Applied GPS

for Engineers and

Project Managers
 Other Titles of Interest

Application of GIS Technologies in Port Facilities and Operations Management,

edited by Neal Wright, Jaewan Yoon (ASCE Committee Report, 2007). Discusses
the recent advances in GIS technologies for the management of complex port and
harbor infrastructure. (ISBN 978-0-7844-0869-8)

Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation, Second Edition, by Tim

Davis (ASCE Press, 2008). Contains an in-depth field manual for soil technicians
and geotechnical engineers for use during the investigation, grading, and con-
struction phases of geotechnical projects. (ISBN 978-0-7844-0949-7)

GIS Tools for Water, Wastewater, and Stormwater Systems, by Uzair M. Shamsi
(ASCE Press, 2002). Presents a step-by-step approach covering GIS application
case studies, examples, and costs associated with hardware, software, data conver-
sion, and implementation. (ISBN 978-0-7844-0573-4)

Principles of Applied Civil Engineering Design, by Ying-Kit Choi (ASCE Press,

2004). Details the guidelines, principles, and philosophy needed to produce
design documents for heavy civil engineering projects. (ISBN 978-0-7844-0712-7)

Urban Planning and Development Applications of GIS, edited by Saed Easa, Yupo
Chan (ASCE Committee Report, 2000). Provides the most current findings on
applications of geographic information systems (GIS) applications and also con-
veys practical planning and development information. (ISBN 978-0-7844-0461-4)
 Applied GPS
for Engineers and
Project Managers

Clement A. Ogaja, Ph.D., L.S.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ogaja, Clement A.
Applied GPS for engineers and project managers / Clement A. Ogaja.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7844-1150-6
1. Civil engineering. 2. Construction projects—Management. 3. Global Positioning System.
I. Title.
TA190.O34 2011
624—dc23
2011022356

Published by American Society of Civil Engineers

1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191
www.asce.org/pubs

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Image of Navstar-2F satellite is courtesy of U.S. Air Force. On front cover, photographs are courtesy
of Oleksandr Prykhodko/Big Stock Photo (bridge), Sascha Burkard/Big Stock Photo (container ship),
wallyir/MorgueFile (excavator), and Juha Sompinmäki/Big Stock Photo (containers and cranes). On
back cover, photograph of GPS receiver is by Clement A. Ogaja.

Copyright © 2011 by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

All Rights Reserved.
ISBN 978-0-7844-1150-6
Manufactured in the United States of America.

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 12345
 I lift my eyes to the Maker
Of the mountains I cannot climb,
To my Parents for their teachings and bringing me into this earth,
To a researcher who fortified a belief in myself: Chris Rizos,
To engineers for their efforts to improve quality of life
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

PART 1: BASICS OF GPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
GPS: The System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Why Use GPS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
What Does a GPS Measurement System Entail? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
GPS Receiver Types and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2. GPS Positioning and Measurement Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Positioning and Measuring Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Satellite Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
GPS Receiver Position Measurement Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Ranging Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Antenna Phase Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Error Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3. Improving Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Positioning and Data Processing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4. Low-Cost GPS Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Navigational GPS Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Differential GPS (DGPS) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
DGPS Networks and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

5. High-Precision GPS Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Achieving High-Precision GPS Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Network RTK and CORS Networks Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

vii
viii APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

PART 2: APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING AND MEGAPROJECTS . . . 99

6. Utilizing GPS in Engineering and Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Considerations for Using GPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Considerations for Selecting a GPS Receiver or System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Planning and Installing a GPS Measurement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Developing a GPS Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Understanding the Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

7. Application Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Structural Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Robotics and Machine Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Maritime Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Material Tracking in Large Construction Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Site Control and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Geohazards Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Miniaturized GPS Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Integrations and Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

8. The Future of GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

GPS Modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
GNSS Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Market Trends and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Appendix 1. Overview of Civilian GPS Receiver Classification . . . . . . . . . . 163

Appendix 2. Why GPS Carrier Signals Are in the L-Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Appendix 3. Calculation of Satellite Position from Ephemeris Data . . . . . . 169
Appendix 4. Calculation of Point Position from Pseudoranges . . . . . . . . . . 171
Appendix 5. GPS Data Differencing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Appendix 6. Datum Transformations and Map Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
 Preface

