industrial-organizational

psychology
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INTRODUCTION
Work occupies a central part of people's "gig" jobs (e.g., driving for Uber or Lyft),
lives around the world. For example, full- rather than offering full-time work with job
time workers in the U.S. work an average of security and stable benefits (Friedman,
8.5 hours/day, spending more time working 2014). Despite progress, women, racial and
than performing any other life activity ethnic minorities, religious minorities,
except for sleep (Bureau of Labor Statistics, LGBTQ+ individuals, and people with
2016). Work experiences exert a heavy disabilities still struggle to be accepted and
effect on people's life satisfaction (Erdogan, successful in many workplaces (Myors et al.,
Bauer, Truxillo, & Mansfield, 2012), and 2008). And, around the world, hundreds of
career goals are a central concern of many thousands of migrant workers continue to
young adults (e.g., Rogers, Creed, & search for decent work opportunities that
Glendon, 2008). Indeed, most readers of can fulfill their basic needs (Moyce &
this chapter are likely in college as a step Schenker, 2018).
toward achieving a hoped-for career!
Against this backdrop, industrial-
However, the world of work is changing in organizational (I-O) psychology has an
many ways that present new questions and important role to play in improving
challenges for workers. For example, organizations and promoting the well-being
advances in technology, including of workers. This chapter first presents a
automation, are disrupting major industries brief overview of I-O and what work in this
and changing or eliminating many jobs field entails, and then reviews a series of
(Susskind & Susskind, 2016). Employers are major areas of research and practice within
increasingly experimenting with alternative each half of the field.
work arrangements, like contract workers in

4
Overview
I-O psychology is the scientific study of external, meaning that they are hired by
working and the application of different companies to assist with specific
psychological principles to workplace issues aspects of the business. One company
facing individuals, teams, and organizations. might hire I-O consultants to help them
I-O psychologists apply the scientific develop a new way to hire cashiers, while
method to investigate issues of critical another company hires the consultants to
relevance to individuals, businesses, and design a training program for factory
society (SIOP website). As a consequence, I-
workers. Other I-O consultants may work
O psychologists are trained as scientist-
internally for a large company, where they
practitioners with the ability to both
help their organization with a variety of
conduct rigorous research and engage in
issues related to human resources and
the practical application of scientific
analysis of workplace data. The government
knowledge alongside businesspeople.
also employs I-O psychologists, where they
There are roughly 500 graduate programs in may develop tests and assessments, or
the U.S. that grant master’s and doctoral provide guidance on how best to structure
degrees in I-O psychology. Unlike many and organize a department. Finally, many I-
areas of psychology that require a doctoral O psychologists teach at colleges and
degree practice, a terminal master’s degree universities, where they conduct research
is sufficient to pursue many excellent work on I-O topics and help train students to
opportunities in I-O psychology (Michalski, become I-O psychologists themselves.
2017). Moreover, the Department of Labor Unlike psychologists with other specialties
projects increased demand for I-O such as clinical psychology, I-O
psychology into the mid-2020s. Much more psychologists do not tend to hold a license
information about graduate training and to practice psychology, do not generally
work opportunities is available on the work with disordered populations, do not
Society for Industrial and Organizational dispense medication, and do not provide
Psychology (SIOP) website; SIOP is the therapy or counseling. Rather, I-O
primary professional body for the field. psychologists conduct research about work
and apply research findings to the design of
I-O psychologists are employed in a variety
organizational, group, and individual
of different jobs. Many I-O psychologists are
activities at work.
consultants. Many of these consultants are

