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Engineering noise control theory and practice 3rd ed
Edition Hansen Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Hansen, Colin H.; Bies, David A
ISBN(s): 9780415267144, 0415267145
Edition: 3rd ed
File Details: PDF, 8.47 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
 Engineering Noise Control
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Understanding Active Noise Cancellation

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Fundamentals of Noise and Vibration

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Active Control of Noise and Vibration

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Engineering Noise Control
Theory and Practice

David A.Bies and Colin H.Hansen

University of Adelaide, Australia

LONDON AND NEW YORK

 First published 1988 by E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall
Second edition 1996
Third edition 2003 by Spon Press 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Spon Press 29 West 35th Street, New York,
NY 10001

Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis
or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to
http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/.”
© 1988, 1996, 2003 David A.Bies and Colin H.Hansen
Printer’s Note
This book was prepared from camera-ready-copy supplied by the authors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.
Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this book is true and
accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the publisher nor the authors can accept
any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. In the case of
drug administration, any medical procedure or the use of technical equipment mentioned within
this book, you are strongly advised to consult the manufacturer’s guidelines.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Bies, David A., 1925– Engineering noise
control: theory and practice/David A.Bies and Colin H.Hansen—3rd ed. p. cm. Includes
bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-415-26713-7 (hbk.)—ISBN 0-415-26714-5 (pbk.) 1.
Noise control. I. Hansen, Colin H., 1951– II. Title. TD892.B54 2003 620.2′3–dc21 2003040191

ISBN 0-203-11665-8 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-16330-3 (Adobe e-Reader Format)

ISBN 0-415-26714-5 (Print Edition)
 Contents

Preface vi
Acknowledgements ix

CHAPTER ONE Fundamentals and basic terminology 1

CHAPTER TWO The human ear 54
CHAPTER THREE Instrumentation for noise measurement and 92
analysis
CHAPTER FOUR Criteria 123
CHAPTER FIVE Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 174
CHAPTER SIX Sound power, its use and measurement 247
CHAPTER SEVEN Sound in enclosed spaces 276
CHAPTER EIGHT Partitions, enclosures and barriers 340
CHAPTER NINE Muffling devices 411
CHAPTER TEN Vibration control 479
CHAPTERELEVEN Sound power and sound pressure level estimation 516
procedures
CHAPTER TWELVE Active noise control 578
CHAPTERTHIRTEEN Survey of analytical techniques for the estimation 604
of sound power levels

APPENDIX A Wave equation derivation 610

APPENDIX B Properties of materials 617
APPENDIX C Acoustical properties of porous materials 619
APPENDIX D Frequency analysis 638
References 656
List of acoustical standards 670
Glossary of symbols 690
Index 714
 Preface