Global positioning systems (GPS) technology is an indispensable tool in every

sector of the world economy. Although it is primarily a military system, GPS users
have developed the technology capable of meeting requirements for countless
numbers of civilian applications. In the field of engineering, many successful
projects have utilized GPS to overcome challenges. Although many GPS-related
research projects have been done in the past, to my knowledge this book is the
first to examine the subject of GPS application to engineering and project man-
agement. The book is aimed at researchers, students, instructors, engineers, and
project managers who have an interest in understanding how GPS technology
works in the context of engineering and project management.
Consider a project in which a local firm is interested in tracking the thou-
sands of steel brackets they use to ship glass material to customers across the
entire state of California. The brackets are for temporary use in the shipping
process, and the customers are expected to return them in a timely manner. The
firm is a local distributor for glass materials manufactured in China. On a yearly
basis they ship glass to more than half a million customers at construction sites
spread across the entire state. The firm is experiencing repeated loss of thousands
of their steel brackets due to, for instance, customers shipping them back to the
wrong distributors. Part of the problem is that when the material is shipped to
customers, some of the steel brackets sit in their warehouses for weeks, months,
or years. The firm is now thinking of tracking the steel brackets to determine their
whereabouts at any given time. As part of the project, the firm is interested in
being able to remotely display, on a digital map, the location of every steel bracket
that leaves its local distributing center.
One day, while pondering this problem, a colleague mentions to the manager
how GPS was used in a project addressing material loss and theft at a construction
site. According to the colleague, GPS was inexpensive, easy to use, and provided
very accurate results. GPS seems perfect for this project, so the manager decides
to sample information from a few GPS vendors. If several small GPS receivers are
bought and carefully installed onto or inside the steel bracket frames, the man-
ager thinks, they could be used to obtain coordinates for the location of every steel
bracket dispatched to a customer. A concealed GPS tracking system would be

ix
x APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

perfect, but the manager soon discovers that only the GPS processing engine can
be concealed inside objects—a GPS antenna must be exposed to receive signals
from satellites. Additionally, the manager discovers that although GPS signals can
pass through glass, unaided GPS cannot work inside buildings, tunnels, or under-
ground. Given these problems, the manager is told, it may not be possible to deter-
mine the location of the steel brackets at all times. It is doubtful whether GPS alone
can solve the problem.
The above scenario, while fictional, is loosely based on the elements of actual
projects. It serves to illustrate the potential benefits as well as weaknesses of GPS.
This book is written to help users maximize those benefits while avoiding the pit-
falls. GPS is a deceptively simple technology: the receiver can be as small as a cell
phone, can cost less than $100, and can provide coordinates that are accurate to
within 10 m with the press of a few buttons. Or they can be robust, cost thousands
of dollars, and provide coordinates to within centimeters or even millimeters. As
with any tool used in projects, there must be careful planning and wise considera-
tions to avoid wasting money and effort.
One of the purposes of this book is to provide guidance to engineers and proj-
ect managers who wish to incorporate GPS into their projects or research, regard-
less of their past experience with the technology. While there is not a one-size-
fits-all approach to using GPS, certain key concepts and methods are common to
any project. Using GPS in a project requires more than just getting a GPS
receiver, turning it on, and pushing a few buttons. Decisions must be made about
the level of accuracy required to address the project or research problem. For
example, is 1-cm accuracy needed or is 1-m accuracy sufficient? How will the data
be collected and analyzed or displayed? Is a 10-Hz data logging rate needed or is
1-Hz sufficient? These are just some of the questions to be addressed in an engi-
neering perspective. The answer will influence the types of receivers purchased,
the data collection and management approach, as well as the GPS error correc-
tion methods applied. There is great value in asking these questions and impor-
tant lessons to take away from this book.
The book has eight chapters divided into two distinct parts: Part I—Basics of
GPS and Part II—Applications in Engineering and Megaprojects. Part I consists of the
first five chapters, describing the basics of GPS technology. Part II presents some
application examples of GPS in engineering and megaprojects. The topics are
designed to address the technology in an engineering context, describing:

• The basics of how GPS works and what the technology offers to engineers and
project managers
• Basic positioning and measuring principles
• Strategies and methods used to improve the measurement accuracy
• Low-cost GPS systems and existing infrastructure
• High-precision GPS systems and existing infrastructure
• GPS sensor technology, opportunities, and challenges
• Considerations in developing a GPS application
• Application examples in engineering and megaprojects
PREFACE xi

• The future aspects of GPS technology in light of emerging similar technolo-

gies and systems worldwide.

While many of the illustrations were prepared by the author, many others have
been used with permission from various copyright holders. I would like to acknowl-
edge the original authors of such artwork. On the same note, I especially thank the
following individuals whose artworks were freely available for reproduction: Joseph
Priestner of LandMarker Geospatial, Oscar L. Colombo of the University of Mary-
land and the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Sharon Kedar of the NASA Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Dr. Tracy L. Kijewski-Correa of the University of Notre
Dame, and Yehuda Bock of the Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center
(SOPAC). The following institutions are also acknowledged for some of the illus-
trations and photographs: U.S. Air Force, UNAVCO, National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Administration (NOAA), European Space Agency (ESA), Inside GNSS maga-
zine, u-blox, Trimble Navigation, Leica Geosystems, and Garmin.
I sincerely thank the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) for publish-
ing this book, and Betsy Kulamer of ASCE Press for overseeing all the editorial
and technical reviews. The comments from reviewers improved both the proposal
and the manuscript. To my wife Julie, daughter Alicia, and son Joshua, thank you
for your support in this endeavor.
Lastly, it is important to note that the inclusion by name of a company or a
product is not an endorsement by the author. In principle, such inclusions are
necessary at times because some items have specific characteristics that help to
explain the topic being addressed.
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 PART 1