5
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
As the name “industrial-organizational” that the job involves. For example, a retail
suggests, I-O psychology has often been store sales clerk might assist customers in
viewed as a field with two distinct, though finding merchandise, answer customer
related, components. The industrial half of questions, use a cash register to take money
I-O Psychology, which is sometimes referred and make change, bag the merchandise,
to as personnel psychology, focuses on the and thank the customer, among other
analysis of jobs; recruitment, selection, and responsibilities. If we put this all together, it
training of employees; and evaluation of produces a job description that we can later
performance in the workplace. Industrial use to identify training needs and the
psychology is a close partner of human valuable behaviors that we should reward.
resource (HR) management in organizations,
On the other hand, worker-oriented job
with industrial psychologists supplying the
analysis focuses on identifying the qualities
technical and legal expertise to create and
needed by an employee to successfully
evaluate the personnel systems that HR
perform the job in question. Traditionally, I-
managers use on a daily basis. To this end,
O psychologists have tried to identify
the major areas of research and practice
several key characteristics of employees,
that fall within industrial psychology include
including their knowledge (things they
job analysis, recruitment and selection,
know), their skills (such as skill at persuading
performance appraisal, and training.
others), and their abilities (more stable traits
Job Analysis they possess, like mathematical ability),
often referred to as the “KSAs” required to
Before we can hire people, before we can perform the job. Returning to the example
assess their performance, before we can of our retail sales clerk, we might find that
decide on their salaries, before we can train they need to be friendly, detail-oriented,
them - before we can do virtually anything reliable, and have the ability to learn about
to affect a job, we must first understand the merchandise the store has in stock. This
what a job consists of. What tasks does it information is crucial to developing a
include? What skills does the job require? selection system that identifies job
Where does the job fit within the applicants with the right qualifications to be
organization? Job analysis helps I-O successful.
psychologists answer these questions
The process of completing a work- or
(Sanchez & Levine, 2012). Because of its
worker-oriented job analysis procedure is
importance for making further decisions
actually quite similar. In each case, I-O
about jobs, many I-O psychologists begin
consultants typically interview current
their consulting work with a job analysis.
employees and supervisors, or ask them to
Generally speaking, a job analysis can fall complete surveys, to gather information
into one of two categories: work-oriented or about the job. The consultants then use this
worker-oriented (Brannick, Levine, information to write the task or KSA
Morgeson, & Brannick, 2007). Work- statements that describe the job.
oriented job analysis focuses on the job
itself, and involves developing a list of tasks

7
Recruitment, Selection, & Placement
Once I-O psychologists understand what a which ones to hire is typically referred to as
job entails, and the requirements that are personnel selection. Personnel selection is
necessary to do the job, they can use this one of the oldest topics in I-O psychology,
information to assist an organization in a dating back to the very roots of the field at
wide variety of ways. Generally, this the start of the 20th century (Farr & Tippins,
information will be used to aid the hiring 2010; Ployhart, Schmitt, & Tippins, 2017).
process in an organization–quality job Selection usually involves administering a
analysis information can help with this series of instruments, such as tests or
process in a variety of ways. interviews, to job applicants; the
instruments are often scored and combined
The hiring process actually begins with
with other information, such as letters of
recruitment—before people can be hired
recommendation, to help employers select
into an organization, they must first apply
the best applicant(s). The selection
for an open position. Recruitment refers to
instruments an organization uses are
the process of attracting people to submit
commonly referred to as predictors, and
applications for open positions within an
helping organizations develop effective
organization. Today, recruitment often
predictors are one of the most common
takes advantage of technology, such as
roles that I-O consultants engage in.
Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and internet
Common predictors that I-O psychologists
job boards like Indeed.com and
help develop include tests of various
Monster.com. In their attempts to recruit
qualities (such as intelligence, personality
people to apply for a job opening,
and other traits), and interviews (Cascio &
organizations will typically describe the
Aguinis, 2011). Determining the right
requirements of the position, including
combination of predictors to give applicants
educational requirements, and the main
for a given job is a central topic for
tasks and responsibilities associated with
consultants that assist with personnel
the position. Organizations may also
selection, and involves the consideration of
attempt to describe aspects of the culture of
many factors, including cost, time, legality,
the organization, such as the feel of the
validity, reliability, practicality, and
work environment, or the values or mission
acceptance in the business world. Selection
of the company. An organization that
often occurs in multiple stages. During the
describes itself as “fast-paced” or
initial stage, it is common for applicants to
“competitive” is likely to attract rather
participate in some initial screening
different applicants than an organization
assessments to “weed out” unqualified
that advertises “teamwork” and
applicants. Following this, subsequent
“cooperation.”
stages in the selection process attempt to
Once an organization has recruited an select the optimal candidate from the
applicant pool, the organization must qualified applicants that remain after
decide how to assess the applicants, and the screening.
formal hiring process begins. The process
used to evaluate job candidates and decide

