Unit 2 Hardware Components: [6 Hrs.

]
2.1 Major blocks of a digital computer
2.2 Input devices like keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, light pen etc.
2.3 Output devices like monitor, printer, plotter, sound card, speaker etc.
2.4 Central Processing Unit
2.5 Memory Unit: RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM
2.6 Auxiliary storage devices:
• Magnetic storage like floppy disk, hard disk, magnetic tape etc.
• Optical storage like CD-ROM, DVD
• Pen drive, flash memory card etc.

Major blocks of a digital computer:

Fig: Major blocks of a digital computer

A computer is made up of various parts that work together to ensure smooth functioning and
processing of data.

1. Input Unit

The input unit allows a computer to respond to commands. We provide these commands using input
devices like keyboards or mice. For example, when we type text using a keyboard, the computer
processes the data and displays the result on the screen.

The data we input can be numbers, letters, images, etc. Input devices capture this information, the
processing unit converts it into a form the computer can understand, and finally, the output is
presented in a way humans can understand.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the heart of the computer and is often called the "brain" of the device. It consists of three
key parts:

 Memory Unit
  Control Unit

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

These units work together to process and manage data efficiently.

 Memory Unit: When data is entered, it is temporarily stored in the memory unit of the CPU.
This allows the system to pass the data to other parts for processing, and later, the result is
stored here before being delivered to the user.

 Control Unit: This unit manages the computer’s operations. It takes data from the input unit,
processes it, and sends it to the output unit. It also controls the flow of data and instructions
within the system.

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): This part handles all mathematical and logical operations,
such as addition, subtraction, and data comparisons. It performs calculations and decision-
making processes needed for the computer to function.

3. Output Unit

The output unit provides the results of the computer's processing to the user. Output devices, like
monitors and printers, display or print the results. For example, when using an ATM, after entering
your details (input), the machine dispenses cash (output), making the cash dispenser the output
device.

Memory Classification/ Memory Hierarchy:

Memory in computer is used for following purpose:

 Stores programs and data during execution.

 Stores programs results of execution.
 Stores programs and data for future reference.

The memory is classified in hierarchical structure as follows:

I. Register Memory.
II. Cache memory.
III. Main memory/ Primary memory.
IV. Auxiliary memory/ Secondary memory.

In hierarchical structure of memory the speed of access increases up the pyramid and the size
increases down the pyramid.
I. Register memory:

 Register memories are high speed registers in the CPU, work as a memory for temporary
storage of instruction and data.
 CPU uses registers for the processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU and the size
of each register affect the power and speed of a CPU.
 The more the number of registers and bigger the size of each register, the better itis.

II. Cache Memory:

 Cache memory is a fast memory which is placed in between the CPU and the main memory.
 Cache memory consists of binary cells and the size of this memory is less than main memory.
 When the CPU needs an instruction or data during processing, it first looks in the cache
memory.
 If the information is present in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the data or instruction
is retrieved from the cache.
 If the information is not present in cache memory, then it is called a cache miss and the
information is then retrieved from main memory.

III. Main Memory/Primary Memory:

 Data and programs are stored in this memory during execution.

 After execution the result is stored in this memory.
 It is volatile in nature. This means whenever power goes out the content of this memory will
be lost.
 The access speed of this memory is higher than the auxiliary memory.
 Main memory consists of RAM & ROM.

RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY):-

 The access time of this memory to read data from the first location or the last location is
same.
 Both read and write operation is possible in this memory.
 This is volatile in nature.
 RAM is of two types:-

a) SRAM(Static RAM)

b) DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

a) SRAM (Static RAM):

 SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its memory
as long as power is being supplied.
 SRAM does not have to be periodically refreshed.
 Static RAM provides faster access to data and is more expensive than DRAM.
 SRAM is used for a computer's cache memory.

b) DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

 Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the most common kind of random access
memory for personal computers and workstations.
 DRAM stores each bit in a storage cell consisting of a capacitor and a transistor.
 Capacitors tend to lose their charge rather quickly; thus, it need for refreshed.

ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY):

• In this memory only read operation is possible.

• The content of this memory is written by the manufacturer.