Basics of GPS
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 1

Introduction

GPS: The System

In order to incorporate global positioning systems (GPS) into a project, it is

important to understand the workings of the system. Even though GPS receivers
are usually quite simple to operate, there is much going on behind the scenes. A
basic understanding of how the system works, the individual components, and
how they interact to calculate a position can be very valuable.
A position is generally described in terms of coordinates in one-dimensional
(1-D), two-dimensional (2-D), or three-dimensional (3-D) space. For instance, the
common Cartesian coordinate system nomenclature for 3-D is X-Y-Z.
The essence of calculating a position is to be able to answer the question
“Where am I?” People have always been on the move and are always looking for a
better way to get to where they are going. A traveler without a map is just a wan-
derer but, even with a map, where landmarks are scarce—on plains, in deserts, on
oceans, in space—the traveler needs a means of navigation, a method for deter-
mining position, course, and distance.
History is marked by incremental improvements in mapping and navigation.
With each improvement, people have traveled farther, faster, and with greater con-
fidence. The pace of improvement in transportation and navigation accelerated
exponentially during the last century. We have left footprints on the moon and we
have landed robotic explorers on Mars. We make routine missions into space, and
the presence of satellites orbiting around the Earth has become part of our every-
day reality. One of the more remarkable benefits of our ability to send satellites
into orbit is a new power to navigate with incredible precision. This new naviga-
tional ability is due to GPS, a system developed by the U.S. Department of Defense.
GPS was originally designed to provide navigation information for ships and
planes, but with advances in miniaturization and integrated circuits, GPS receivers
have become more economical and more widely applied. Today, GPS technology
is installed in many cars, boats, and small planes as well as on construction and
farm equipment. Portable, handheld GPS receivers have become widely accessible
and are making all kinds of work more efficient, and helping to ensure the safety
of people who work outdoors.

3
4 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

History
GPS, officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging
Global Positioning System), is managed by the NAVSTAR GPS Joint Program
Office at the Air Force Materiel Command’s Space and Missile Systems Center at
Los Angeles Air Force Base, California. The GPS satellite network is operated by
the U.S. Air Force to provide highly accurate navigation information to military
forces around the world, although 90% of worldwide GPS users are civilian users,
with a growing number of commercial products. Since the first launch in 1978,
there have been four generations of GPS satellites:

• Block I satellites (1978–1985) were used to test the principles of the system,
and lessons learned from the first 11 satellites were incorporated into later
blocks.
• Block II and IIA satellites (1989–1997) made up the first fully operational
constellation and majority of them are still in operation, exceeding their
design life.
• Block IIR satellites (1997–2007) were deployed as replenishment as the Block
II/IIA satellites reached their end-of-life and were being retired. Block IIR-M
satellites (2005–2008) carried some new and different signals augmenting the
older signals.
• Block IIF satellites (2010–2012) are the fourth-generation satellites and will
be used for operations and maintenance (O&M) replenishment.
• Block III satellites are planned to be the fifth-generation satellites, with
capacities beyond those of Block IIF satellites.

The very first satellites, the Block I (1978–1985) satellites, were retired in late
1995. Block II satellites were launched in 1989 and, although the expected mean
mission duration (MMD) was 10.6 years, it is remarkable that the majority of them
were operating in orbit and still healthy as of 2010. There are also upgraded Block
II satellites, known as Block IIA, the first of which was launched in 1990. Block
IIA satellites can function continuously for 6 months without intervention from
the Control Segment (described in “Control Segment” below), but the broadcast
ephemeris and clock correction would degrade if that were done.
Like Block I satellites, Block II satellites were equipped with rubidium and
cesium frequency standards. The next generation of satellites after Block II satel-
lites were the Block IIR satellites (the R is for replenishment). The first of these
was launched in 1997 and the launches continued through 2007 (Figs. 1-1 and 1-2).
There are some notable differences between Block II and Block IIR satellites. For
instance, Block IIR satellites can determine their own position using intersatellite
crosslink ranging called AutoNav. They have onboard processors to do their own
fixes in flight, and the Control Segment can change their flight software while in
orbit. Furthermore, Block IIR satellites can be moved into new orbits with a 60-day
advance notice. Block IIR-M satellites brought significant improvements, with
some new and different signals that augmented the older reliable signals. The first
INTRODUCTION 5

Figure 1-1. GPS NAVSTAR satellites.

Courtesy U.S. Air Force (2010).

Block IIR-M satellite was launched in 2005. These satellites had increased L-band
power on both L1 and L2 and also broadcast new signals such as L2C and M-code.
The fourth-generation satellites, Block IIF (the F is for follow-on), are planned to
have an expected lifetime of 12 to 15 years with faster processors and more mem-
ory onboard. They will carry two rubidium frequency standards and one cesium.
Like Block IIR satellites, they can be reprogrammed while in orbit. They will give
civilians direct access to three separate signals: C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code on
L1, L2C on L2, and L5 code on L5. Block III satellites will have the capabilities of
Block IIF and beyond. For example, they will include an enhanced new civilian
code L1C, carried on the L1 frequency. Information about the current GPS con-
stellation can be found at the website of the United States Naval Observatory
(USNO) at http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gpscurr.html.