8
What predictors do the best job of helping in organizations tend to be fairly flexible
organizations choose qualified applicants? conversations, where the interviewer is free
One of the most consistent findings in I-O to ask an applicant a wide variety of
psychology, based on decades of research, different questions. Each applicant may be
is that general mental ability, or intelligence, asked different questions, and the
is the single most effective predictor of job questions may not be directly related to the
performance in nearly all jobs, and job the applicant is applying for. These
especially complex jobs (Schmidt & Hunter, interviews are typically known as
2004). One of the reasons this is the case is unstructured interviews, and, despite their
that general mental ability helps predict a prevalence, they are not very effective
person’s ability to learn new information predictors for evaluating applicants. One
and skills, a critical component of success in reason for this is that the information
virtually any job. gained from one applicant’s interview might
be quite different from the information
Beyond general mental ability tests, many
gained from another applicant’s interview,
other predictors have been found to be
thus making it difficult to compare “apples
effective for predicting employee success as
to apples.”
well. Personality tests, such as those
measuring the Big 5 traits, have also been Fortunately, interviews can be improved by
found to successfully predict which making the interview process more
applicants will make effective employees. In structured. Strategies for structuring an
particular, the Big 5 trait conscientiousness interview include deciding on a consistent
has been found to predict performance in a list of questions that will be asked of all
wide variety of jobs. This is not surprising, applicants, ensuring that the questions are
given that people high in this trait are related to the content of the job, and using
typically hard-working, reliable, and a scoring system to evaluate applicants’
organized, all traits that should lead to responses. Structured interviews that have
success in most jobs (Barrick, Mount, & these features are much more effective at
Judge, 2001). Additional predictors, such as predicting which applicants will be
simulations and work samples, can be used successful in a given job (Huffcutt, Conway,
to successfully assess a person’s ability to Roth, & Stone, 2001). I-O consultants often
handle actual job-related tasks in realistic help organizations to design and implement
settings (Scott & Reynolds, 2010). structured interviews to improve the
organization’s selection process.
What about interviews? Interviews have
Unfortunately, many organizations
long been used by organizations to help
continue to rely on traditional unstructured
make hiring decisions, and they remain one
interviews, which are much more prone to
of the most commonly-used predictors in
errors and subjective evaluations of job
organizations today (Posthuma, Morgeson,
applicants. This divide between the
& Campion, 2002). Interviews can be written
predictors that I-O psychologists know are
to evaluate a variety of applicant
effective, and the predictors that many
characteristics and qualifications (Landy &
organizations utilize, remains an important
Conte, 2010). Research on the effectiveness
concern for many I-O psychologists today.
of interviews is mixed. Most interviews used

