HOMEOSTASIS

• Definition:
• Is the maintenance of steady constant internal
environment of the body despite changes in
external environment.
• Internal environment is the blood and tissue fluid
that surround cells of the body.

• Conditions to be kept constant in the body

include, osmotic pressure of blood, pH, sugar
level, temperature, etc.
Principles of homeostasis
• Are feedback mechanisms that
are coordinated by nervous and
endocrine (hormonal) systems to
bring about homeostasis.
• There are 2 feedback
mechanisms:
• a) Negative feedback
• Is where increase or decrease in
the condition to be regulated, is
detected and corrective
homeostatic mechanisms act to
bring the condition back to normal
• Positive feedback
• Is where increase or decrease in
condition to be regulated
continues without being
corrected.
• This is due to failure in
homeostasis mechanism.
• It may harm or lead to death of
the organism.
 General homeostasis layout
Further increase
positive feed back
Increase Homeostatic corrective mechanism
Negative feedback
NORMAL LEVEL NORMAL LEVEL
Negative feedback
Decrease Homeostatic corrective mechanism

Positive feed back

Further decrease
 Homeostatic processes in the
body include:
1. Osmoregulation (Water balance and ionic
balance).
2. Sugar regulation
3. Thermoregulation
4. pH regulation
5. Regulation of proteins etc.
 1. OSMOREGULATION
• Definition
• Is the maintenance of constant osmotic
pressure (OP) of tissue fluids and blood.
• Note: If OP of tissue fluid increases above
normal level then the cells will loose water by
osmosis and become dehydrated.
• If the OP of tissue fluid decreases below
normal level then the cells will take in water
by osmosis, swell and burst.
• It is therefore necessary that osmotic potential
of body fluids be maintained at a suitable
constant level. This is done by osmoregulation.
• Osmoregulation is done by regulation of water
level and regulation of salt ions level/ionic
balance.
 Water balance
• Occurs mainly in the nephron of kidney.

• Involves the hypothalamus and pituitary

glands of brain.