Three Components of GPS

The GPS system is made up of three components: the space segment—the satel-
lites orbiting the Earth; the control segment—the infrastructure monitoring and
operating the satellites; and the user segment—all users of the GPS signals broad-
cast by the spaceborne satellites. Figure 1-3 illustrates how these individual com-
ponents interact to enable the users to calculate their position anywhere on Earth
or in space.
Space Segment
The space segment is a network of spaceborne satellites orbiting the Earth in
equally spaced, predictable orbits at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km
(12,550 mi.). Orbits at this altitude are referred to as MEOs—medium Earth orbits.
In comparison, geostationary satellites orbit the Earth at much higher altitudes,
about twice that of GPS satellites.
6 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 1-2. Lifting toward space aboard a Delta II rocket, the fourth
modernized GPS IIR-17(M) satellite blasts off from Cape Canaveral, October 17,
2007. The satellite joined the constellation of 30 operational GPS satellites
on-orbit providing global coverage and increased overall performance of the
GPS services to users worldwide.
Courtesy U.S. Air Force.
INTRODUCTION 7

Figure 1-3. Three components of the GPS system.

The constellation of GPS orbits (Fig. 1-4) was designed so that at least four
satellites are visible anywhere on Earth at any time. Each satellite broadcasts radio
signals that receivers can use to calculate a position. Information on satellite
health, satellite position, and data that can be used to determine the satellite time
are all transmitted via these signals.
The satellites orbit the Earth at a speed of 3.9 km/sec (2.4 mi./sec) and have a
circulation time of 12 h sidereal time, corresponding to 11 hours 58 min. Earth
(solar) time. This means that the same satellite reaches a certain position about
4 min. earlier each day.
The satellites are arranged on six orbital planes, each of them containing at
least four slots where satellites can be arranged equidistantly. The inclination
angle of the planes toward the equator is 55 deg and the planes are rotated in the
equatorial plane by 60 deg against each other. Typically, more than 24 satellites
orbit the Earth, improving the availability of the system.
Control Segment
The integrity of the GPS system relies on the satellites precisely maintaining their
orbit. It is imperative that the satellite positions in space be monitored. This is the
responsibility of the Master Control Station (MCS) in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
8 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 1-4. The GPS satellite constellation consists of satellites orbiting

20,200 km (12,550 mi.) above the Earth in orbital planes designed to keep at
least four satellites above the horizon anywhere on the planet.

The MCS and 10 additional “passive” monitoring stations around the world mon-
itor the position of the satellites in their orbits, the health of each satellite, and
the signals they transmit. With this arrangement, every satellite can be seen from
at least two monitor stations. In the near future, more stations will be added so
that every satellite can be seen by at least three monitor stations. This allows the
calculation of precise orbits and ephemeris data. The MCS is operated by the U.S.
Air Force 24 hours a day to ensure the system functions properly.
The passive monitor stations track all satellites in their respective ranges and
collect data of the satellite signals. The raw data are sent to the MCS where they
are processed, and new information about orbits, ephemeris, and the satellite
clocks are calculated. Personnel at the MCS upload new time and orbital data to
INTRODUCTION 9

each satellite on a regular basis. Once or twice a day these data and other commands
are sent back to the satellites via the transmitting antennas on Ascension Island
(in the south Atlantic, off the coast of Africa), Diego Garcia (in the central Indian
Ocean), or Kwajalein (in the mid-Pacific) by means of an S-band signal (S-band:
2,000–4,000 MHz). Included in the transmission is an almanac, which contains
satellite orbital positions, satellite status, clock corrections, and atmospheric delay
parameters. Also included in the uploaded information are ephemeris data, which
contain the predicted positions of satellites. The almanac and ephemeris data
reduce the signal error by resetting the errors in time and position that have gradu-
ally accumulated since the last update.
The ephemeris information is uploaded to the satellite in a compact format
using Keplerian elements (Fig. 1-5). This simplifies the process of predicting the
satellite orbits. For instance, given time information and the Keplerian elements
for any satellite, its time-dependent positions can be predicted in an X-Y-Z coordi-
nate format (refer to Appendix 3). Knowing these time-dependent X-Y-Z positions
of every satellite is an important part of calculating a position for the user located
anywhere on Earth or in space.
User Segment
The third segment is made up of the users of the GPS signals. Anywhere on Earth
or in space, a GPS receiver calculates its position by solving a set of equations
based on the distance between it and three or more satellites (Fig. 1-6). This

Figure 1-5. Keplerian elements for predicting the satellite position in space.
These elements (for each satellite) are contained in the ephemeris which are
part of the uplink and downlink data as shown in Fig. 1-3. X, Y, Z are the
satellite Cartesian coordinates and the rest of the symbols are defined in
Appendix 3.
10 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 1-6. The GPS user segment includes all users interested in
calculating their positions using the broadcast GPS signals.