9
Evaluating and Managing Worker Performance
Once employees are hired and placed into performance ratings. Feedback and critical
their roles in an organization, it is typically incidents from other coworkers may be
necessary to assess their performance to see gathered by the supervisor with the goal of
how well they are performing in their new basing the performance appraisal on
role. Evaluating how well employees complete information.
perform their jobs, and documenting this
One variant of performance appraisal that
performance, is important for a variety of
has become popular in recent years is 360-
reasons. Certainly, performance information
degree appraisal, which seeks to gather
is often used to make decisions about
feedback from multiple sources that the
whether and when to promote, train, re-
person being evaluated interacts with, such
assign, or terminate employees; it can also
as subordinates, peers, supervisors,
be used for decisions about compensation,
clients/customers, and others. Self-
bonuses, and other rewards. If an
appraisal, provided by the employee him- or
employee’s performance is lacking, the gap
herself, may also be included. The goal of
between how he or she is performing,
this process is to provide employees with a
compared to the ideal, might be addressed
more well-rounded sense of how they’re
by training (or re-training) the needed
performing.
knowledge, skills, or abilities. Performance
appraisal can also be used to give employees Numeric performance ratings are a common
feedback, and help employees learn about part of a performance appraisal. For
their strengths and weaknesses--thus, example, an employee may be rated on
another goal of performance appraisal is dependability on a scale of one to five, with
general employee development. anchors ranging from unacceptable (1), to
average (3), to superior (5). Employees are
Performance appraisals are often conducted
often rated in the context of how other
on a recurring schedule—once or twice a
members of their team or work group are
year is common. The review itself is typically
performing. Other rating approaches involve
structured around the employee’s primary
making direct comparisons between
tasks and responsibilities, such that the
employees within a unit, such as ranking all
supervisor provides a summary of the
employees, or comparing them two at a time
employee and their performance. The
and deciding which of the two is the superior
appraisal will often involve making ratings on
performer. When using any numeric rating
numeric scales corresponding with specific
method, organizations need to be aware of
aspects of performance, as well as
the biases that raters may unknowingly
comments and/or illustrative critical
exhibit. One risk is that all raters will not use
incidents to communicate to the employee
a rating scale the same way—for instance,
how well they are performing on each aspect
some might provide more generous, or
of the job. Critical incidents are specific
harsher, ratings regardless of how the
behaviors the employee has engaged in—
employee is performing. Such errors can
they are used to illustrate good or bad
lead to biases in the appraisal process, and
performance and often supplement numeric
impact the fairness of a performance

10
appraisal system; fortunately, rater training dissatisfied employees are likely to engage in
can help avoid some of these issues. CWBs. Thus, if organizations want to
promote OCBs, and prevent CWBs, it is
What kinds of employee performance are
important for them to consider their
typically assessed in organizations? In many
employees’ thoughts and feelings about
cases, the answer to this question is
their workplace.
determined by the type of organization the
employee works in—effective performance Training & Development
for an employee who makes electric motors
in a factory is likely to be very different from Over time, it often becomes necessary for
an employee who creates apps for your employees to learn new knowledge or skills,
phone. For legal reasons, it is important for to enhance their job performance and keep
an organization to avoid assessing people pace with changes in their occupation. I-O
based on irrelevant characteristics, such as psychology intersects with cognitive
their age, gender, or race. Here again, I-O psychology and learning theories in the
consultants often help organizations design domain of training and development, which
performance appraisal systems that focus focuses on increasing employees’ knowledge,
on core aspects of job performance, and skills, and abilities. Like many other
avoid evaluating irrelevant characteristics. organizational processes, training is, in part,
For many jobs, the main focus of based on job/task/work analysis to
performance appraisal is on task determine the elements of a job that a
performance—that is, how effectively an person requires training to do. The training
employee performs the key requirements of process often begins with a training needs
their job. However, many organizations are analysis, which is an analysis of the
also concerned with additional behaviors organization, tasks, and person that results
that employees may engage in outside of in objectives for training (Arthur, Bennett,
their job responsibilities. These “extra” Edens, & Bell, 2003). Principles of learning
behaviors can be positive or negative in and cognition serve as the basis for
nature. Positive behaviors are typically designing training and development
referred to as organizational citizenship interventions. Basic principles about
behaviors, or OCBs, and may include actions memory, perception, judgment, and learning
such as bringing donuts or bagels to an early include cognitive biases, primacy and
morning meeting, staying late to assist a recency, interferences, decision-making, and
coworker with a project, or speaking developments. These are relevant to
positively about the organization to determining how best to convey information
outsiders. Negative behaviors, often called about how and when to engage in various
counterproductive work behaviors, or CWBs, work behaviors, and how to assess how well
range from fairly minor actions, such as training has accomplished its goals.
being rude to a coworker from time to time,
What topics do organizations commonly use
to more serious, criminal activities such as
training for? Some training is motivated by
theft, sabotage, or arson. As you would
legal considerations, such as diversity and
expect, employees who enjoy their work are
sexual harassment training. With diversity
more likely to engage in OCBs, while
training, employees are typically educated

