, affiliation, affection, respect, prestige,
money, achievement, the need for affiliation and the need for power, Power, status, security,
aggression etc..
 The most studied social motives are the need for achievement and the need for power.
 The need for achievement- it is characterized by the desire to be successful. Such motives are
characterized by:
 Strong need to accomplish a task
 Strong need to improve a task.
 Attribution of success or failure to hard work (effort) not to chance or other external
factors such as reward.
 Emphasizes of high level of activity by avoiding low level of activity.
 Choice and performance of challenging tasks.
 Personal conviction of being in charge of one’s own fate.

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The need for affiliation (relatedness) - it refers to the concern for establishing, maintaining and
repairing friendly relationship with important people in our lives. It is characterized by making more
local calls, visits, seeking approval, liking and agreeing with people etc...
Power motivation- is the motives of a person to produce intended effects on the behavior or
emotions of another person.
- The goal of power motivation is to influence, control persuade and charm others to enhance one's
own reputation in the eye of others.
 Stimulus motives: motives to know and to be effective
- These are motives to
 Seek variety in stimulation,
 Process information about the world around us, and
 Explore and to be effective in mastering challenges from the environment.
- The purpose of stimulus motives seems to be to provide the nervous system with useful
information and stimulation.
- Stimulus motives cause the individual to seek out sensory stimulation through interaction with the
environment. They include activity, curiosity, exploration, manipulation and physical contact.
Because these motives are so persistent and seem to exist to one degree or another in every one

they are often considered to be innate part of the human species heritage .

5.4. Theories of Motivation

5.4.1. Drive Theories/Push Theories of Motivation

 Derive theories say "when an internal driving state is aroused, the individual is pushed to engage in
behavior which will lead to a goal that reduces the intensity of the driving state."

 We experience a drive; we are motivated to pursue actions that will lead to derive reduction.
 Drives are internal states of tension that motivates or pushes an organism to engage in activates that
should reduce this tension.
 In human beings, reaching the appropriate goal, which reduces the drives state, is pleasurable and
satisfying.
 According to drive theories, motivation is consists of:
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 A drive state,
 The goal directed behavior initiated by the driving state,
 The attainment of the appropriate goal,
 The reduction of driving state and subjective satisfaction and relief when the goal is
reached.
 The main goal of drive reduction is to get homeostasis: a state of balance necessary in many
physiological systems.
E.g. Temperature control requires a balance between hot and cold stimulation.
 In drive reduction theory; drives can be primary or acquired.
 Primary drives- motivate the organism to fulfill some basic needs necessary for survival, such as
hunger, thirst, sex etc. Primary biological motives necessary for personal and species survival.
 Acquired drives- are developing through learning.
E.g. children may learn when they never get to eat unless they wash their hands first.

5.4.2. Incentive Theories/Pull Theories of Motivation

 It says that motivation is not primarily a matter of being pushed from within by various urges,
rather it is more a question of being pulled form with out by expectations of attaining desired out
comes (incentives).
 Incentives make people to engage in complex effortful or even painful behaviors such as working
many hours on their jobs or studying long in to the night.

5.4.3. Arousal / Optimal Level /or Just Right Theories

- The goal of the behavior is the maintenance of or an increase of arousal in excitement.

- According to this theory we have a certain optimal or best level of stimulation that is
pleasurable if our stimulation and activity levels become too high we try to reduce them, if the
level is too low we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation until to get the optimum
level of arousal.

E.g. Students who are highly anxious while taking tests on complex material may perform
bellow their ability because of their high level of arousal.

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5.4.4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motivational Needs