calculation is known as trilateration, a centuries-old surveying technique literally

taken to new heights. Location is determined by measuring the travel time of
radio signals from the available satellites. Reference to at least three satellites is
required for accurate horizontal location, and to at least four for accurate hori-
zontal and vertical location. The more satellites that are used for the calculation,
the more accurately a location can be pinpointed. More precise determination of
position and added integrity can be achieved by using additional signals from
regional ground-based and satellite-based augmentation systems (GBAS and
SBAS, respectively). The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) of the U.S.
Federal Aviation Administration is an SBAS example. These and other methods
for improving accuracy as required in high-precision engineering will be discussed
in later chapters of the book.
In addition to engineers, the aviation, transportation, and agriculture indus-
tries, mass-market consumers, the public service sector, and many others rely on
the system. Irrespective of the application, all GPS users apply the ephemeris and
almanacs transmitted by the satellites to derive new information: time, position,
and/or velocity. This information allows users to answer such basic questions as
“Where am I?” and “What time is it?” with a level of accuracy unthinkable prior to
GPS. This has led to some innovative uses of GPS.
INTRODUCTION 11

How It Works
Given the complicated and expensive technology involved, the principles behind
the GPS system are amazingly simple. The basic principle relies on the equation
Distance  Speed  Time. By knowing how fast something is traveling and how long
it takes to travel, the distance traveled can be calculated. In the case of GPS, the
object being timed from the satellite in space to the user is a radio signal, which
travels at the speed of light. The process is called ranging; by receiving multiple
radio signals from multiple satellites, it’s then only a matter of geometry—
trilateration is used to determine the exact position of the user.
Consider, for instance, that you can measure how far away a lightning strike is
by counting the seconds between seeing the flash and hearing the boom, and multi-
plying by the speed of light to obtain the distance. The instant of the lighting flash
is when the sound waves started. But for GPS, how can we know when the timing
signal set off? The solution is to include with the radio signal exact information on
the instant when the signal was transmitted. Time of receipt minus time of arrival
then enables the distance to be easily calculated (see details in Chapter 2, “Ranging
Methods”). The locations of the satellites are known extremely precisely (to cen-
timeter accuracy) and the receivers have a built-in almanac that contains the theo-
retical positions of each satellite. Corrections to these positions are also transmitted
by each satellite so that the absolute receiver positions can be precisely calculated.

Perfect Timing
The satellites and receivers have clocks installed that are designed to be in syn-
chronization for the perfect timing of the radio signals. However, each satellite has
atomic clocks (four of them for redundancy) whereas receivers have ordinary
clocks; otherwise they would cost more than US$200,000 apiece. How then do we
know that the satellite and receiver are actually on the same time? At the speed of
light, it takes about 0.07 sec for the GPS signal to arrive at the receiver, and an
error of 0.01 sec leads to an error of 2,993 km (1,860 mi.)!
Timing errors mean incorrect ranges, which lead to an incorrect receiver posi-
tion. To illustrate this, here is a simplified description of calculating a position. If
we are lost and we know that we are 4 sec away from one of the satellites, we are
somewhere on a circle the center of which is the satellite and the radius is 4 sec
(Fig. 1-7a). If we also know that we are 6 sec from another satellite, we can narrow
down where we must be—at one of two points where the circles intersect. If we also
know that we are 3 sec away from a third satellite, our situation improves
immensely—the only place we can be is the point at which all three circles inter-
sect (Fig. 1-7b). But this is only possible if both the satellite and receiver clocks are
correct and perfectly synchronized. This is not always the case! Each satellite con-
tains atomic clocks accurate to within a nanosecond, and the receiver contains ordi-
nary clocks that are consistently accurate over relatively short periods of time, as
long as they are reset often.
If the receiver clock is off by, for example, 1 sec, incorrect ranges from incor-
rect timing would not intersect at a single point (Fig. 1-8). The receiver position is
12 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 1-7. A measurement from one satellite puts you somewhere on a

circle whose center is the satellite position. (a) Two measurements reduce
your possible locations to two points where two circles intersect. (b) Three
measurements determine a single location.

only known to within a region of intersection. The receiver logic assumes, then,
that because the ranges do not intersect, the receiver’s clock must be out of syn-
chronization. To resolve this problem, the clock offset is adjusted until all the
satellite ranges converge at a single location (Fig. 1-8b).
The problem is solved by adding a fourth range to the measurement, as shown
in Fig. 1-9. The receiver runs a simple routine to adjust the clock until all four
ranges intersect at the same point. This is known as correcting clock bias and it is
INTRODUCTION 13

Figure 1-8. (a) Incorrect ranges due to incorrect timing will not intersect at
a single point. (b) Removing the receiver clock bias enables the three circles
to converge on a single point.

how the receiver resets its clock. This process occurs when your receiver has just
been activated and is initializing. A least-squares routine is applied to the four
measured ranges to solve for four parameters (three receiver coordinates and the
clock bias), leading to a better estimate of the receiver position. However, as will
be explained in Chapter 2, a variety of potential sources of errors can result in
the position being off by tens of meters or more.
14 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 1-9. GPS receiver position is determined from multiple range

measurements. Four satellites are needed to determine X, Y, Z, and receiver
clock bias.