11
on the benefits of diversity, and provided likelihood of successfully teaching someone
with suggestions for acting with sensitivity in a specific skill, such as typing, using a cash
a diverse workplace. Sexual harassment and register, or engaging in successful customer
discrimination, which are typically prohibited service interactions, compared to the more
both by law and organizational policies, can difficult challenge of improving a person’s
also be addressed via training. Employees mathematical abilities or extraversion.
may be educated on key terms and ideas
In organizations today, training can occur in
related to harassment, practice identifying
a wide variety of formats. Training often
situations in which harassment may occur,
occurs with a face-to-face instructor, but
and discuss appropriate courses of action
many organizations today are relying on
for reporting and preventing harassment.
remote or distance training, mediated by
Other types of training are prompted when communication technology, and self-paced
employers require employees to possess a training. In addition, employers are generally
particular area of knowledge, skill, or ability motivated to understand whether their
to meet organizational needs. If an resources devoted to training are achieving
organization wants to avoid training, they key training objectives. Consequently, many
may look to hire employees that already employee trainings are followed, either
have those KSAs that they desire (a selection immediately or after a delay, with some form
approach). Alternatively, they may use help of evaluation. Some evaluations focus on
current employees develop those KSAs (a how much of the training content was
training approach). The decision between understood and retained by the trainee,
these approaches is driven by several while others focus on how well that
considerations, including cost, timing, other information transfers to on-the-job
available resources, and staffing goals. For behaviors, how well the trainee feels about
example, for employers do not wish to the training process, and what the outcomes
increase the size of their workforce, training for the organization are (Kirkpatrick, 1959).
may be a more attractive option. In addition, For the individual, training can be considered
the expected trainability of a knowledge, skill, in terms of impact on career development
or ability and skill level of current personnel and advancement in the organization.
might be taken into account. Consider the

12
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The organizational half of I-O Psychology is options with either images or phrases as
broadly concerned with the social and anchors (e.g., 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very
psychological context of the workplace. satisfied). While job satisfaction can be
Organizational psychology focuses on many measured using a single question, a more
different levels of workplace phenomena, nuanced understanding of satisfaction can
including micro, within-person experiences, be achieved using multi-item scales that ask
like attitudes and emotions; meso, small the respondent about various aspects of a
group dynamics like teamwork and job (e.g., pay, autonomy, coworkers).
interpersonal discrimination; and macro, Measuring satisfaction in this way can help I-
organization-wide factors, such as O consultants get a more detailed
leadership and organizational culture. understanding of which aspects of their jobs
Overall, organizational psychology helps us employees like and dislike the most.
understand the experience and
Another attitude important for
consequences of working life in modern
understanding work behavior is
organizations. Major areas of study within
organizational commitment, or an
organizational psychology include employee
individual’s psychological attachment to an
attitudes, worker health and safety,
organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991).
motivation, and teamwork and leadership.
Researchers studying the nature of
Employee Attitudes organizational commitment have identified
three types of commitment. Affective
I-O psychologists are often concerned with commitment reflects an emotional
the attitudes employees hold about their connection an employee may feel with their
work. Several attitudes have been the focus organization. Employees with high affective
of extensive research over the past several commitment may feel as though they are a
decades, and the importance of employee “part of a family” with their organization.
attitudes has been demonstrated by their Continuance commitment reflects
ability to predict whether employees will commitment that is based on a lack of
exert less effort at work, engage in CWBs, or available alternative employment options.
even leave the organization altogether. Employees with high continuance
commitment may stay at their current job
Job satisfaction, which refers to an
because of poor job prospects in their area,
employee’s overall evaluation of their job, is
or because they lack necessary education or
the most fundamental attitude studied in I-O
training to make themselves competitive for
psychology (Judge & Klinger, 2007). When a
other job opportunities. Finally, normative
worker has positive feelings and thoughts
commitment is driven by employees’ sense
about his or her job, positive outcome are
of obligation to their organization. For
likely. These outcomes include performing
instance, if a company gives an employee
their job at a high level, feeling motivated,
their first job after graduating from college,
and being inclined to do extrarole behaviors
or has invested resources in an employee in
that are helpful but aren’t explicitly required
the form or training or development, the
as part of the job. Job satisfaction is often
employee may feel obligated to stay with the
measured using scales, which include
organization to “pay back” these investments.
questions with a range of numeric response