Although this third edition follows the same basic style and format as the first and second
editions, the content has been considerably updated and expanded, partly in response to
significant advances in the practice of acoustics and in the associated technology during
the seven years since the second edition and partly in response to improvements,
suggestions and queries raised by various practitioners and students. The emphasis is still
on passive means of noise control but as in the second edition, the book contains a
chapter giving specific consideration to active noise control. This particular chapter has
also been considerably updated and modified since the second edition.
Chapter 1 includes new material discussing practical approaches to noise control and
an expanded discussion of noise control strategies. The section on the speed of sound has
been expanded to include the effect of the compliance of containing boundaries on the
longitudinal wave speed in contained fluids and the discussion of wavelength and
frequency is now better illustrated. A section illustrating how two or more waves of the
same frequency travelling in the same or opposite directions may be combined, thus
leading to the introduction of the concepts of plane and spherical standing waves. A new
section on energy density has been added, the discussion on octave and 1/3 octave band
analysis has been expanded to include the derivation of the band widths and centre
frequencies and the section beating has been expanded to include a mathematical
derivation of the phenomenon for combining waves of slightly different frequency and of
similar or very different amplitudes to produce heavily or lightly modulated beating.
The description of the ear in Chapter 2 has benefited from recent advances in the
understanding of that amazing mechanism. In particular, the roles of the inner and outer
hair cells as well as the efferent and afferent nerve systems have been clarified, as has the
phenomenon of wave propagation and wave stalling on the basilar membrane. Both the
“un-damping” phenomenon and the “half-octave shift” phenomenon are explained with
reference to physical and mathematical models. In addition, the discussion of masking
has been extended and equal loudness contours for octave bands of noise have been
added.
In Chapter 3, the discussion on sound level meters (including taking measurements in
windy conditions) and noise dosimeters has been updated. A section on the measurement
of energy density has been included and the newly developed transducers that directly
measure particle velocity have been introduced.
Chapter 4 has included in it considerable new material defining the various measures
that are used around the world in various standards to quantify noise. A section on how to
implement a hearing conservation program has been included. The discussion of impact
noise dose assessment has been expanded the section on community noise assessment has
been updated to reflect current standards and regulations. The Speech Interference Level
is now properly defined and the discussion of speech interference has been expanded.
Two new sets of noise rating curves (NCB and RNC) have been added and the
calculation of the RC rating of a noise has been clarified. Where appropriate, formulae
have been included that are used to plot the curves.
In Chapter 5, the discussion of the sound power radiated as a result of a force acting
on a vibrating sphere has been extended to include a sphere of finite size. The discussion
of the sound pressure generated by a line source now includes a finite coherent line
source. The discussion of sound propagation outdoors now includes the procedures
described in the most recent ISO standard and includes the estimation of the barrier
effects of trees and buildings in the presence of wind and temperature gradients. A
discussion of shadow zones resulting from wind gradients or negative temperature
gradients and how they may be quantified is also now included as is a discussion of the
interaction between the various excess attenuation effects in outdoor sound propagation.
Chapter 6 is much the same except that references to recent international and ANSI
standards have now been added.
In Chapter 7, the table of absorption coefficients has been revised and checked, two
more equations for calculating reverberation times (Fitzroy and Neubauer) have been
included, the analytical calculation of radiation efficiency for a panel has been updated
and corrected, Noise Reduction Index is now defined, and a large section has been added
on auditorium acoustics.
Chapter 8 has been considerably updated and expanded. A section has been added on
the calculation of the longitudinal wave speed in panel constructions consisting of two
different materials bonded together, the discussion of critical frequency and coincidence
has been expanded, and the discussion on STC has been expanded to include the
calculation of Sound Reduction Index, Impact Insulation Class and Outdoor-Indoor
Transmission Class. In calculating TL, the Davies method for both single and double
panels has been corrected and updated, the Sharp method for double panel walls has been
corrected, the discussion of the effect of staggered studs and panel damping is now
considered explicitly, sandwich panels are now discussed, double and triple glazing has
been included and the table of transmission loss values for common materials has been
updated. In the discussion of enclosures, values of the constant, C, for enclosure internal
conditions has been adjusted to more accurately reflect actual practice. In the barrier
discussion, recent work on analytical representations of the barrier IL curves is presented,
with corrections to account for the wave type and the proximity of the source and
receiver to the barrier. Double barriers are now also included and the ISO standard
approach to barrier insertion loss estimation is discussed in detail.
In Chapter 9, the discussion of orifice impedance has been expanded and revised, with
full inclusion of acoustic resistance and the flow Mach number in all expressions. Both
the end correction and the impedance expressions for perforated plates and single, open
and closed tubes now include the effects of grazing or through flow (open tubes only). An
expression for the impedance of perforated plates, which includes the mass of the solid
part has also been provided. This new expression has been used to provide a more
accurate estimate of the effective mass provided by a perforated sheet used in a duct liner
or dissipative muffler. Expressions for the quality factor of Helmholtz resonators and
quarter-wave tubes are now provided and the design of resonator mufflers is also
discussed. The design procedure for small engine exhausts has been revised and design
curves for dissipative mufflers have been extended to include more commonly used
configurations. The sections on duct break-out noise, attenuation resulting from water
injection and exhaust stack directivity have been thoroughly revised and expanded.
A number of significant improvements and additions have been made to Chapter 10.
These include revision of the discussion on 4-isolator systems, the addition of a section
on two-stage vibration isolation, the expansion of the discussion of Equation (10.20) and
its parameters, the expansion of the discussion on vibration absorbers to include
equations needed for comprehensive analysis and an expansion of the discussion on
constrained layer damping and the effect of mass loading of accelerometers on
lightweight structures.
In Chapter 11 the treatment of noise radiated by control valves for both gas and liquid
flow has again been updated and now includes a more reliable prediction scheme based
on the IEC standard. In addition, the section on transformer noise prediction has been
revised and new sections on the prediction of noise from motor vehicles, trains and
aircraft have been added.
Chapter 12 on active noise control has been revised to reflect the considerable
advances made in recent years in this field.
Appendix A, which used to contain example problems, has been replaced with a
simple derivation of the wave equation and a comprehensive selection of example
problems tailored especially for the book are now available on the internet for no charge
at: http://www.mecheng.adelaide.edu.au/anvc/chansen/enc_problems.pdf
Appendix B has been updated and expanded and Appendices C, D and E from the 2nd
edition have been integrated and revised and labelled as Appendix C. Appendix F from
the 2nd edition is now Appendix D.
 Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all of those who took the time to offer constructive
criticisms of the first and second editions, our graduate students and the many final year
mechanical engineering students at the University of Adelaide who have used the first
and second editions as texts in their engineering acoustics course.
The second author would like to express his deep appreciation to his family,
particularly his wife Susan and daughters Kristy and Laura for the patience and support
which was freely given during the three years of nights and weekends that were needed to
complete this edition. In addition, the second author would like to thank his daughter
Kristy for her help with drawing many of the figures in the book.
This book is dedicated to Carrie, to Susan, to Kristy and to Laura.
 CHAPTER ONE
Fundamentals and Basic Terminology

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this chapter the reader is introduced to:

• fundamentals and basic terminology of noise control;
• noise-control strategies for new and existing facilities;
• the most effective noise-control solutions;
• the wave equation;
• plane and spherical waves;
• sound intensity;
• units of measurement;
• the concept of sound level;
• frequency analysis and sound spectra;
• adding and subtracting sound levels;
• three kinds of impedance; and
• flow resistance.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The recognition of noise as a source of annoyance began in antiquity, but the relationship,
sometimes subtle, that may exist between noise and money seems to be a development of
more recent times. For example, the manager of a large wind tunnel once told one of the
authors that in the evening he liked to hear, from the back porch of his home, the steady
hum of his machine 2 km away, for to him the hum meant money. However, to his
neighbours it meant only annoyance and he eventually had to do without his evening
pleasure.
The conflicts of interest associated with noise that arise from the staging of rock
concerts and motor races, or from the operation of airports, are well known. In such cases
the relationship between noise and money is not at all subtle. Clearly, as noise may be the
desired end or an inconsequential by-product of the desired end for one group, and the
bane of another, a need for its control exists. Each group can have what it wants only to
the extent that control is possible.
The recognition of noise as a serious health hazard is a development of modern times.
With modern industry has come noise-induced deafness; amplified music also takes its
toll. While amplified music may give pleasure to many, the excessive noise of much
modern industry probably gives pleasure to very few, or none at all. However, the
relationship between noise and money still exists and cannot be ignored. If paying
people, through compensation payments, to go deaf is little more expensive than
 Engineering noise control 2