• Involves antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also

called vasopressin which is secreted by the
pituitary gland.
Pituitary and hypothalamus
When Osmotic Pressure (OP) of blood increases:
(i.e. when blood has less water)
• Hypothalamus detects the high OP and sends
message/impulse to pituitary gland which then
secretes ADH into blood.
• ADH is transported in blood to kidney nephron
and makes the nephron to be permeable to
water.
• Water gets reabsorbed back into blood from
glomerular filtrate.
• This leads to release of concentrated urine.
 When OP of blood is lower than normal:
(i.e. when blood has a lot of water)
• OP of blood lowers after one takes a lot of water
• Hypothalamus detects and sends message/ nerve
impulse to pituitary gland which reduces secretion
of ADH.
• Less ADH in nephron makes nephron less
permeable to water.
• Less water is reabsorbed back to blood from
glomerular filtrate in nephron thus raising OP of
blood.
• Most water is released in urine thus dilute urine is
released.
Kidney position
Nephron and reabsorption
Note:
High OP of blood also leads to decreased
secretion of water in sweat by skin and
increased absorption of water from food in
ileum and from dung in large intestine.
High OP of blood causes a sensation of thirst
that makes one to drink a lot of water.
All these increases amount of water in the
blood thus lowering the high OP of blood.
 Diabetes insipidus
• Is a defect where one is unable to regulate high
OP of blood due to faulty pituitary gland that
secretes no or little ADH thus causing no/less
water to be reabsorbed in nephron.
• This leads to diuresis – Which is continuous
release of plenty of dilute urine.
• One should drink a lot of water to control this.
 REGULATION OF IONS
(Ionic balance in osmoregulation)
• Is controlled by aldosterone hormone which is
secreted by adrenal gland that is located on the
upper part of kidneys.
• When salt ions (Na+) concentration drops below
optimum/normal level in blood, aldosterone
hormone is secreted and causes the loop of Henle
of kidney nephron to reabsorb more Na+ from
glomerular filtrate. This is followed by 𝐂𝐥− which
is reabsorbed to neutralize the +ve charge of
sodium.
• It also causes salt (Na+) absorption by large
intestine from undigested food.
• Reabsorption of salts is necessary since these
salts are required in the body for various
metabolic activities like muscle contractions,
nerve impulse transmissions etc.
Adrenal gland position
 Cont...
• When salt ion (Na+) concentration in blood
increases above optimum/normal level, less
aldosterone hormone is secreted by adrenal
gland, leading to less salt ions being
reabsorbed from loop of Henle.
• This leads to excretion of urine with high
concentration of salt ions (Na+).
• Also absorption of salt ions by large
intestine reduces.
• The role of skin in Osmoregulation.
• The sweat glands of the skin secrete sweat
which is lost from skin.
• As water in sweat is lost in sweating on a hot
day, it raises the osmotic pressure of blood
thus creating need for reabsorption of more
water from glomerular filtrate in nephron
 pH regulation
• pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity.
• The pH range of blood and body fluids is 7.2 –
7.4 (slightly alkaline)
• Any change in pH to acidic (1 – 6) or more
alkaline (7.8 – 14) should be regulated back to
normal pH. If not the body enzymes will be
denatured and body metabolic process will
slow down and can lead to coma or even death.
• Acidity is caused by high concentration of
𝐇 + . If acidity of blood and body fluids
increase, the kidney nephron will excrete more
𝐇 + into glomerular filtrate thus regulating pH
back to normal. This causes urine produced to
be more acidic.
 SUGAR REGULATION
• Occurs in the liver.
• Is controlled by two hormones:
• (a) Insulin- Is secreted by Beta cells of the
islets of langerhans in the pancreas, when
the level of sugar/glucose in blood rises
above normal.
• (b) Glucagon- Secreted by alpha cells of
islets of langerhans in the pancreas, when
the blood sugar in blood drops below
normal level.
• The pancreas secretes Insulin and glucagon
hormones directly into blood where they are
transported to the liver to regulate sugar.
• These hormones are not transported through
pancreatic duct. They are transported in blood.
• QN – What will happen to sugar regulation and
digestion in duodenum if pancreatic duct is
blocked?
• Ans: Sugar regulation will continue since the
hormone insulin and glucagon are secreted
directly into blood and doesn’t pass through
pancreatic duct.
• Digestion in duodenum will stop since pancreatic
juice won’t pass to duodenum (Pancreatic juice
passes through pancreatic duct since it is not a
hormone)
Pancreas position in human
Pancreas
• During sugar regulation, rise in sugar/glucose
level in blood, stimulates the beta cells of islets
of Langerhans of pancreas to secrete insulin
hormone directly into blood.
• When sugar/glucose level drops below normal,
it stimulates alpha cells of islets of Langerhans
of pancreas to secrete glucagon hormone
directly into blood.
• These hormones are transported to the liver for
sugar/glucose regulation as summarized in the
flow diagram below:
 Pancreas secretes insulin
which causes liver to convert
Increase in (i)Glucose to glycogen Glucose
glucose level (ii)Glucose to fat level drops
(iii)Glucose to be oxidized
to CO2+H2O+ATP Negative
feedback

NORMAL SUGAR LEVEL NORMAL SUGAR LEVEL

Pancreas secretes glucagon Negative

which causes liver to convert: feedback
(i)Glycogen to glucose
Decrease in (ii)Fat to glucose Glucose
glucose level (iii)Reduce oxidation level rise
of glucose
Sugar regulation-summary
Role of adrenaline in sugar regulation:

• Adrenal gland secretes adrenaline hormone

during emergencies which stimulates
hydrolysis/conversion of glycogen to glucose,
thus raising sugar level in blood.