• It is non-volatile in nature.

a) PROM (PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY):- In PROM, user can programme the ROM
only once.

b) EPROM (ERASEABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY:- In this content can be erased
and programmed. Erasing is possible by use of ultra-violet rays.

c) EEPROM (ELECTRICALLY ERASEABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLYMEMORY):- In this

memory erasing the content is possible by applying the high voltage electricity.
IV. Auxiliary Memory/Secondary Memory:

 This memory consists of magnetic and optical materials.

 This memory capacity of this memory is high and access speed of this memory is very less.
 It is non-volatile in nature.

EX:- Magnetic disc, Magnetic tapes etc.

Classification of Commonly Used Secondary Storage Devices:

Magnetic Tape:

 This is commonly used sequential-access secondary storage device.

 Physically, the tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which is usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide and 50
to 2400 feet long.
 Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetisable recording material such as iron-oxide or
chromium dioxide.
 Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized
spots (representing 1s and 0s) on its coated surface.

Magnetic Disk:

 Commonly used direct-access secondary storage device.

 Physically, a magnetic disk is a thin, circular plate/platter made of metal or plastic that is
usually coated on both sides with a magnetisable recording material such as iron-oxide.
 Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized
spots (representing 1s and 0s) on the coated surfaces of the disk.
  A disk’s surface is divided into a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks.
 The tracks are numbered consecutively from outermost to innermost starting from zero.
 Each track of a disk is subdivided into sectors.
 There are 8 or more sectors per track.
 A sector typically contains 512 bytes.
 Ex-hard disk, floppy disk ,etc.

Optical Disk:

 It consists of a circular disk, which is coated with a thin metal or some other material that is
highly reflective.
 Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading of data on the disk. Because it can
store extremely large amounts of data in a limited space.
 It has one long spiral track, which starts at the outer edge and spirals inward to the centre
 Track is divided into equal size sectors.
 Ex-CD-ROM,DVD etc.

COMPUTER - INPUT DEVICES:

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in Computer Systems:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader

Keyboard:

 Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. It helps in inputting the data to
the computer.
 The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing some additional functions.

The keys are following:

⎯ Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digits keys (0-9).

⎯ Numeric Keypad: It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a
set of 17 keys.
⎯ Function Keys: The twelve functions keys are present on the keyboard. These are arranged in a row
along the top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose.

⎯ Control keys: These keys provides cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow key.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

⎯ Special Purpose Keys: Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse:

 It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor.

 A mouse will have 2 buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button.
 There will be a wheel between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly
scroll through screens of information.
 As we move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction.
 Optical mouse is another advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component
instead of the mouse ball.
 Mouse cannot be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select the options on the
screen.
 Advantages:

⎯ Easy to use

⎯ Not very expensive

⎯ Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick:

 Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen.
 It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
 The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen:

 Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen.

 It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen.
 It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
 When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to
the CPU.
Scanner:

 Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine.

 It is used when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the
hard disc of the computer for further manipulation.
 Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that
can be stored on the disc.
 These images can be edited before they are printed.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR):

 MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day.
 The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type
of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
 This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).
 The main advantages of MICR are that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR):

 OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

 It scans text optically character by character, converts them into a machine readable code
and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers:

 Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines).
 Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc.
 It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
 Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is
then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR):

 OMR is a special type of optical scanner.

 It used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
 It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
 It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
COMPUTER - OUTPUT DEVICES:

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in Computer Systems:

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors:

 Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a
computer.
 It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, which are arranged in a rectangular form.
 The sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels.
 There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

⎯ Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

⎯ Flat- Panel Display

➢ Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor:

⎯ In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short.

⎯ The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution.

⎯ A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once.

⎯ Disadvantage of CRT:

▪ Large in Size

▪ High Power consumption

➢ Flat-Panel Display Monitor:

⎯ The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement compare to the CRT.

⎯ You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.

⎯ Current uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display.

⎯ The flat-panel display are divided into two categories:

▪ Emissive Displays

▪ Non-Emissive Displays

➢ Emissive Displays:

⎯ The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
 ⎯ Examples: plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

➢ Non-Emissive Displays:

⎯ The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some
other source into graphics patterns.

⎯ Example: LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printer:

Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers:

⎯ Impact Printers

⎯ Non-Impact Printers

➢ Impact Printers:

⎯ The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called
impact printers.

⎯ Characteristics of Impact Printers are following

▪ Very low consumable costs

▪ Impact printers are very noisy

▪ Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

▪ There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

⎯ These printers are of two types:

▪ Character printers

▪ Line printers

➢ Character Printers:

⎯ Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time.