implementing industrial noise control, then the incentive definitely exists to do nothing,
and hope that decision is not questioned.
A common noise control implementation often takes the form of a barrier.
Unfortunately, controls that take the form of barriers are generally expensive and they
seriously add to immediate costs. The benefits, way off in the future, are only realized
when compensation payments are no longer necessary. From a purely economic point of
view, barrier control is certainly not the optimal answer.
When noise control involves understanding the noise-producing mechanism and
changing it to produce a quieter process, as opposed to the use of a barrier for control, the
unit cost per decibel reduction is of the order of one-tenth of the latter cost. Clearly, the
best controls are those implemented in the original design. It has also been found that
when noise control is considered in the initial design of a new machine, other advantages
manifest themselves, resulting in a better machine overall. These unexpected advantages
then provide the economic incentive for implementation, and noise control becomes an
incidental benefit. Unfortunately, in most industries engineers are seldom in the position
of being able to make fundamental design changes to noisy equipment. They must often
make do with what they are supplied, and learn to apply effective “add-on” noise-control
technology. Such “add-on” measures often prove cumbersome in use and experience has
shown that quite often “add-on” controls are quietly sabotaged by employees who
experience little benefit and find them an impediment to their work.
In the following text, the chapters have been arranged to follow a natural progression,
leading the reader from the basic fundamentals of acoustics through to advanced methods
of noise control. However, each chapter has been written to stand alone, so that those
with some training in noise control or acoustics can use the text as a ready reference. The
emphasis is upon sufficient precision of noise-control design to provide effectiveness at
minimum cost, and means of anticipating and avoiding possible noise problems in new
facilities.
Simplification has been avoided so as not to obscure the basic physics of a problem
and possibly mislead the reader. Where simplifications are necessary, their consequences
are brought to the reader’s attention. Discussion of complex problems has also not been
avoided for the sake of simplicity of presentation. Where the discussion is complex, as
with diffraction around buildings or with ground-plane reflection, results of calculations,
which are sufficient for engineering estimates, are provided. In many cases, procedures
are also provided to enable serious readers to carry out the calculations for themselves.
In writing the equations that appear throughout the text, a consistent set of symbols is
used: these symbols are defined in the glossary of symbols at the end of the text. Where
convenient, the equations are expressed in dimensionless form; otherwise SI units are
implied.
To apply noise-control technology successfully, it is necessary to have a basic
understanding of the physical principles of acoustics and how these may be applied to the
reduction of excessive noise. Chapter 1 has been written with the aim of providing the
basic principles of acoustics in sufficient detail to enable the reader to understand the
applications in the rest of the book.
Chapter 2 is concerned with the ear, as it is the ear and the way that it responds to
sound, which generally determines the need for noise control and criteria for acceptable
minimum levels. The aim of Chapter 2 is to aid in understanding criteria for acceptability,
 Fundamentals and basic terminology 3

which are the subject of Chapter 4. Chapter 3 is devoted to instrumentation, data

collection and data reduction. In summary, Chapters 1 to 4 have been written with the
aim of providing the reader with the means to quantify a noise problem.
Chapter 5 has been written with the aim of providing the reader with the basis for
identifying noise sources and estimating noise levels in the surrounding environment,
while Chapter 6 provides the means for rank ordering sources in terms of emitted sound
power. It is to be noted that the content of Chapters 5 and 6 may be used in either a
predictive mode for new proposed facilities or products or in an analytical mode for
analysis of existing facilities or products to identify and rank order noise sources.
Chapter 7 concerns sound in enclosed spaces and provides means for designing
acoustic treatments and for determining their effectiveness. Chapter 8 includes methods
for calculating the sound transmission loss of partitions and the design of enclosures,
while Chapter 9 is concerned with the design of dissipative and reactive mufflers.
Chapter 10 is about vibration isolation and control, and also gives attention to the
problem of determining when vibration damping will be effective in the control of
emitted noise and when it will be ineffective. The reader’s attention is drawn to the fact
that less vibration does not necessarily mean less noise, especially since vibration
damping is generally expensive.
Chapter 11 provides means for the prediction of noise radiated by many common
noise sources and is largely empirical, but is generally guided by considerations such as
those of Chapter 5.
Chapter 12 shows that noise reduction is possible using active control sources to
provide local areas of reduced noise at the expense of areas of increased noise level (local
cancellation); to alter the impedance presented to an unwanted sound source so that its
sound power output is reduced (global control); or to reflect or absorb incident sound.
The basis for understanding the discussion of active noise control begins in Chapter 5 and
continues in Chapters 6 and 9.
Chapter 13 provides a summary of advanced techniques for the prediction of noise
levels in enclosed spaces.