Relativistic Effects
Another important element in the timing of the signals are the “special” and “gen-
eral” relativistic effects on satellite clocks: Due to orbital speed and weaker gravity
around the GPS satellites, their clocks appear to run faster than the clocks in GPS
receivers. Fortunately, these effects can be accurately computed and corrected
before the satellite launch.
The GPS satellites are travelling at an orbital velocity of 3.9 km/sec. Although
very small compared to the speed of light, this is sufficient to make the time dila-
tion (resulting from the relative speed with respect to the observer) very signifi-
cant in timing the signal. This results in the “slowing down” of satellite clocks at
the rate of 7 ␮s/day, according to the Special Theory of Relativity (i.e., the “special”
relativistic effect).
Secondly, the altitude of the satellites means that the atomic clocks experi-
ence a different gravitational field than a clock on the Earth’s surface. As a result,
the satellite clocks run faster than the Earth-bound clocks (45 ␮s/day), according
to the General Theory of Relativity.
The net result of the opposing effects of “special” and “general” corrections
is that the clocks on the satellites need to be offset before launch. Without the
relativistic corrections, GPS range measurements would be in error by a massive
38 ␮s/day, equivalent to a 10-km/day range error. Therefore, to ensure that the
clocks will actually achieve a fundamental frequency of 10.23 MHz in space, their
frequency is set a bit slow before launch, to 10.22999999545 MHz.
INTRODUCTION 15

The engineers who originally designed the GPS system included these rela-
tivistic effects when they designed and deployed the system. The frequencies of
the atomic clocks were slowed down before they were launched so that once they
were in their proper orbits their clocks would appear to run at the correct rate as
compared to the clocks at the GPS ground stations. Furthermore, each GPS
receiver has a built-in microcomputer that (among other things) performs the
necessary relativistic calculations when determining the user’s location.

Why Use GPS?

What Engineers Do
Engineers use math and science to design new artifacts and technologies that may
be used to solve practical problems. For instance, the U.S. Department of Defense
created the GPS system to help in worldwide navigation. They followed an engi-
neering design process that has eight basic steps:

1. Identify the need or problem.

2. Research the need or problem.
3. Develop possible solutions.
4. Select the best possible solution(s).
5. Construct a prototype.
6. Test and evaluate the solution.
7. Communicate the solution.
8. Redesign to improve your original design.

The American Engineers’ Council for Professional Development [ECPD, the

predecessor of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)]
has defined “engineering” as:

The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop struc-

tures, machines, apparatus, processes, or works utilizing them singly or in
combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of
their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating condi-
tions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and
safety to life and property. (ECPD 1947)

This definition includes engineers functioning as project managers. They operate

(manage) their works or solutions with full cognizance of the design with respect
to an intended function, the economics of operation, and safety to life and prop-
erty. They forecast the behavior of systems or artifacts and test and evaluate solu-
tions so they can improve their original design for better performance. Engineers
have many specializations and a variety of functions:

• Engineers design structures, machines, devices, and processes for automation.

For example, they design robotics and machinery used in precision farming.
16 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

• Engineers assist in the planning, design, implementation, operation, and

maintenance of processes or works such as in large construction sites.
• Engineers assess the performance of their design (e.g., of civil structures such as
buildings, bridges, dams, roads, airports) under specific operating conditions.
• Engineers design power transmission for systems and processes, electric
equipment or motors, aircraft, and lighting in buildings.
• Engineers measure land, location of phenomena, and property boundaries
for urban design and land development.
• Engineers find solutions for environmental problems such as air and water
pollution, global warming, severe weather, and seismic hazards.
• Engineers manage complex projects, systems, processes, and platforms ensur-
ing safety and efficiency, such as ship navigation at large ports and harbors.
• As managers, engineers are also social scientists, dealing with human interac-
tions and behavior; they make observations and measurements of features, pat-
terns, and events by individuals. They design and track efficient movement of
people and material in large industrial complexes and construction sites.

These are just a few examples from the entire spectrum of what engineers do.
As an engineer, you perform services in your area of competence, and you may
find that your professional duties fall in one or more of these specific examples.

What GPS Provides

GPS is a valuable resource for recording unique locations of people, phenomena,
and objects of interest, in a 3-D reference frame. It is a much more time- and cost-
efficient means of recording positional data compared to alternative methods
such as traditional surveying. Even more important is the fact that the GPS sys-
tem is built around very stable atomic clocks, adding a fourth dimension to the
measurements—time. It can be used for precise timing applications in addition to
providing point location data. The system is globally accessible and all GPS sig-
nals are in the L-band of the frequency spectrum.
The true benefit of GPS is in being able to provide 3-D position, velocity, and
time in a common global reference system, anywhere on or near the surface of the
Earth, on a continuous basis. Because L-band waves penetrate clouds, fog, rain,
and storms, GPS units can receive data in any local weather conditions. However,
in certain circumstances GPS units may not receive signals accurately, for example,
inside concrete buildings or walls, in some mountainous regions, or under espe-
cially heavy vegetation or forest canopies. Accuracy may also be affected by charac-
teristics of both the satellite and the receiver. Despite this, the overall reliability of
GPS is remarkably good.
Although the technology has been fully operational only since early 1990s, it
has continuously become more popular, accessible, and affordable, allowing engi-
neers to more easily incorporate it into their work. As an important tool for cap-
turing location coordinates, it is widely used in mapping, site control and design,
robotics, and machine control. Large-scale projects utilize GPS to measure the
INTRODUCTION 17

