Terminology for Psych

Chapter 11

accommodation- The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema

adolescence- A period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood.

assimilation- The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the need to revise the schema

attachment-Emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver.

concrete operational stage-Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at the age of 6 years and ending at
the age of 12 years and characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning
conservation- The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its
quantity.
conventional morality-Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which moral choices are made
according to law or public opinion.
egocentrism-Limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people

embryo-
Limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)-
A condition resulting from alcohol consumption by the mother during pregnancy that produces physical
abnormalities
fetus-The term used to describe a developing organism between the embryo stage and birth, or between 8 and
approximately 40 weeks following conception in humans
formal operational stage-Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at age 12 and extending through
adulthood and characterized by mature reasoning capabilities
identity-A consistent, unified sense of self

insecure attachment-A pattern of infant–caregiver bonding that can take several forms but is generally
characterized as less desirable for the child’s outcomes than secure attachment
menopause-The complete cessation of a woman’s menstrual cycles

object permanence-The ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present.

postconventional morality-Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to personal
standards and reason
preconventional morality-Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to
expectations of reward or punishment
preoperational stage-Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at the age of 2 years and ending at the age
of 6 years and characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and limits on the ability to reason logically
puberty-A period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity.

secondary sex characteristics-Physical changes occurring at puberty associated with sexual maturity

secure attachment-A pattern of infant–caregiver bonding in which children explore confidently and return to the
parent or caregiver for reassurance
sensorimotor stage-Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at birth and ending at the age of 2 years and
characterized by active exploration of the environment
teratogen-A chemical agent that can harm the zygote, embryo, or fetus

theory of mind (TOM)- The understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one’s own

zygote- The term used to describe a developing organism immediately following conception
Chapter 12

agreeableness-A Big Five personality trait characterized by trustworthiness, altruism, trust, compliance, modesty,
and tender mindedness
Big Five theory-A trait theory that identifies five main characteristics that account for most individual differences
in personality
conscientiousness-A Big Five personality trait characterized by competence, order, dutifulness, achievement
striving, self-discipline, and deliberation
defense mechanisms-In Sigmund Freud’s personality theory, a protective behavior that reduces anxiety.

ego-The component of Sigmund Freud’s personality theory that is the self that others see

extroversion-One of the Big Five traits characterized by warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity,
excitement seeking, and positive emotion; opposite of introversion
id-The self we are in the presence of other people

interpersonal self-One of the Big Five traits characterized by coolness, reserve, passivity, inactivity, caution, and
negative emotion; opposite of extroversion
introversion-One of the Big Five traits characterized by coolness, reserve, passivity, inactivity, caution, and
negative emotion; opposite of extroversion
locus of control-A cognitive expectancy featured in social–cognitive learning theories of personality about the
source of individual outcomes; an external locus of control sees outcomes as resulting from luck or chance, while
an internal locus of control sees outcomes as the result of individual effort.
neo-Freudian-A theorist who attempted to update and modify Sigmund Freud’s original theory of personality

neuroticism-A Big Five personality trait characterized by anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness,
impulsivity, and vulnerability
openness-A Big Five personality trait characterized by an appreciation for fantasy, feelings, actions, ideas,
values, and aesthetics.
personality inventories-An objective test, often using numbered scales or multiple choice, used to assess
personality
projective tests-A test of personality based on Freudian theory that provides an ambiguous stimulus onto which
test takers “project” their personality
psychoanalysis-Sigmund Freud’s treatment approach based on his psychodynamic theory

psychodynamic-A theory put forward by Sigmund Freud in which psychic energy moves among the
compartments of the personality: Id, ego, and superego
psychosexual stages-A stage in Sigmund Freud’s theory of the developing personality.

reciprocal determinism-A social–cognitive learning theory of personality that features the mutual influence of
the person and that of the situation on each other.
self-Patterns of thought, feelings, and actions that we perceive in our own minds

self-concept-People’s description of their own characteristics

self-esteem-
A judgment of the value of the self.
self-schemas-A judgment of the value of the self.

social–cognitive learning theories-A theory of personality that features cognition and learning, especially from
the social environment, as important sources of individual differences in personality
superego-The component of Sigmund Freud’s personality theory that internalizes society’s rules for right and
wrong, or the conscience
temperament-A child’s pattern of mood, activity, or emotional responsiveness linked to later personality

trait-A stable personality characteristic.

unconscious mind-The part of mental activity that cannot be voluntarily retrieved .

Chapter 13

actor–observer bias- Emphasizing dispositional attributions to explain the behavior of others while emphasizing
situational attributions to explain our own behavior
aggression-The conscious intent to harm another

attitudes-A positive or negative evaluation that predisposes behavior toward an object, person, or situation.

attributions-A judgment about the cause of a person’s behavior

bystander intervention-The study of situational variables related to helping a stranger, most notably the
decreased likelihood of helping as the number of bystanders increases
cognitive consistency-A preference for holding congruent attitudes and beliefs

cognitive dissonance-The uncomfortable state that occurs when behavior and attitudes do not match and that
can be resolved through attitude change
compliance-Agreement with a request from a person with no perceived authority

conformity-Matching behavior and appearance to perceived social norms

correspondence bias-The tendency to view behavior as the result of disposition, even when the behavior can be
explained by the situation in which it occurs
deindividuation-Immersion of an individual within a group, leading to anonymity