1.2 NOISE-CONTROL STRATEGIES

Possible strategies for noise control are always more numerous for new facilities and
products than for existing facilities and products. Consequently, it is always more cost
effective to implement noise control at the design stage than to wait for complaints about
a finished facility or product.
In existing facilities, controls may be required in response to specific complaints from
within the work place or from the surrounding community, and excessive noise levels
may be quantified by suitable measurements. In proposed new facilities, possible
complaints must be anticipated, and expected excessive noise levels must be estimated by
some procedure. Often it is not possible to eliminate unwanted noise entirely and more
often to do so is very expensive; thus minimum acceptable levels of noise must be
formulated, and these levels constitute the criteria for acceptability.
Criteria for acceptability are generally established with reference to appropriate
regulations for the work place and community. In addition, for community noise it is
 Engineering noise control 4

advisable that at worst, any facility should not increase background (or ambient) noise
levels in a community by more than 5 dB(A) over existing levels without the facility,
irrespective of what local regulations may allow. Note that this 5 dB(A) increase applies
to broadband noise and that clearly distinguishable tones (single frequencies) are less
acceptable.
When dealing with community complaints (predicted or observed) it is wise to be
conservative; that is, to aim for adequate control for the worst case, noting that
community noise levels may vary greatly (±10 dB) about the mean as a result of
atmospheric conditions (wind and temperature gradients and turbulence). It is worth
careful note that complainants tend to be more conscious of a noise after making a
complaint and thus subconsciously tend to listen for it. Thus, even after considerable
noise reduction may have been achieved and regulations satisfied, complaints may
continue. Clearly, it is better to avoid complaints in the first place and thus yet another
argument supporting the assertion of cost effectiveness in the design stage is provided.
In both existing and proposed new facilities and products an important part of the
process will be to identify noise sources and to rank order them in terms of contributions
to excessive noise. When the requirements for noise control have been quantified, and
sources identified and ranked, it is possible to consider various options for control and
finally to determine the cost effectiveness of the various options. As was mentioned
earlier, the cost of enclosing a noise source is generally much greater than modifying the
source or process producing the noise. Thus an argument, based upon cost effectiveness,
is provided for extending the process of source identification to specific sources on a
particular item of equipment and rank ordering these contributions to the limits of
practicality.
Community noise level predictions and calculations of the effects of noise control are
generally carried out in octave frequency bands. Current models for prediction are not
sufficiently accurate to allow finer frequency resolution and less fine frequency
resolution does not allow proper account of frequency-dependent effects. Generally,
octave band analysis provides a satisfactory compromise between too much and too little
detail. Where greater spectrum detail is required, one-third octave band analysis is often
sufficient.
If complaints arise from the work place, then regulations should be satisfied, but to
minimize hearing damage compensation claims, the goal of any noise-control program
should be to reach a level of no more than 85 dB(A). Criteria for other situations in the
work place are discussed in Chapter 4. Measurements and calculations are generally
carried out in standardized octave or one-third octave bands, but particular care must be
given to the identification of any tones that may be present, as these must be treated
separately.
More details on noise control measures can be found in the remainder of this text and
also in ISO 11690/2 (1996).
Any noise problem may be described in terms of a sound source, a transmission path
and a receiver, and noise control may take the form of altering any one or all of these
elements. When considered in terms of cost effectiveness and acceptability, experience
puts modification of the source well ahead of either modification of the transmission path
or the receiver. On the other hand, in existing facilities the last two may be the only
feasible options.
 Fundamentals and basic terminology 5

1.2.1 Sound Source Modification

Modification of the energy source to reduce the noise generated often provides the best
means of noise control. For example, where impacts are involved, as in punch presses,
any reduction of the peak impact force (even at the expense of the force acting over a
longer time period) will dramatically reduce the noise generated. Generally, when a
choice between various mechanical processes is possible to accomplish a given task, the
best choice, from the point of view of minimum noise, will be the process that minimizes
the time rate of change of force or jerk (time rate of change of acceleration).
Alternatively, when the process is aerodynamic a similar principle applies; that is, the
process that minimizes pressure gradients will produce minimum noise. In general,
whether a process is mechanical or fluid mechanical, minimum rate of change of force is
associated with minimum noise.
Mechanical shock between solids should be minimized; for example, impact noise
may be generated by parts falling into metal bins and the height that the parts fall could
be reduced by using an adjustable height collector (see Figure 1.1a) or the collector could
be lined with conveyor belt material. Alternatively the collector could have rubber flaps
installed to break the fall of the parts (see Figure 1.1b).
The control of noise at its source may involve maintenance, substitution of materials,
substitution of equipment or parts of equipment, specification of quiet equipment,
substitution of processes, substitution of mechanical power generation and transmission
equipment, change of work methods, reduction of vibration of large structures such as
plates, beams, etc. or reduction of noise resulting from fluid flow.
Maintenance includes balancing moving parts, replacement or adjustment of worn or
loose parts, modifying parts to prevent rattles and ringing, lubrication of moving parts
and use of properly shaped and sharpened cutting tools.
Substitution of materials includes replacing metal with plastic, a good example being
the replacement of steel sprockets in chain drives with sprockets made from flexible
polyamide plastics.
Substitution of equipment includes use of electric tools rather than pneumatic tools
(e.g. hand tools), use of stepped dies rather than single-operation dies, use of rotating
shears rather than square shears, use of hydraulic rather than mechanical presses, use of
presses rather than hammers and use of belt conveyors rather than roller conveyors.
 Engineering noise control 6