 Abraham Maslow, a proponent of humanistic theorist, proposes that human motives are
organized in to a hierarchy of needs: a systematic arrangement of needs according to priority. This
assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused.
 The model can be conceptualized as a pyramid in which the more basic needs are at the bottom and
the higher levels needs are at the top.
 This model suggests that before more sophisticated, higher order needs can be meet, certain primary
needs must be satisfied.
 According to him needs existing in two groups, the first based on basic needs, such as survival and
safety, and the second based on the desire for self-fulfillment and self-actualization.
 Deficiency needs- includes the bottom four: survival (Shelter, warmth, food, water), Safety
(freedom from physical or emotional threat), Belongings and love (love and acceptance from
family and peers), self-esteem (recognition and approval).
 The most basic needs are those described as primary drives E.g. the need for water, food, sleep, sex
and the like.
 The absence of these needs energizes or moves people to met them. Until a lower need is met,
people are not likely to move a higher one.
E.g. People, who do not feel safe, will not be concerned with belongingness, self-esteem or any
higher order need.
- Abraham Maslow classifies needs in to five hierarchies. These are:
1. Physiological /survival/ or primary needs - these are the need for water, air, food, sleep, sex and
the like. Everybody cannot go to the next hierarchy before satisfy these needs. If these needs are
satisfied a person can go to safety the next needs.
2. Safety needs- People need a safe, secure environment in order to function actively. Safety needs
reflect concern about long-term survival.
- Safety and security needs motivate adults to seek a stable job, to buy insurance and to put many in
their saving accounts.
- Physiological and safety needs compose the lower order needs. Only when the basic lower order
needs are met can a person consider to fulfilling higher order needs, consisting of love and
belongingness, esteem and self-actualization.

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3. Love and Belongingness needs - includes the need to obtain and give affection and to be a
contributing member of some group or society.
4. Esteem needs-relates to the need to develop a sense of self worth by knowing that others are aware
of one’s competence and value.
5. Self-actualization- is a set of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential.
- The important thing in self-actualization is that people feel at ease with themselves and satisfied that
they are using their talents to the fullest.
Educational Implication of Maslow's Theory
 When children come to school tired, hungry or in extreme cases, abused their desire to learn is
certainly diminished. So, parents and educators must keep the students' emotional well-being
because it is the core of teaching.
 Students are free from physical or emotional threat. Students who are threaten by Maslow's work
also suggests that teachers need to create learning environment where potential embarrassment or
who works in an otherwise unsafe and disorderly environment are less motivated to learn and they
achieve less than those whose learning situations are safe and stable.
Summary Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

Self-actualization Needs to live up to one's fullest

and unique potential
&Fulfillment needs
Needs for self-esteem,
Self-esteem needs& ego strength achievement, competence &
- Effective coping, assertiveness independence, need for
- Intelligence, culture of cohorts recognition and respect from
others. Need to love and to be
Belongingness and love needs
- Communication, relationships, sexuality loved, to belong and be
accepted; need to avoid
Safety and security needs loneliness & alienation
- Environmental safety, sensory function, legal and economic protection Need to feel safe,
secure and stable.
Physiological needs
* Body function, Nutrition, Circulation, sleep, comfort... Need to
satisfy
hunger, thirst
and other
survival needs
Educational Implications of Motivation

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1. Teacher characteristics- Refers to the teacher's personal orientations toward students, teaching
and learning.
a. Teacher modelling- teacher's attitudes and beliefs about teaching and learning are communicated
strongly through modeling and teachers' behaviors by themselves have also an important effect
on students' learning.
b. Teacher Enthusiasm (Communicating Genuine Interest)
- Research indicates that teachers who present information enthusiastically increase learners' self-
efficacy, attribution of effort and ability, self-confidence and achievement more than do less
enthusiastic teachers.
c. Teacher caring-Understanding how students feel and where come from, caring teachers are
committed to their students' growth and competence. So, teachers should teach students with
caring and protection, and focus on the learners as a whole person including his/her emotional
and social needs as well as intellectual ones.
d. Teacher expectations-which includes the following:
 Emotional support-the teachers should have more interactions, interact more positively, give more
smile, make more eye contact, seat students closer to the teacher, etc...
 Teacher effort and demands-give clear and more through instructions, ask more follow up
questions, require more complete and accurate students' answers.
 Questioning-allow more time to answer questions, give more encouragement, and more
promoting.
 Feed back and evaluation-give more praise and less criticism and use more conceptual evaluation
mechanisms.
2. Climate Variables
a. Order and safety - for students to be motivated and learn freely, the order of contents must
organized and the schools must be physically and psychologically safe places because
environment encourages both motivation and achievement.
b. Challenge- Teachers must use careful judgment to identify the appropriate level of challenge.
Unrealistic challenge or activities perceived as being overly difficult may lower students'
motivation because students become reluctant to be involved with them.

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3. Instructional Variables
a. Introductory focus -attracting students attention and providing a framework for the lesson.
b. Personalization links to students' lives - attempt to make topics meaningful by using
intellectually and/or emotionally familiar examples.
c. Use open-ended questions to promote and maintain involvement.
d. Feedback- provides feedback when students performing a mastery of content by using

praise.

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