vibrations, twist, sway, and deflections of built structures, using those data to
improve knowledge for better design. GPS seismometers can measure high-rate
positional data (50 Hz) without requiring double integration, a process commonly
used in acceleration and displacement transducers. The field of transportation
studies has eagerly adopted GPS for many applications, from locating features of
road networks and improving general reference maps, to inventorying and repair-
ing road damage, to examining accident causes. Using the technology, project
managers can locate and track materials and people, route cargo and large ocean
liners, and navigate ships through intricate waterways.
It is a relatively easy technology to use and is also cost-effective. However, the
ease of use of this technology can be deceptive. Without adequate planning and
training, the data collection efforts could result in data containing unusable posi-
tional coordinates. Many factors must be considered when applying GPS to a par-
ticular project, and these will be discussed in more detail in later chapters.
The method by which a position is located is simple, but the manner in which
the GPS functions is complex. It is vitally important that users understand how
GPS functions to avoid the “black box” syndrome, wherein the user is unaware of
the quality or appropriateness of the data being collected or provided by the
receiver. More specifically, this syndrome is characterized by the user expecting
the receiver to always function correctly, thereby failing to recognize when there
are problems with the system.
In the previous section you learned how a GPS receiver uses the radio signals
emitted from the satellites to calculate a set of coordinates. The accuracy obtain-
able using that approach can be accurate to within a few meters, sufficient for
many purposes for which low-cost GPS receivers can be purchased for as little as
US$100. However, most engineering applications require higher accuracy involv-
ing use of expensive receivers (see especially Chapter 5 for a discussion of high-
precision systems). Part II of this book will introduce you to the considerations
necessary when developing a GPS project. One of the most important of these is
related to accuracy requirements.

Comparison of GPS to Other Methods of Locating Points

One Antenna, Three Dimensions
Using a single GPS antenna, you get three dimensions (Kee at al. 2010). There is
no need to observe separate parameters such as distances, angles, and point ele-
vations to derive a 3-D position—an approach commonly used in many traditional
positioning methods. Furthermore, in this method there are no cumulative sen-
sor drift errors that are commonly associated with displacement transducers and
inertial measurement systems.

Unobstructed Sky View

GPS receivers require unobstructed view to the satellites. This limits the use of
GPS to reasonably open areas (unobstructed grounds, building rooftops, the top
18 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

surface of a dam wall, bridge decks and towers, etc.). The accuracy of GPS posi-
tioning depends on the distribution (spatial geometry) of the observed satellites
in space with respect to the receiver, the data processing strategies and algo-
rithms, and the modeling of various error sources that contaminate the measure-
ments (Parkinson and Spilker 1996). The common error sources (biases) that
affect GPS positioning are discussed in Chapter 2.

Continuous Data
Although relative movements of points in the lateral and vertical directions can be
obtained from the integration of data from transducers such as accelerometers,
only part of the movement vector (noncontinuous) is available. GPS can provide
absolute position on a well-defined global reference frame [the World Geodetic
System 1984 (WGS-84)] and direct, instantaneous 3-D displacement, permitting
near-real-time analysis. The connection to the WGS-84 frame makes it easier to
assess how a point might have moved relative to another reference point, for exam-
ple, how a structure might have moved with respect to the surrounding bedrock
after a shock such as an earthquake. Sensors that can only measure 1-D positions
may be unable to detect certain modes of deformation. Moreover, GPS positional
accuracies range from 1 cm (instantaneous) to 1 mm (with averaging), making it
suitable for a variety of applications.
Weather-Independent
Traditional methods, whether manual or automated, are influenced by the pre-
vailing weather conditions. For example, most survey measurements must be
made during the day and sometimes require near-perfect visibility conditions.
Temperature influences may affect the mechanical, electronic, or optical compo-
nents of the instruments. In contrast, GPS can be used at any time of the day or
night and in varying local weather conditions.

Station Intervisibility in Surveying Networks

Unlike surveying and mapping applications, there is no need for intervisibility
between the measuring stations. Hence, there is greater flexibility in the selection
of GPS station locations than is the case with traditional methods.

What Does a GPS Measurement System Entail?

Small- to Medium-Scale Projects

Portable integrated GPS measurement systems are increasingly replacing some of
the older designs in which a GPS antenna (RF section) is external to a “black box”
(microprocessor). GPS equipment for professional use is considerably more pre-
cise and are still typically larger in size. Many measurement systems now exist in
which the antenna circuitry, microprocessor, and power supply unit are all embed-
ded in a single box (Fig. 1-10). An external control unit can be used to probe or
set up the equipment as required.
INTRODUCTION 19

Figure 1-10. A GPS measurement system in a medium-scale project.