Figure 1.1 Impact noise reduction: (a)

variable height collector; (b)
interrupted fall.
Substitution of parts of equipment includes modification of gear teeth, by replacing spur
gears with helical gears—generally resulting in 10 dB of noise reduction, replacement of
straight edged cutters with spiral cutters (for example, in wood working machines a 10
dB(A) reduction may be achieved), replacement of gear drives with belt drives,
replacement of metal gears with plastic gears (beware of additional maintenance
problems) and replacement of steel or solid wheels with pneumatic tyres.
Substitution of processes includes using mechanical ejectors rather than pneumatic
ejectors, hot rather than cold working, pressing rather than rolling or forging, welding or
squeeze rivetting rather than impact rivetting, use of cutting fluid in machining processes,
changing from impact action (e.g. hammering a metal bar) to progressive pressure action
(e.g. bending a metal bar with pliers), replacement of circular saw blades with damped
blades and replacement of mechanical limit stops with micro-switches.
Substitution of mechanical power generation and transmission equipment includes use
of electric motors rather than internal combustion engines or gas turbines, or the use of
belts or hydraulic power transmissions rather than gear boxes.
 Fundamentals and basic terminology 7

Change of work methods includes replacing ball machines with selective demolition in
building demolition, replacing pneumatic tools by changing manufacturing methods, such
as moulding holes in concrete rather than cutting after production of the concrete
component, use of remote control of noisy equipment such as pneumatic tools, separating
noisy workers in time, but keeping noisy operations in the same area, separating noisy
operations from non-noisy processes. Changing work methods may also involve selecting
the slowest machine speed appropriate for a job (selecting large, slow machines rather
than smaller, faster ones), minimizing the width of tools in contact with the workpiece (2
dB(A) reduction for each halving of tool width) and minimizing protruding parts of
cutting tools.
Reductions of noise resulting from the resonant vibration of structures (plates, beams,
etc.) may be achieved by ensuring that machine rotational speeds do not coincide with
resonance frequencies of the supporting structure, and if they do, in some cases it is
possible to change the stiffness or mass of the supporting structure to change its
resonance frequencies (increasing stiffness increases resonance frequencies and
increasing the mass reduces resonance frequencies). In large structures, such as a roof or
ceiling, attempts to change low order resonance frequencies by adding mass or stiffness
may not be practical.
Another means for reducing sound radiation due to structural vibration involves
reducing the acoustic radiation efficiency of the vibrating surface. Examples are the
replacement of a solid panel or machine guard with a woven mesh or perforated panel or
the use of narrower belt drives. Damping a panel can be effective (see Section 10.6) if it
is excited mechanically, but note that if the panel is excited by an acoustic field, damping
will have little or no effect upon its sound radiation. Blocking the transmission of
vibration along a noise radiating structure by the placement of a heavy mass on the
structure close to the original source of the noise can also be effective.
Reduction of noise resulting from fluid flow may involve providing machines with
adequate cooling fins so that noisy fans are no longer needed, using centrifugal rather
than propeller fans, locating fans in smooth, undisturbed air flow, using fan blades
designed using computational fluid dynamics software to minimize turbulence, using
large low speed fans rather than smaller faster ones, minimizing the velocity of fluid flow
and maximizing the cross-section of fluid streams. Fluid flow noise reduction may also
involve reducing the pressure drop across any one component in a fluid flow system,
minimizing fluid turbulence where possible (e.g. avoiding obstructions in the flow),
choosing quiet pumps in hydraulic systems, choosing quiet nozzles for compressed air
systems (see Figure 11.3), isolating pipes carrying the fluid from support structures, using
flexible connectors in pipe systems to control energy travelling in the fluid as well as the
pipe wall and using flexible fabric sections in low pressure air ducts (near the noise
source such as a fan).
Another form of source control is to provide machines with adequate cooling fins so
that noisy fans are no longer needed. In hydraulic systems the choice of pumps, and in
compressed air systems the choice of nozzles, is important.
Other alternatives include minimizing the number of noisy machines running at any
one time, relocating noisy equipment to less sensitive areas or if community noise is a
problem, avoiding running noisy machines at night.
 Engineering noise control 8

1.2.2 Control of the Transmission Path

In considering control of the noise path from the source to the receiver some or all of the
following treatments need to be considered: barriers (single walls), partial enclosures or
full equipment enclosures, local enclosures for noisy components on a machine, reactive
or dissipative mufflers (the former for low frequency noise or small exhausts, the latter
for high frequencies or large diameter exhaust outlets), lined ducts or lined plenum
chambers for air-handling systems, vibration isolation of machines from noise-radiating
structures, vibration absorbers and dampers, active noise control and the addition of
sound-absorbing material to reverberant spaces to reduce reflected noise fields.

1.2.3 Modification of the Receiver

In some cases, when all else fails, it may be necessary to apply noise control to the
receiver of the excessive noise. This type of control may involve use of ear-muffs, ear-
plugs or other forms of hearing protection; the enclosure of personnel if this is practical;
moving personnel further from the noise sources; rotating personnel to reduce noise
exposure time; and education and emphasis on public relations for both in-plant and
community noise problems.
Clearly, in the context of treatment of the noise receiver, the latter action is all that
would be effective for a community noise problem, although sometimes it may be less
expensive to purchase complainants’ houses, even at prices well above market value.