⎯ These are of further two types

▪ Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)

▪ Daisy Wheel

 Dot Matrix Printer:

⎯ In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of their ease of
printing features and economical price.
 ⎯ Each character printed is in form of pattern of Dot's and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size
(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix
Printer.

⎯ Advantages:

▪ Inexpensive

▪ Widely Used

▪ Other language characters can be printed

⎯ Disadvantages:

▪ Slow Speed

▪ Poor Quality

 Daisy Wheel:

⎯ Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer.

⎯ These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters
to be send here and there with very nice quality representation.

⎯ Advantages:

▪ More reliable than DMP's

▪ Better quality

▪ The fonts of character can be easily changed.

⎯ Disadvantages:

▪ Slower than DMP's

▪ Noisy

▪ More expensive than DMP's

➢ Line Printers:

⎯ Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.

⎯ These are of further two types:

▪ Drum Printer

▪ Chain Printer
  Drum Printer:

⎯ This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into
number of tracks.

⎯ Total tracks are equal to size of paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132characters, drum will have
132 tracks.

⎯ A character set is embossed on track. The different characters sets are available in market 48
character set, 64 and 96 characters set.

⎯ One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum Printers are fast in speed and speed in between
300 to 2000 lines per minute.

⎯ Advantages:

▪ Very high speed

⎯ Disadvantages:

▪ Very expensive

▪ Characters fonts cannot be changed

 Chain Printer:

⎯ In this printer chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers.

⎯ A standard character set may have 48, 64, 96 characters.

⎯ Advantages:

▪ Character fonts can easily be changed.

▪ Different languages can be used with the same printer.

⎯ Disadvantages:

▪ Noisy

▪ Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.

➢ Non-Impact Printers:

⎯ The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are
called Non-impact Printers.

⎯ These printers print a complete page at a time, also called as Page Printers.

⎯ These printers are of two types:

▪ Laser Printers
 ▪ Inkjet Printers

⎯ Characteristics of Non-impact Printers:

▪ Faster than impact printers.

▪ They are not noisy.

▪ High quality.

▪ Support many fonts and different character size.

 Laser Printers:

⎯ These are non-impact page printers.

⎯ They use laser lights to produces the dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a
page.

⎯ Advantages:

▪ Very high speed.

▪ Very high quality output.

▪ Give good graphics quality.

▪ Support many fonts and different character size.

⎯ Disadvantage:

▪ Expensive.

▪ Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

 Inkjet Printers:

⎯ Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology.

⎯ They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper.

⎯ Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

⎯ They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available.

⎯ Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of
printing also.

⎯ Advantages:

▪ High quality printing

▪ More reliable

⎯ Disadvantages:

▪ Expensive as cost per page is high

 ▪ Slow as compare to laser printer

Unit 3 Introduction to Operating System Software: [6 Hrs.]

3.1 Importance and use of operating systems (OS)
3.2 Type of OS: MS-DOS, Windows, Unix, Linux
3.3 File management, device management and memory management by OS
3.4 MS-DOS system files: io.sys, msdos.sys, command.com, config.sys,
autoexec.bat
3.5 MS-DOS internal and external commands
3.6 Windows Operating System: Graphical User Interface and windows
environment, file/folder management
3.7 Linux: GNU open source operating system
Operating System:
An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an intermediary between a computer's
hardware and its users. It manages hardware resources and provides an environment for application
software to function effectively. The operating system is a crucial component of a computer system,
as it ensures smooth operation and user interaction. Eg. Linux Based OS, Windows Based
OS(Windows XP, VISTA,7,8,8.1,10), MAC OS, Mobile OS(Android,iOS etc).

Fig: Onion Shell Model of an Operating System

The onion shell model is a visual representation of the layered structure of an operating system (OS).
It's called the "onion model" because it resembles an onion, with multiple layers or "shells"
surrounding a central core.

1. Hardware Layer:

The innermost layer, representing the physical components of the computer system. Includes
the CPU, memory (RAM), storage devices (hard drives, SSDs), and input/output devices
(keyboard, mouse, monitor).

2. Kernel Layer:

The core of the OS, responsible for managing hardware resources and providing basic services
to other layers. Handles tasks like memory management, process scheduling, device driver
management, and system calls.