• This glucose is then used in respiration to

produce energy for the person to deal with the
emergency by flight or fight.
 DIABETES MELLITUS
• Is uncontrolled high blood sugar level in blood
• Cause: Faulty pancreas that causes insufficient
secretion of insulin by pancreas.
• SYMPTOMS:
1. Presence of glucose in urine
2. Frequent urination 3. Thirst feeling
4. Loss of body weight.
5. Chronic starvation.
a) Administer frequent insulin hormone
injection. (Qn Why is insulin not taken orally
by mouth?).
b) Avoid food rich in carbohydrates/sugars
c) Avoid excessive alcohol intake. (Alcohol
damages the liver).
Qn – Distinguish between diabetes insipidus and
diabetes mellitus.
QN. Use the diagram below to answer the
questions that follow:
1. Identify blood vessels A, B, C and D (4mks)
2. One hour after a heavy chips meal, it was
found that amount of glucose in blood vessel
B, was far much higher than normal level,
while that in blood vessel C was normal.
Explain. (6mks)
3. One hour after a form two student feeding in
beans, it was found that the amount of amino
acids in B was very high while in C it was
low. Explain. (6 mks)
• 4. Explain why during fasting, the amount of
glucose in B is zero while in C it is normal
(90mg/100cm3 of blood)? (5 mks)
• 5. Under what circumstance would the
concentration of glucose be high in both B and
C one hour after a carbohydrate meal? Explain.
(4 mks)
• Is the maintenance of constant body
temperature despite changes in the
environmental temperatures.
• The organ concerned with
thermoregulation is the SKIN whose
thermoregulation activities is controlled
by the HYPOTHALAMUS of brain.
• The skin has thermo receptor nerve cells that
sense external temperature changes while
those of hypothalamus sense changes in
internal temperature in the blood.
• After detecting the temperature changes, they
initiate thermoregulatory mechanisms as
described below:
When body temperature rises above
normal/above optimum:
• The skin thermo-receptors detect and
send nerve impulse/message to the
hypothalamus. Thermo-receptors in the
hypothalamus also detect.
• The hypothalamus sends a nerve impulse
message to the skin and other body parts
which respond to control/reduce the high
temperatures as follows:
1. Skin hair is lowered and lies on the
skin surface as a result of relaxation of
erector pili muscle – No insulating
layer of air is trapped by the hair, thus the
heat in the body can easily be lost from
the body in three ways, namely;
conduction, radiation, and convection.
Thus lowering body temperature back to
normal.
2. Vasodilation of the blood vessels
in skin occurs.
• This increases amount of blood
flowing close to skin surface.
• The heat in the body is thus lost in
the three main ways, and the body
temperature reduce reduces back to
normal
3. Sweat gland secretes sweat on skin surface.
• The water in the sweat uses latent heat of
vaporisation from the body to evaporate, thus
cooling the body.
Other responses when body temperature rises
include: - Reduced metabolism in the body to
reduce heat generation.
 When body temperature reduces
below normal (ie when cold):
• Thermo-receptors in skin detect and send message
to the hypothalamus.
• The thermo-receptors in the hypothalamus also
detect the low temperature of blood flowing
through it.
• Hypothalamus then sends nerve impulse message
to the skin and the body in general and cause the
following responses to increase the temperature
back to normal as follows:
1. Skin hair is raised due to contraction of the
erector pili muscle.
• A layer of insulating air is trapped in the hair
which prevents loss of heat from the body.
2. Vasoconstriction of blood vessels in skin
occurs and blood is diverted to shunt system and
to the spleen. Less blood flows close to skin
surface thus less heat is lost from body.
3. Sweat gland reduces secretion of sweat.
• Less heat is lost in evaporation of the water in the
sweat thus heat in the body is conserved.
Other responses:
• - Goose pimples form so as to extend length of
hair and more layer of insulating air is trapped.
• - There is increase in body metabolism to
generate more heat energy
• – Shivering generates heat as a result of
contractions and relaxations of muscles.
• - When too cold wear warm cloths, drink hot
liquids...
Identify if it was cold or hot for these animals. Give reason
Follow through this flow diagram – (Don’t draw)
Follow through this flow diagram – (Don’t draw)
Follow through this flow diagram – (Don’t draw)
 Role of Subcutaneous fat layer in
thermoregulation:
• Animals in cold areas have a thick
subcutaneous layer below their skin to
insulate the body and prevent heat loss from
the body.
• Animals in hot areas have thin subcutaneous