1.2.4 Existing Facilities

In existing facilities or products, quantification of the noise problem requires
identification of the noise source or sources, determination of the transmission paths from
the sources to the receivers, rank ordering of the various contributors to the problem and
finally determination of acceptable solutions.
To begin, noise levels must be determined at potentially sensitive locations or at
locations from which the complaints arise. For community noise, these measurements
may not be straightforward, as such noise may be strongly affected by variable weather
conditions and measurements over a representative time period may be required. This is
usually done using remote data logging equipment in addition to periodic manual
measurements.
The next step is to apply acceptable noise level criteria to each location and thus
determine the required noise reductions, generally as a function of octave or one-third
octave frequency bands (see Section 1.8). Noise level criteria are usually set by
regulations and appropriate standards.
Next, the transmission paths by which the noise reaches the place of complaint are
determined. For some cases this step is often obvious. However, cases may occasionally
arise when this step may present some difficulty, but it may be very important in helping
to identify the source of a complaint.
Having identified the possible transmission paths, the next step is to identify
(understand) the noise generation mechanism or mechanisms, as noise control at the
source always gives the best solution. Where the problem is one of occupational noise,
this task is often straightforward. However, where the problem originates from
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 16. Our rifles are our best friends. We keep them clean, well oiled,
and in readiness for instant use. Our bayonets we have with us at all
times ready to be placed on the rifle. We protect our rifle
ammunition from the mud, as we realize that muddy cartridges will
clog the breech mechanism and cause mal-function.
17. We are taking every precaution to prevent "trench feet;" when
practicable we take off our shoes and rub our feet for 15 minutes
each day. We do not wear tight shoes and leggings that tend to
interfere with blood circulation. We each have a pair of dry socks to
put on. We do not wear rubber boots except when it is absolutely
necessary.
18. We observe the orders regarding the wearing of equipment.
19. We do not drink any water except that from authorized
sources. We replenish our canteens whenever practicable.
In addition to the above the platoon commander must be able to
adopt the following and· live up to them:
1. My sentries are posted in the proper places. They are posted by
noncommissioned officers. They have the proper orders. No man is
ever on duty more than one hour at a time. I visit them at frequent
intervals.
2. I have a runner ready to carry a message to company
headquarters. I realize that any information of the enemy that I may
secure may be of great importance at regimental and other
headquarters. I will therefore send it back with the utmost dispatch.
3. I am familiar with the methods of communicating with the
artillery, of giving them information and of asking them for support.
4. My patrols operating to the front at night have been properly
instructed and are doing their duty effectively. All sentries in the
trench have been notified when they are out and cautioned to look
out for their return.
 5. I have given complete and detailed instruction covering what to
do in case of gas attacks and the sending out of the S. O. S. signal. I
have gas and attack messages already prepared and ready to send
after inserting the time and place in them.
6. I know the name of every man in my platoon and they all know
me.
7. I am here to inflict as much damage as possible on the enemy
and to hold my part of the line. I will do it!
 CHAPTER XI
The Attack in Trench Warfare
The objectives which must be dealt with in the
Objectives
attack of an intrenched position such as will be
found on the western front are:
1. The trenches of the first line.
2. The supporting points.
3. The trenches of the second line.
By a study of the text preceding this you must realize that in the
defense of these objectives there will be employed artillery, rifles,
grenades and machine guns.
The first phase of the attack is the artillery
Artillery
preparation. In order that the infantry may make
Preparation
the attack with a minimum of losses, the artillery
must have destroyed the wire entanglements and obstacles that
obstruct the advance, or at least have sufficiently breached them to
permit their being negotiated. The destruction of these obstacles is
never complete. It would require too great an expenditure of
ammunition. The infantry occupying the hostile trenches must be
simply overwhelmed with artillery fire so that they will be unable to
man the parapets when the assault is launched. During the artillery
preparation the hostile infantry does not occupy their firing positions
in the trenches but remain in their dugouts, which are fully protected
from all but the heaviest shells. Only a few observers are left in the
trenches.
 When the bombardment against this particular part of the line
ceases the infantry leave their dugouts and man the firing positions.
To prevent this is one of the most important as well as most difficult
tasks of the artillery. This may be effected by a well-directed fire on
the exits to the dugouts with a view to caving them in and thus
preventing the egress of the occupants The enemy may sometimes
be induced to leave his shelter prematurely by the following ruse:
1. Cease the artillery fire.
2. Open a heavy rifle fire; this causes the enemy to believe that
the assault has begun and he will man his parapets in strength.
3. After waiting for several minutes open the artillery again with
even increased vigor.
The hostile infantry may be forced out of his dugouts by the use
of shells and grenades containing suffocating gases which penetrate
the shelters and make them untenable.
The artillery is also charged with putting the enemy's artillery out
of action to prevent them from firing upon the attacking infantry.
If the enemy artillery is left free, it will shell our trenches and
approaches, causing casualties and confusion and thus interfering
with the formation for the attack. The location of hostile batteries is
effected by aerial reconnaissance.
Another task of the artillery is to prevent the hostile reserves from
coming up to reinforce their firing lines. These reserves will be
located back in the second line until their presence is required at the
front. As long as the artillery preparation continues they remain in
the shelters, but as soon as it ceases they man the trenches. The
artillery must therefore extend its fire to the second line and
continue it while the first line is being rushed. Back of the second
position the enemy holds strong reserves. The entrance of these into
action must be prevented. This is accomplished by extending the
curtain of fire still further to the rear. The supporting points must
receive a lion's share of attention for, bristling with machine guns
and trench mortars, they are the really dangerous elements to the
infantry attack after it passes the first line trenches.
The weapon which inflicts the greatest losses on the assaulting
infantry is the machine gun, which appears suddenly out of the
ground and lays low whole units. By a careful reconnaissance these
machine-gun positions are ferreted out and every possible means
are taken to effect their destruction.
The effectiveness of the artillery preparation depends simply upon