14
Overall, strong ties have been found physical and mental health of employees
between organizational commitment and (Beehr, 1995; Jex, 1998; Tetrick & Quick,
turnover, or leaving one’s organization. 2011). Occupational health research
examines internal and external sources of
Employees’ attitudes about an organization
occupational stress, as well as ways to
may also be based on how fairly they feel
decrease worker stress and methods for
they are treated. Organizational justice
preventing stress. Evidence suggests that
theory suggests that employees pay
organizations should be concerned with
attention to the fairness of how they’re
occupational health, as consistent exposure
treated in several ways. The various types
to stressful working conditions can impact
and subtypes of justice focus on how
not only employees, but also organizational
outcomes or results are distributed across
effectiveness: studies have estimated that
employees, the fairness of organizational
billions of dollars are lost from the U.S.
procedures or decision rules, and the nature
economy due to occupational stress, based
of interactions among organizational
on the assumption that stress plays a role in
members. For example, an employee may
negative outcomes such as increased
feel that the process of performance
medical, legal, and insurance costs, higher
appraisal is fair (procedural justice), but that
rates of absenteeism and turnover,
it did not result in a sufficient pay raise
diminished productivity, and increased
(distributive justice).
occupational accidents (e.g., Goldin, 2004).
What can an organization do to improve
While I-O psychologists have contributed to
their employees’ attitudes? Unfortunately,
the study of occupational stress, the
psychological research on attitudes in
occupational stress literature consists of
general suggests that attitude change is
important contributions from multiple
often quite difficult. A basic principle of
perspectives, including medical (focusing on
attitudes is that once an attitude or belief is
the contribution of stress in the workplace to
held, it serves as an anchor around which
employee health and illness),
new information is judged. Thus, once an
clinical/counseling (which focuses on the
employee begins to evaluate their workplace
impact of stressful working conditions on
negatively, they may seek out and focus on
mental health outcomes such as anxiety and
additional information that supports this
depression), engineering psychology (which
attitude.
focuses on stressors originating from the
physical work environment), and
Worker Health & Safety
organizational psychology. Organizational
Occupational health is a multidisciplinary psychology focuses heavily on cognitive
field concerned with the health and safety of appraisal (the process by which employees
people at work, and has become the subject perceive the work environment and decide
of much research in I-O psychology. Jobs whether it is stressful), as well on sources of
place a variety of demands on workers, and stress that are social in nature (e.g., are
these demands can lead to the experience of sourced from interactions with others).
stress, which may be followed by various Recently, these four approaches have joined
negative outcomes such as effects on the into one field known as occupational health