layer that offer less insulation thus their bodies
can loose heat to the environment easily.
 HOMOIOTHERMS AND POIKILOTHERMS
• Homoiotherms (Endotherms)- Are animals that can
regulate their body temperature and maintain it at a
constant. This include mammals, and eves/birds.
• Poikilotherms (Ectotherms) -Are animals that can’t
regulate their body temperature. – There
body temperatures changes with changes in
environmental temperatures. –
They regulate their body temperatures by behavioral
means i.e. move under shade or water when hot and
basking in the sun when it is cold.
Identify if it was cold or hot for this animal. Give reason
 Other ways of controlling
temperatures:
• Crocodiles open their mouths when its hot- it
cools as water evaporates from mouth.
• Elephant and buffalos wallow in the mud and
urinate on their thighs- They cool as the water
evaporates from their bodies.
• Birds hang open or hang their wings loosely when
hot.
• Dogs hang tongue out when hot-why?
• Animals in cold areas have more hair and
subcutaneous layer. Why?
• NOTE: Adult elephants are large thus have small
surface area to volume ratio and thus find it hard
to loose heat from the body.
• Adult Elephants flap their ears more frequently so
as to fan themselves and promote evaporation of
water from their body surface and to promote heat
loss from the blood vessels in their large ears.
• Young elephants flap their ears less frequently
(Explain why).
• (In all these cases of cooling one must state that –
Water uses latent heat of vapourisation from the
body of the animal to evaporate thus cooling the
body).
Identify if it was cold or hot for these animals. Give reason
Identify if it was cold or hot for this animal. Give reason
Identify if it was cold or hot for this animal. Give reason
Identify if it was cold or hot for these animals. Give reason
 Other ways of dealing with extreme
temperature changes:
• Hibernation- Condition where small animals
become very inactive and go into deep sleep
for many days when temperatures are too low.
• Aestivation- Condition where small animals
go into deep sleep for many days when
conditions are hot and dry.
• Migration
Hibernation
Hibernation
Hibernation
Explain why this animal never undergoes
hibernation
Explain why this animal never undergoes
hibernation
Is this hibernation? Explain
 Body size and heat loss.
• Small animals have large surface area to
volume ratio thus loose heat faster. They feed
more frequently and have higher metabolic
rate so as to generate more heat energy to
replace lost heat.
• Large animals (opposite of small animals).
Also they face prb of heat accumulation since
they can’t loose heat easily.
 Adaptations of desert animals:
• Have long loop of Henle to increase surface
area for reabsorption of water.
• Excrete uric acid so as to conserve water since
uric acid requires very little water for its
excretion.
• They have few glomeruli to reduce
ultrafiltration and reduce excretion of water.
(Kidney has small cortex to accommodate the
few glomeruli and large medulla to
accommodate the long loop of Henle).
• Have few sweat glands to reduce water loss
via sweat.
• Have a lot of fat in the hump which when
oxidized in respiration forms metabolic water.
• It’s tissues are tolerant to high temperatures
and dehydration.
• Flat large hooves to prevent sinking in the
sand.
• Long legs to raise the animal far from ground
to avoid the heat from the ground.
• (Assignment - Add 4 other adaptations)
Identify the adaptations to desert life by the 4 animals below
 Adaptations of fresh water fish:
• Many glomeruli to increase ultrafiltration and
excretion of water.
• Short loop of Henle to reduce reabsorption of
water and increase water loss. (Thus kidney has
large cortex and small medulla-why?)
• Excrete ammonia as nitrogenous excretory waste
to enable it loose more water since ammonia
being soluble and toxic requires more water for its
excretion.
Very short loop of Henle,…
Very short loop of Henle,…
• MARINE FISH: (Live in salty waters-
Oceans...) Their adaptations include:
• Few glomeruli to decrease water loss through
ultrafiltration
• Long loop of Henle to increase surface area for
re-absorption of water.
• Excrete tryethylamine that require less water to
be excreted so as to conserve water.
• Gills have cells that excrete excess salts.
• NOTE: Ensure you study your text books and add
more information to these notes from the text
books and from your teacher.
• Strictly follow your biology teacher’s notes and
guidelines alongside these notes
• Also study the diagrams in your text book
• Physically answer many questions on these form
two topics and carry out practicals so as to get
well grounded in biology.
• Bio ni poa – You can pass Bio - Yes