superiority of guns and munitions. In this respect we now possess a
great advantage, for the state of our munition supply is such that
our artillery may fire several shells to one of the enemy. This is what
established the superiority.
The organization of the attacking infantry
Organization of
corresponds in a general way to the organization
Infantry Attack
of the position being attacked. A first line of
assault is organized. Its mission is the capture of the enemy's first
line trenches. A second line follows, having for its mission the assault
and capture of the second line trenches. A separate organization of
these two lines is necessary for the reason that the first attacking
line is generally so disorganized in the fighting that it no longer
possesses the cohesion necessary to carry it through to the second
line. It has been found necessary to launch a comparatively fresh
and intact force against it.
As the first position is organized into several separate lines of
defense, so also is the first attacking line organized and launched in
two or more waves, those in rear being in the nature of
reinforcements to those in front.
Each unit of the attacking line is assigned a
Objectives
distinct objective. Certain units are given the
mission of attacking the supporting points to prevent their enfilading
the units advancing through the intervals between them.
 The main efforts are made along the lines between the supporting
points, as to assault the latter would entail a casualty list not
commensurate with the results. The effort against them is made
with a view to neutralizing their effect. If the attack is successful in
the intervals, the supporting points will fall as a result.
The waves of the first line are directed against the first position,
the second against the second position. The reserves held under the
orders of the division commander are employed where the
development of the situation dictates.
Further to the rear, and under orders of the supreme commander,
large bodies of reinforcements are held ready to be moved rapidly to
points where progress has been made to such an extent that
maneuver operations are practicable.
Preparatory to the assault, numerous saps
Preparation for
(trenches) are run out to the front from the main
the Assault
firing trenches. The night before the attack, a
parallel is broken out connecting the sap heads. This parallel is
amply supplied with short ladders and is occupied by the companies
composing the first wave of the attack. The saps and the main
trenches are also filled with men assigned to the following waves,
who will move into the parallel as soon as the first wave leaves it. As
the artillery preparation ceases, the first waves rush up the ladders
in succession and move out to the assault.
As the artillery preparation against the first line
The First Wave
is completed and the curtain of fire shifted far into
the enemy's position, the infantry of the first wave emerges from the
parallel and moves out. The formation and gait depend upon the
distance to the hostile trench. If the artillery preparation has been
effective and the distance is not more than 100 yards, it is expected
that the wave will be able to reach the fire trench without firing,
except possibly when the wire is reached. If the distance is much
greater than 100 yards, it is necessary to cover the advance with
rifle fire. This is accomplished by a line of skirmishers deployed at
extended intervals, which precedes the wave at about 50 yards. The
wave starts out at a walk, carefully aligned. It afterwards takes up
the double time and advances by rushes until the wire
entanglements are reached.
From this moment the period of the charge and individual combat
begins. The men can no longer be kept from firing. Each tries to
protect himself with his rifle. Each man locates his opening in the
wire through which he is to go and makes for it. The line reforms on
the other side. With rifles at the high charge (a position to our old
head parry, but slanting slightly upward from right to left) the line
rushes upon the enemy. Each man runs straight towards the part of
the trench in front of him and jumps upon the parapet. By rifle shots
and bayonet thrusts he destroys everything in his way. Men selected
in advance take charge of the prisoners. The line is reformed, lying
down just beyond the fire trench, and fire is opened against the
second line. Men are positively forbidden to enter the
communication trenches. They are most inviting for cover, but a man
rarely gets out of them.
The grenadier squad proceed to their work of clearing the fire and
communication trenches.
The second wave of the first line starts forward
The Second
at the moment the first wave reaches the hostile
Wave
trenches. If it starts sooner, it will unite with the
first at the entanglement and become involved in the fight for the
fire trench. It will be broken up prematurely and will be unable to
take advantage of the developments of the fight of the first wave.
The reinforcement by the second wave and the disorganization
produced by the assault lead to a mixture of units in the trenches of
the first position. Before starting out to the assault of the next
trench it is necessary that order be restored. When this is
accomplished the attack is launched against the second line. In front
of the supporting points the combat rages. The men are barely able
to hold on the outer edges. In the interval the advance has reached
high tide and has expanded like a wave and stopped. This is the
limit that can be expected of the first line.
Hasty cover is prepared and advantage taken of such cover as
may exist. All elements of the attack open fire on the second
position.
Under the cover of these operations the second
The Second Line
line has come up in a series of three lines, where
it is built up compact at the position of the stopped first line. From
this point its attack against the enemy's second line is launched. The
lines are worked up to a point from which the assault is to be made,
and when the time comes the first wave dashes out to the attack,
followed by the second wave in the same manner as the assault
against the first position was made.
The action of the two lines of attack may be expected to
overwhelm the greater part of the two main hostile positions. At
certain points, however, the resistance will hold out, and, if not
overcome, will constitute points of support to which the enemy may
bring up reinforcements and even turn the tide of battle by a
counter attack.
To deal with these points that hold out, as well as with hostile
reinforcements which may arrive, the reserve is launched into action,
which brings the attack into the open ground beyond the second line
of defense, and maneuver operations are begun. The mobile units
are rapidly thrown into action, and large forces from the general
reserve are hurried to the point where the lines of defense are
broken through.
From what has gone before we may deduce that the following
conditions must prevail to attain success in an attack on a prepared
position:
1. The attack must be planned down to the most minute detail.
 2. There must be a greatly superior force of artillery concentrated
at the point of attack, and the artillery preparation must be
thorough.
3. The infantry must be sufficient in number, training and morale
to perform the tasks that will he demanded of them.
4. The arrangements for the supply of ammunition to the firing
line must be planned and carried out in all its details.
5. Plans for meeting counter attacks must be thorough and
complete. The capture of a position is often less difficult than its
retention.
6. Finally, every officer and man must know exactly what he is to
do.