3. System Libraries Layer:

A collection of reusable code modules that provide common functionalities to applications.

Includes libraries for file I/O, network communication, graphics, and more.

4. Applications Layer:
The outermost layer, consisting of the software applications that users interact with.
Includes programs like web browsers, word processors, games, and system utilities.
Booting

Booting is the process of starting up a computer or any digital device by loading the operating
system (OS) from a non-volatile memory (like a hard disk or SSD) into the main memory (RAM). It is
the first step that initializes hardware and prepares the system for user interaction.

There are two main types of booting:

1. Cold Booting: Starting the computer from a powered-off state.

2. Warm Booting: Restarting the system without turning off the power, often through a
software command.

Boot Loader

A boot loader (or boot manager) is a small program responsible for loading the operating system
into memory during the booting process. It is typically stored in the Master Boot Record (MBR) or a
dedicated partition of the storage device.

Functions of a Boot Loader:

 Initializes hardware and ensures basic system functionality.

 Loads the kernel of the operating system into RAM.

 Transfers control to the operating system for further initialization.

Examples:

 GRUB (GNU GRUB): A popular boot loader for Linux and other operating systems.

 Windows Boot Manager: The default boot loader for Microsoft Windows.

 LILO (Linux Loader): An older Linux boot loader.

Boot Devices

Boot devices are storage devices or media from which the computer can load the operating system.
Common examples include:

1. Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) or Solid-State Drives (SSDs): Primary storage devices containing the
OS.

2. USB Drives: Often used for portable OS or recovery tools.

3. Optical Drives (CD/DVD): Used in older systems to boot from OS installation media.

4. Network Boot (PXE): Booting from a network server, common in enterprise environments.

5. Floppy Disks: Used in legacy systems.

Boot Sequence

The boot sequence is the order in which the computer checks devices for an operating system
during startup. This sequence can typically be configured in the system BIOS/UEFI settings.

Typical Boot Sequence:

1. Power-On Self-Test (POST):

 o The computer performs basic hardware checks to ensure components like RAM,
CPU, and storage devices are functional.

2. BIOS/UEFI Execution:

o The system firmware initializes hardware and identifies bootable devices.

3. Load Boot Loader:

o The firmware passes control to the boot loader stored on the primary boot device.

4. Load OS Kernel:

o The boot loader loads the operating system kernel into RAM.

5. Operating System Initialization:

o The OS initializes hardware drivers, system services, and prepares the user interface
for interaction.

Importance and use of Operating System:

Following are the importance or need of an operating system:

1. OS provides a Platform for Application programs: Operating system provides platform, on top of
which, other programs, called application programs can run. These a application programs help the
users to perform a specific task easily. It acts as an interface between the computer and the user. It
is designed in such a manner that it operates, controls and executes various applications on the
computer.

2. OS manages Input-Output unit: Operating System also allows the computer to manage its own
resources such as memory, monitor, keyboard, printer etc. Management of these resources is
required for an effective utilization. The operating system controls the various system input- output
resources and allocates them to the users or programs as per their requirement.

3. OS provides consistent user interface: Operating System provides the user an easy-to- work user
interface, so the user doesn't have to learn a different Ul every time and can focus on the content
and be productive as quickly as possible. Operating System provides templates, UI components to
make the working of a computer, really easy for the user.

4. Multitasking: Operating System manages memory and allows multiple programs to run in their
own space and even communicate with each other through shared memory. Multitasking gives users
a good experience as they can perform several tasks on a computer at a time.

The uses of an operating system are virtually unlimited. However, following are some of the uses of
an operating system:

i. OS is used in mobile devices and smart phones in the form of a mobile operating system.
ii. OS is used in ATM machines and banks.
 iii. OS is used in desktop and laptop computers as an interface to install other software.
iv. OS is used in servers that provide resources in a network.
v. OS is used in various embedded devices like digital camera, smart watch etc.
vi. Real time OS is used in Jet planes to control time critical operations.

Type of OS: MS-DOS, Windows, Unix, Linux:

The broad family of operating systems can be categorized into four types based on their controlling
and supporting systems.

i. Real Time Operating System(RTOS)

ii. Single User Single Task Operating System
iii. Single User Multi Tasking Operating system
iv. Multi User Operating System

i. Real Time Operating System (RTOS):

A Real Time Operating System (RT OS) intends to provide real time applications that process data
without buffer delays. A Real Time Operating System is a time bound operating system which has
fixed time constraints. Processing has to be done within the defined time constraint or the system
will definitely fail. Examples of Real Time systems are Air Traffic Contra Systems, Command Control
Systems etc.