discrimination-A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli. (b) Unfair behavior based on stereotyping and
prejudice
dispositional attribution-
A judgment assigning the cause of a person’s behavior to personal qualities or characteristics.
door-in-the-face-A persuasive technique in which compliance with a target request is preceded by a large,
unreasonable request.
elaboration likelihood model (ELM)- A model that predicts responses to persuasive messages by distinguishing
between the central and the peripheral route to persuasion
foot-in-the-door- A persuasive technique in which compliance with a small request is followed by compliance
with a larger request that might otherwise have been rejected
group polarization-The intensifying of an attitude following discussion

groupthink-A type of flawed decision making in which a group does not question its decisions critically

just-world belief-The assumption that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people

low-balling-Making further requests of a person who has already committed to a course of action

mere exposure effect-A situation in which repeated exposure increases liking

obedience-Compliance with a request from an authority figure

persuasion-A change in attitude in response to information provided by another person

prejudice-A prejudgment, usually negative, of another person on the basis of membership in a group

self-serving bias-Attributing success to dispositional factors while attributing failure to situational factors

situational attribution- A judgment assigning the cause of a person’s behavior to the environment.

social facilitation-A situation in which the presence of other people changes performance

social loafing-Reduced motivation and effort shown by individuals working in a group

social norms-Usually unwritten or unspoken rules for behavior in social settings

stereotypes-A simplified set of traits associated with membership in a group or category

Chapter 16

alarm reaction- The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), characterized by sympathetic arousal
and mental clarity
biopsychosocial model-A model that sees health as the result of biological, psychological, and social factors

cortisol-A hormone released into the bloodstream from the adrenal glands

emotion-focused coping-A combination of arousal, physical sensations, and subjective feelings that occurs
spontaneously in response to environmental stimuli
exhaustion-The third and last stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), characterized by depletion of
physical and psychological resources
flow-A state characterized by complete absorption in a current activity, such as work, problem solving, or
creativity
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)- Hans Selye’s three-stage model for an organism’s response to stressors

health psychology-A branch of psychology that investigates the relationships between psychological variables
and health
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis-A circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the
release of cortisol into the bloodstream.
immune system-The body system that defends against infection and cancer

lymphocytes- White blood cells that are products of the immune system

optimism-Thinking positively about the future

positive psychology-An approach to psychology that emphasizes normal behavior and human strengths

problem-focused coping-A response to stress designed to address specific problems by finding solutions

relationship-focused coping-A response to stress designed to maintain and protect social relationships

resilience-The ability to adapt to life’s challenges in positive ways

resistance-(a) A psychoanalytic technique in which the patient’s reluctance to accept the interpretations of the
therapist indicate that the interpretations are correct. (b) The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome
(GAS), characterized by coping with ongoing stress
stress-An unpleasant emotional state that results from the perception of danger

stressor-A stimulus that serves as a source of stress

sympathetic adrenal–medullary (SAM) system-A circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the
release of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream.
tend and befriend-An alternative to fight or flight as a response to stressors, characterized by soothing and
building social connections, which is possibly more characteristic of females
Type A personalities-A competitive, workaholic, and in some cases hostile personality type

Type B personalities-A mellow, laid-back personality type

Chapter 16

abnormal psychology-The study of psychological disorders.

agoraphobia-Unrealistic fear of open spaces, being outside the home alone, or being in a crowd

antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)- A disorder characterized by an unusual lack of remorse, empathy, or
regard for normal social rules and conventions
anxiety disorders-A disorder featuring anxiety that is not proportional to a person’s circumstances.
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)- A disorder characterized by either unusual inattentiveness,
hyperactivity with impulsivity, or both.
autism spectrum disorder-A disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills
that are often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behavior
bipolar disorder-A disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills that are
often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behavior
body dysmorphic disorder-A disorder characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self- image, and
emotion
borderline personality disorder (BPD)- A disorder characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships,
self- image, and emotion
comorbid-Two or more disorders in the same individual

compulsions-Repetitive, ritualistic behavior associated with high anxiety.

delusions-A false, illogical belief.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)- A system for classification of psychological
disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association.
diathesis–stress model-A model that suggests that the experience of stress interacts with an individual’s
biological predisposition to produce a psychological disorder
dissociative disorders-A disorder characterized by disruptions in a person’s identity, memory, or consciousness

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)- A disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and worry that is not
correlated with particular objects or situations
hallucinations-A false perception

learned helplessness-A state in which experiencing random or uncontrolled consequences leads to feelings of
helplessness and possibly depression
major depressive disorder (MDD)- A disorder characterized by lengthy periods of depressed mood, loss of
pleasure in normal activities, disturbances in sleep and appetite, difficulty concentrating, feelings of
hopelessness, and possible thoughts of suicide.
mania-A period of unrealistically elevated mood.

narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)- A disorder characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and low
empathy
obsessions-An intrusive, distressing thought.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)- A disorder associated with intrusive obsessions and compulsions

panic attack-The experience of intense fear and autonomic arousal in the absence of real threat

panic disorder-A disorder characterized by repeated panic attacks and fear of future attacks.

personality disorder-A disorder characterized by impairments in identity, in personality traits, and in

establishment of empathy or intimacy
posttraumatic -stress disorder (PTSD)- A disorder caused by the experience of trauma, which leads to
flashbacks, dreams, hypervigilance, and avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event
schizophrenia-A disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought and speech, disorders
of movement, restricted affect, and avolition or asociality.
social anxiety disorder-A disorder characterized by an unrealistic fear of being scrutinized and criticized by
others
somatic symptom disorder-A disorder characterized by physical symptoms that do not have an underlying
medical cause
specific phobias-Fears of objects other than those associated with agoraphobia or social anxiety disorder