Scouting and Patrolling

By

Capt. W. H. WALDRON
29th Infantry

Cloth Bound—Fits the Pocket

3d EDITION
 Price, 50 cents postpaid

The best, most complete and practical treatment of the subject

that has been produced.
What To Do and How To Do It
Just the book needed for the instruction of the enlisted men of
your organization.
Every soldier in the Army should have a copy and know its
contents.
Endorsed by Leading Officers of the Army

Published and for sale by

The United States Infantry Association
Union Trust Building
Washington, D. C.

Comment from Leading Officers of the Army

"I have a copy of 'Scouting and Patrolling' and wish every other
person in the military service had one. You have presented an
interesting and very important subject in a very convenient, readable
form and in its logical sequence. I commend the book to all soldiers.
They will benefit by a careful study of its contents."
"The most complete and valuable treatise on scout and patrol
work that has been published. The small size and shape of the little
volume make it a convenient pocket reference book suitable for field
work."
"It covers the duties that will fall to the lot of the soldier in time of
war better than any work heretofore published. I predict that every
company commander in the Army will eventually use it as a text-
book in the instruction of his organization."
"Your book is excellent. I am amazed at the great amount of
information you have concentrated in such a small volume. I shall
certainly recommend it to the captains of my regiment as a book for
instruction in noncommissioned officers' schools. I feel that I should
congratulate you on it as an American text-book on the subject that
is far superior to any of the foreign publications."
"I find it be to an excellent work on the subject. It is thorough and
to the point. Its size, extremely small cost and valuable contents
ought to recommend it to every soldier in the Army."
"I cordially endorse it as being wonderfully comprehensive and
comprehensible in covering the subject."
"I am impressed with its simplicity and completeness. It is a most
valuable book for the noncommissioned officer and private."
"The book is thoroughly practical and the arrangement admirable.
It is certainly the best book on the subject that I have ever seen."

A few extracts from numerous book reviews

"Devoid of technicalities and written in an interesting and
understandable style. It is a most instructive book. With unessentials
eliminated, it gives a store of information in language that any man
can understand."
"It covers a wide and difficult ground. The dozen chapters of the
little book not only instruct the soldier thoroughly in the duties of
reconnaissance but place at his convenient disposal a valuable store
of information as to military messages, signaling, map reading,
reconnaissance reports, first-aid and kindred subjects."
"It covers very concisely every feature of this most important
branch of military training: it is entertainingly written and generously
illustrated throughout."

Tactical Talks
By Capt. W. H. Waldron, 29th Infantry
To the Reader:
The up-to-date method of instruction and training in Minor Tactics
is this:
1. Prepare a tactical problem covering the subject under
consideration.
2. Take the noncommissioned officers out on a TACTICAL WALK
and make a solution of the various situations.
3. Follow this by taking the company out on a tactical exercise for
the solving of the identical problem that you solved in the TACTICAL
WALK.
This method will bring results that will surprise you. In the Tactical
Walk, tactical situations are presented to the noncommissioned
officers for practical solution on the ground and they are firmly
impressed on the minds of the men. When the same problem is
brought up for solution with the troops you will see your
noncommissioned officers going about their various tasks in a
business-like manner with a knowledge of what to do and how to do
it, that they have never had before. This inspires the confidence of
the men in their noncommissioned officers and as a result the entire
organization is lifted to a much higher "tactical level" than they have
been able to attain heretofore.
TACTICAL WALKS is an entirely original work. It was written with a
view to inaugurating this system of instruction and training
throughout the Army. The subjects included are:
Outposts, reconnoitering patrols, visiting patrols, advance guards,
flank guards, detached posts, organization of a small defensive
position. The largest unit considered is a company and that only
incidentally. The main element is the platoon and patrol.
For each walk a tactical problem has been prepared in blank. This
can be adapted to any terrain that is available.
Following the problem there are a number of tactical situations
such as one would encounter in actual service.
The discussions and explanations cover every phase of the subject
under consideration in a purely practical manner.
A practical solution is then arrived at and set forth.
At the end of the solution to each situation there is inserted a
Director's Key, which gives the complete synopsis of what has gone
before.
Every officer in the Army should have a copy. It will save a lot of
time preparing for the conduct of Tactical Walks. Every
noncommissioned officer should have a copy and study its contents.
By so doing he prepares himself for the duties that he will be called
upon to perform in the field.
ORDER YOUR COPY TODAY.
The price is $1.50 per copy, postage paid.
Copies of the book may be had from any one of the agencies
enumerated on page v of this book.
W. H. Waldron,
Captain, Twenty-ninth Infantry.

Transcriber's Note:
The original spelling, hyphenation, and
punctuation have been retained, with the
exception of apparent typographical errors
which have been corrected.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines
were retained.
Punctuation and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant form was
found in this book; otherwise they were not
changed.
Mid-paragraph illustrations have been
moved between paragraphs and some
illustrations have been moved closer to the
text that references them. The list of
Illustrations paginations were changed
accordingly.
Other corrections:
p. 13: Frustrom → frustum (… a
frustum of a cone….)
p. 75: dorm → form (The form is then
raised….)
p. 78: staple → stable (… make a
stable, compact pile….)
p. 109: Plate 40a re-numbered to 41e.
p. 116: Plate 41a re-numbered to 41f.
p. 120: Plate 41 re-numbered to 42.
p. 126: machacoulis → machicoulis
(Machicoulis gallery in background.)
p. 127: he → be (Loopholes should be
screened….)
p. 155: he → be (… tasks that will be
demanded of them.)
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF
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