Real Time systems are classified in two parts ie. on factors inside the computer system and factors
outside the computer system. A missed deadline in Hard Real Time Systems is disastrous. However,
in case of Soft Real Time Systems it may lead to a significant loss.

Command Control systems and Air traffic control systems are best examples of Hard Real Time
systems. Online transaction systems, like booking a movie ticket or airline reservation systems are
best examples of Soft Real Time systems.

ii. Single User Single Task Operating System:

As the name indicates, Single User Single Task OS is a system in which only one program executed at
one time. It manages the computer in a way that one user can successfully perform one thing at a
time.

There is a problem with this type of OS that the program has to be arranged in a queue.

iii. Single User Multi Tasking Operating System:

Most people use this Operating-System on their computers, laptop and desktops today. Best
examples of these types of Operating System are Apple's Mac OS platform and Microsoft's Windows.
This Operating System will allow a single user to operate several programs at the same time. For
example, a Windows user may be writing an e-mail while printing a word document while
downloading a file from Internet.

iv. Multi User Operating System:

Multi User OS allows various different users on different desktop or computer to access a single
System. A user at the terminal or desktop, through a network takes access of the system and other
system attached machines such as printers.

The Operating-System takes care of all the requirements of the various users in a balanced manner.
Also, it ensures that each of the programs being used has a separate and sufficient resource so that
problem of one user doesn't affect the entire community of users.

UNIX:

UNIX is an operating system which was first developed in the 1960s, and has been under constant
development ever since. By operating system, it means the suite of programs which make the
computer work. It is a stable, multi-user, multi-tasking system for servers, desktops and laptops.

UNIX systems also have a graphical user interface (GUI) similar to Microsoft Windows which provides
an easy to use environment. However, knowledge of UNIX is required for operations which aren't
covered by a graphical program, or for when there is no windows interface available.

LINUX:

In 1991, Linus Torvalds a student at the University of Helsinki, Finland, thought to have a freely
available academic version of Unix started writing its own code. Later this project became the Linux
kernel. He wrote this program especially for his own PC as he wanted to use Unix 386 Intel computer
but couldn't afford it. He did it on MINIX using GNU C compiler. GNU C compiler is still the main
choice to compile Linux code but other compilers are also used like Intel C compiler.

He started it just for fun but ended up with such a large project. Firstly he wanted to name it as
'Freax' but later it became 'Linux'.

He published the Linux kernel under his own license and was restricted to use as commercially. Linux
uses most of its tools from GNU software and are under GNU copyright. In 1992, he released the
kernel under GNU General Public License.

Difference Between Unix and Linux

Linux is essentially a clone of Unix. But, basic differences are shown below:
Linux Unix

The source code of Linux is freely available to its The source code of Unix is not freely available to general
users. public.

It has graphical user interface along with command

It only has command line interface.
line interface.

Linux OS is portable, flexible, and can be executed in

Unix OS is not portable.
different hard drives.

Different versions of Linux OS are Ubuntu, Linux

Different version of Unix are AIS, HP-UX, BSD, Iris, etc.
Mint, RedHat Enterprise Linux, Solaris, etc.

The file systems supported by Linux are as follows:

The file systems supported by Unix are as follows: zfs, js,
xfs, ramfs, vfat, cramfsm, ext3, ext4, ext2, ext1, ufs,
hfx, gps, xfs, vxfs
autofs, devpts, ntfs

Linux is an open-source operating system that was Unix is a proprietary operating system that was
first released in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. originally developed by AT&T Bell Labs in the mid 1960s.

MS-DOS(Microsoft Disk Operating System):

MS-DOS is a command-line-based operating system developed by Microsoft. It was first introduced

in 1981 and became one of the most widely used operating systems during the 1980s and early
1990s, especially on IBM-compatible personal computers. MS-DOS is a Single-User, Single-Task
Operating System, meaning it allows one user to perform one task at a time.

Features of MS-DOS

1. Command-Line Interface (CLI):

o MS-DOS is text-based, and users must type commands to interact with the system.