15
psychology (OHP; Barling & Griffiths, 2011). over two million individuals worldwide die
OHP is an interdisciplinary field that focuses each year as a result of injuries suffered in
on using psychological theories and the work environment (Kaplan & Tetrick,
methodology to enhance health, safety, and 2011). In the United States, the Occupational
well-being for individuals and organizations. Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is
the government agency established to
Another focus within the field of OHP
assure safe and healthful working conditions
is employee safety, usually with regard to
by setting and enforcing standards and
preventing accidents and injuries in the
providing training, outreach, education, and
workplace. Research has examined
assistance to US organizations. Most private
workplace safety outcomes in relation with
employers are responsible for ensuring that
both situational factors in the work
OSHA standards are met, and employers
environment (e.g., physical hazards such as
concerned with worker health and well-
heat and noise; Jex, Swanson, & Grubb, 2013)
being seek to maintain safe working
and personal factors in the employee (e.g.,
conditions and offer channels for addressing
personality traits; Clarke & Robertson, 2008).
issues as they arise.
Most models of employee safety posit that
certain factors influence the experience of Motivation
accidents and injuries through an effect on
the safety performance of the employee (i.e., Understanding employee motivation--the
employees being compliant with safety forces that direct employees’ behaviors at
procedures and notifying others in the work--has a long history in I-O psychology.
organization about safety concerns; Griffin & The study of motivation in I-O psychology
Neal, 2000). Most studies have found can be traced back to studies by Hugo
moderate to strong relationships between Munsterberg, who studied motivation issues
different types of safety performance and for employees working at knitting mills
the experience of workplace accidents (Jiang, (Landy & Conte, 2004). He saw that
Yu, Li, & Li, 2010). Moreover, the safety employees were working 12-hour days, and
climate of a work unit and/or organization is working 6 days a week. With some
predictive of safety performance, which has modifications (i.e., having kittens play with
been linked to workplace accidents (Zohar, balls of yarn on the factory floor),
2011). Safety climate refers to whether the Munsterberg was able to influence the
employees in a company share similar satisfaction and alertness of the employees.
perceptions of policies and procedures
Some of the basic motivational questions
regarding workplace safety, such as rules
that I-O psychologists study include what
regarding the use of safety equipment. A
needs elicit action for individuals, what traits
recent review of the injury and accident
impact the engagement of behaviors, and
prevalence literature suggested that
how the environment (space and individuals)
thousands of American workers die each
influences the motivation and behaviors of
year from injuries sustained in the
people. While the study of work motivation
workplace; however, prevalence rates are far
is continually evolving, there are several
worse in countries that do not have
seminal theories that have informed our
government oversight of labor practices:
understanding of motivation.

16
One of the most well-supported theories of concerns whether an employee values the
motivation in I-O psychology is goal-setting rewards they are able to receive (valence). If
theory (Locke & Latham, 1990). This theory an organization rewards its employees with
emphasizes that goals can influence public “employee of the month” ceremonies,
employees in a variety of ways. For instance, but an employee would prefer a cash reward
goals can influence the direction of actions; rather than public recognition, they may find
Goals can also affect the effort that their motivation limited.
employees put forth to those actions; In
The job characteristics theory (Hackman &
addition to these benefits, goals can increase
Oldham, 1976) takes a rather different
employee persistence, and motivate them to
approach to motivation. This theory
choose more effective strategies for
suggests that several key features of job
attaining those goals. Goals that tend to
themselves can also influence the
provide the benefits just described tend to
motivation level of employees. For example,
share some key characteristics. Specifically,
autonomy, or the freedom that employees
goals that are specific, measurable,
have to choose how their work is done (or at
actionable, realistic, and time-bound
least certain elements of it) typically has a
(SMART) are typically more effective than
positive effect on motivation. Doing work
goals that lack these qualities (Locke &
that allows employees to use a variety of
Latham, 2002).
different skills and abilities (task variety), and
Despite the popularity of goal-setting theory, performing work that feels important to
several other motivation theories have other peoples’ lives (task significance) can
received attention, and research support, also generate higher levels of motivation.
from I-O psychologists. Expectancy theory Finally, receiving feedback, such as from
(Vroom, 1964) suggests that employees are supervisors and peers, can improve
unlikely to be motivated unless they can motivation for many employees.
provide affirmative answers to three
questions. The first question involves asking Teamwork & Leadership
whether employee effort will lead to
In many organizations today, work is often
performance (instrumentality). If an
conducted in the context of a group or team.
employees feels that working hard will not
Teams are defined as two or more
result in success on the job, they are likely to
individuals who share one or more common
have low motivation. If an employee decides
goals, and interact to perform activities that
that their effort will actually result in a
are relevant to the organization. Teams are
sufficient level of performance, they must
influenced by a wide variety of social
then evaluate whether their performance is
dynamics. As an example, consider Susie
likely to be rewarded or recognized in
who just graduated medical school and has
satisfactory ways (expectancy). In some
started her intern year in a department that
workplaces, employees may feel that their
emphasizes teamwork. Her role in the
strong performance goes unrecognized--if
interdisciplinary team is that of the physician,
this pattern persists over time, they are likely
which she feels comfortable doing as she
to lose motivation. Finally, the third
graduated with honors from her university.
questions associated with expectancy theory
What she is concerned about is how to