2. Lightweight:

o Requires minimal hardware resources, making it suitable for older and low-powered
systems.

3. Single-Tasking:
 o MS-DOS can only execute one task or program at a time.

4. File System Support:

o Uses FAT12 and FAT16 file systems, which are simple but limited in storage capacity.

5. Direct Hardware Access:

o Programs in MS-DOS can interact directly with hardware, allowing low-level control.

6. Basic File and Directory Management:

o Includes commands like DIR, COPY, DEL, CD, and MKDIR for managing files and
directories.

7. Batch File Support:

o Allows automation of repetitive tasks through .BAT files.

8. Bootstrapping:

o MS-DOS acts as a bootloader for early versions of Windows or other operating

systems.

9. Custom Configuration:

o Users can modify startup configurations using CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT.

10. Device Independence:

o Basic device drivers for peripherals such as keyboards, monitors, and printers.

MS-DOS Files:

A file is a collection of related information. Or technically a file ia a finite length sequence of bytes.
Files are stored on storage devices like Hard Disk Drive, Floppy Disk, CD-ROM, etc. Different types of
file in MS-DOS are:

i. Executable Files
ii. Non-Executable Files(Data Files)

i. Executable Files: These are the files which can run or execute themselves. These files contain the
program in binary form which can be readily run within an OS. The extension of executable files
are .exe, .com, .bat, etc.

ii. Non Executable Files(Data Files): These files are used to store user's or system's data. They
cannot execute themselves. Data files can be opened by respective applications.

MS-DOS System Files:

In MS-DOS, system files are essential files required for the operating system to boot and function
properly. These files manage the hardware, load the operating system, and provide a command-line
interface for user interaction. Below are the key system files in MS-DOS:

1. IO.SYS:

 IO.SYS is a system file responsible for handling input/output (I/O) operations.

 It acts as an interface between the operating system and the hardware.
 Loads basic device drivers for peripherals like the keyboard, monitor, and disk drives during
the boot process.
 Importance: Without IO.SYS, the operating system cannot interact with hardware devices.

2. MSDOS.SYS:

 This file contains the core operating system code or the kernel.
 It manages essential system functions, such as file handling, memory management, and
process control.
 Works with IO.SYS to initialize the system and load necessary configurations.
 Importance: MSDOS.SYS is the backbone of MS-DOS, as it handles the essential operations of
the OS.

3. COMMAND.COM:

 This is the command interpreter file for MS-DOS.

 Provides the command-line interface where users can type and execute commands.
 Handles built-in DOS commands like DIR, COPY, and DEL.
 Loads other programs and utilities as needed.
 Importance: Without COMMAND.COM, users cannot interact with the operating system.

4. CONFIG.SYS:

 Used for system configuration.

 Allows users to load device drivers and set system parameters during boot.
 Example: Configuring memory management or enabling peripherals.

5. AUTOEXEC.BAT:

 A batch file that executes commands automatically during system startup.

 Used to set environment variables, load programs, or configure settings like the system path.

MS-DOS Internal and External Commands:

MS-DOS commands are classified into two categories: internal commands and external commands.
These commands allow users to interact with the operating system to perform various tasks such as
file management, disk operations, and system configuration.

1. Internal Commands

Internal commands are built into the MS-DOS command interpreter (COMMAND.COM) and do not
require external files to execute. They are always available in memory as long as the system is
running.

Examples of Internal Commands:

1. DIR:
Displays the list of files and directories in the current directory.

o Example: DIR C:\

2. COPY:
Copies one or more files to another location.

o Example: COPY file1.txt D:\

3. DEL:
Deletes one or more files.

o Example: DEL file1.txt

4. TYPE:
Displays the contents of a text file.

o Example: TYPE file1.txt

5. CD:
Changes the current directory.

o Example: CD \Documents

6. MD/MKDIR:
Creates a new directory.

o Example: MD newfolder

7. RD/RMDIR:
Removes an empty directory.

o Example: RD oldfolder

8. CLS:
Clears the screen.

o Example: CLS

9. REN/RENAME:
Renames a file or directory.
 o Example: REN oldfile.txt newfile.txt

10. EXIT:
Exits from the command prompt or a batch file.

o Example: EXIT

2. External Commands

External commands are not built into the command interpreter. They are separate executable files
(e.g., .COM, .EXE, or .BAT) that reside on the disk. These commands are loaded into memory and
executed when required.

Examples of External Commands:

1. FORMAT:
Formats a disk for use.

o Example: FORMAT A:

2. CHKDSK:
Checks the disk for errors and displays a status report.

o Example: CHKDSK C:

3. DISKCOPY:
Copies the entire contents of one floppy disk to another.

o Example: DISKCOPY A: B:

4. XCOPY:
Copies directories, subdirectories, and files.

o Example: XCOPY C:\Documents D:\Backup /S

5. SYS:
Transfers system files to a disk to make it bootable.

o Example: SYS A:

6. LABEL:
Creates or changes the volume label of a disk.

o Example: LABEL C:

7. ATTRIB:
Displays or changes file attributes (e.g., read-only, hidden).

o Example: ATTRIB +R file1.txt

8. TREE:
Displays a graphical representation of the directory structure.

o Example: TREE C:\

 9. MOVE:
Moves files or directories from one location to another.

o Example: MOVE file1.txt D:\Documents

10. DEFRAG:
Defragments a disk to optimize file storage.

o Example: DEFRAG C:

Windows Operating System:

Windows OS is a series of operating systems developed by Microsoft. It is one of the most widely
used operating systems in the world and is known for its graphical user interface (GUI), user-friendly
design, and compatibility with a wide range of hardware and software. The first version, Windows
1.0, was released in 1985, and since then, it has evolved through multiple versions to support
modern computing needs.

Features of Windows OS

1. Graphical User Interface (GUI):

o Windows offers a user-friendly graphical interface with icons, menus, windows, and
a desktop environment.

o Users can interact using a mouse, keyboard, or touchscreen.

2. Multi-Tasking:

o Windows allows multiple applications to run simultaneously. For instance, users can
browse the web, edit documents, and play music at the same time.

3. Advanced File System:

o Uses file systems like NTFS and FAT32 to support large storage capacities, file
permissions, compression, and encryption.

4. Plug-and-Play:

o Automatically detects and configures hardware devices, such as USB drives, printers,
and cameras.

5. Networking and Internet Support:

o Built-in networking features for file sharing, remote access, and internet
connectivity.

o Supports modern networking protocols like TCP/IP.

6. Security Features:

o Includes tools like Windows Defender, firewall, and BitLocker encryption to protect
against malware and unauthorized access.

o User account control (UAC) adds an additional layer of security.

 7. Multimedia Support:

o Windows provides integrated multimedia capabilities for playing videos, music, and
editing images.

o Built-in apps like Windows Media Player, Groove Music, and Photos.

8. Customization:

o Users can personalize their desktop, themes, Start menu, and taskbar.

9. Support for Modern Software and Hardware:

o Compatible with a wide range of modern software and hardware, including gaming
systems and productivity tools.

10. Frequent Updates:

o Regular updates from Microsoft ensure security patches, performance

improvements, and new features.

Major Versions of Windows OS

1. Early Versions

 Windows 1.0 (1985): The first graphical interface for MS-DOS.

 Windows 3.x (1990-1992): Introduced better graphics, file management, and multitasking
capabilities.

2. Windows 95/98/ME

 Introduced the Start menu, taskbar, and better networking features.

 Focused on improving user experience with 32-bit architecture.

3. Windows NT/2000

 Aimed at businesses, offering a more stable and secure environment.

4. Windows XP (2001)

 Unified the home and professional versions, providing a robust and user-friendly interface.

 One of the most popular versions due to its stability and compatibility.

5. Windows Vista (2007)

 Introduced the Aero interface and enhanced security features but was criticized for its high
system requirements.

6. Windows 7 (2009)

 Focused on performance and usability improvements.

 Became widely popular due to its stability and efficiency.

7. Windows 8/8.1 (2012-2013)

 Introduced a touch-friendly interface and the Metro UI, but received mixed reviews due to
the removal of the Start menu.

8. Windows 10 (2015)

 Unified platform for desktops, tablets, and mobile devices.

 Reintroduced the Start menu with a combination of traditional and modern features.

 Regular updates introduced new features like Cortana, Microsoft Edge, and Virtual Desktops.

9. Windows 11 (2021)

 Redesigned interface with rounded corners, centered taskbar, and enhanced productivity
features.

 Improved gaming performance and support for modern hardware.