17
function effectively in the team. She focused on the trait approach, which centers
personally likes to do things on her own, so on the idea that leaders possess certain
she is uncertain how this part of her job will traits (e.g., ambition, dominance,
actually go, especially since she knows the extroversion, height) that non-leaders do not
intern year is a very stressful one and she possess. However, this approach did not
knows that two of the other team members prove to be productive, as research did not
have reputations of being really difficult to show consistent relationships among the
work with. traits. Undeterred, I-O psychologists re-
focused their attempts to understand
Some of the concerns that Susie has are
leadership by looking for specific behaviors
ones that I-O psychologists try to grapple
that successful leaders might engage in.
with as consultants and researchers. Many
Fleishman and Harris (1962) defined
topics that originated in social psychology
leadership using two dimensions,
are relevant to the study of teams. For
consideration (concern for the individual’s
instance, many people have a tendency to
needs) and initiating structure (organizes
work with less intensity when they are in a
and defines activities). This approach proved
group, compared to when they are by
to be more successful, and the legacy of this
themselves, which social psychologists refer
work can be seen in more modern research
to as social loafing (see Latané, Williams, &
on transactional and transformational
Harkins, 1979). Managers can help avoid
leadership (Bass, 1985).
social loafing in their work groups by making
sure that each employee knows what they I-O psychologists have a unique place as
are responsible for. researchers and consultants when informing
the greater population as to the practice of
A natural sister topic of teams concerns the
leadership. With changing workforce
individuals tasked with facilitating teams—
practices, such as the utilization of
leaders. While there are many definitions of
temporary workers, teleworking, virtual
leadership, the common elements of the
teams, increasing diversity in the workforce
definitions are influence and guidance of
and other existing ambiguous boundaries
others towards a goal. Over time, I-O
that modern jobs hold, I-O psychologists are
psychologists have studied leadership from
prepared to contribute to our understanding
several different perspectives. In the 1920s
of leadership and how we best develop and
and 1930s, early leadership research
coach the leaders of today and tomorrow.

18
CONCLUSION
As you can see, I-O psychologists are this field, there is greater recognition that
concerned with a wide variety of topics these areas represent two sides of the same
related to the performance and well-being of coin, and that both sides can have a
both employees and their organizations. substantial influence on one another. As
Some topics, such as recruitment, selection, work continues to become more complex
and performance appraisal, have been and subject to global and technological
important from the start, while others, such pressures, I-O psychologists will become
as worker attitudes, stress, and motivation, increasingly important for helping both
have increased in importance in recent years. workers and organizations weather these
Today, while it is still possible to make a changes.
distinction between “I” and “O” topics within

20
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