Full-Scale Projects
At its most basic, a GPS measurement system is a single compact receiver. How-
ever, GPS measurement systems can be described at a variety of scales, but the
most complex is the scale of a network of receivers. Many engineering projects
involve detailed data collection and analysis at this scale and, when the time
dimension is included, the complexity increases. Consider a project in which hun-
dreds of receivers are placed at strategic locations on a long-span suspension
bridge to capture, in real time, the bridge performance in response to live traffic,
20 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

wind, seismic, and temperature loads (Fig. 1-11). The data from all the GPS units
are aggregated to one area—a control room where all data handling and man-
agement decisions take place. At this scale, the individual GPS units (antennas
attached to bridge rails and towers) are simply data collectors. A bigger part of
the measurement system is made up of data-logging equipment and software,

Figure 1-11. A GPS measurement system in a full-scale project.

Copyright by Leica Geosystems AG. Used with permission.
INTRODUCTION 21

power supply, data communication and telemetry, data storage and backup, and
visual display units, among other components. Such a system would consume a
large office space and would also need human operators.

GPS Receiver Types and Accuracy

GPS receivers are classified according to achievable positional accuracy and

intended application (Appendix 1). These classifications are also inherently based
on the positioning principles behind them, the basis for discussions in Chapters 2
through 5.

Navigational/Recreational Receivers
Navigational receivers provide the lowest positional accuracy. A single standalone
receiver can provide autonomous accuracy of between 2 and 15 m. They are the
most affordable GPS units on the market and are typically used by hikers, sports-
men, and other people who want to locate and navigate to particular locations for
recreational purposes. They are designed to be very user-friendly and it does not
take long to learn how to operate one. Despite their low accuracy, they can be use-
ful for collecting data for some research purposes.
The basic ranging principle behind navigational receivers is presented in Fig.
1-9; a more detailed discussion is offered in Chapter 2. They can be manufac-
tured compactly and can be integrated in wristwatches and other miniature tech-
nology such as cell phones. In comparison, GPS receivers for professional use
(such as for mapping and land surveying) are typically bigger and considerably
more precise.

Mapping-Grade Receivers
Mapping-grade receivers are developed with the mapping professionals in mind.
They are more expensive than recreational receivers, are much more accurate,
and have many more features. The mapping-grade receivers provide sub-meter
accuracies (0.1 to 5 m). The positioning principles behind these types of receivers
are presented in Chapter 4. One of the most important features offered by map-
ping-grade receivers is the capability of collecting differentially corrected data at
a logging rate that can be set by the user—the rate at which a position is calculated
and the coordinates stored. For example, a higher logging rate would be used for
mapping a road centerline while driving versus standing in one spot to record the
location of a building. This also has implications for the amount of data that can
be stored in the receiver’s internal memory, and hence the bigger size of the
receiver. Another feature is the greater control by the user over the conditions
under which data are collected (e.g., satellite selection, elevation masking, and
signal-to-noise ratio masking).
22 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 1-12. Example of high-precision, geodetic-quality (scientific) receiver

(a) and antenna (b). High-end geodetic receivers have multiple data
communication ports to input RTCM or RTK and to output position or raw
GPS data to the data recorder. Although a geodetic receiver, antenna, and
controller are usually designed as separate components, there are some
receiver types with a combined antenna and circuitry, such as shown in Fig.
1-10. RTCM (see Glossary) stands for Radio Technical Committee for Maritime
Services and RTK stands for Real-Time Kinematic.

Geodetic-Grade (Scientific) Receivers

These are the types of receivers commonly used by engineers (Figs. 1-10 and 1-11).
The positioning principles behind them are presented in Chapter 5 and involve
complex data processing algorithms. They are the most accurate (i.e., meant for
millimeter- to centimeter-level accuracy), but are also the most expensive. In 2010
a typical high-precision, geodetic-quality GPS receiver (Fig. 1-12a) cost between
US$5,000 and US$40,000, depending on configuration. The cost of a geodetic
antenna (Fig. 1-12b) is between US$2,000 and US$10,000. They are typically used
in medium-scale projects involving carefully planned setups to minimize errors,
and in full-scale operational projects where in most cases the equipment is
installed on an object or at the project site to continuously collect, store, and/or
transmit data.
CHAPTER 2

GPS Positioning and Measurement

Principles

Positioning and Measuring Objects

It is important to realize that GPS is most often used to determine coordinates of

individual locations, also known as points. However, some GPS receivers can also
be used to collect and generate line and area data. This can be done in a variety
of ways. One method is to collect discrete points along the length of a line (i.e.,
positions are recorded at each break or curve in the line) or at each corner of an
area. A second method, if the receiver has this capability, is to turn the receiver
on and continuously record positions while traversing the length of the line or
the perimeter of the area. In other words, GPS can be used to measure 1-D, 2-D,
or 3-D data as desired by the user. In 1-D, a single coordinate value (e.g., Easting,
Northing, or Height) or its variation with time (i.e., a time series) is of interest. In
2-D, the horizontal coordinates are of interest and can be expressed as a single
point, line, or area on a 2-D plane, or as a scatter plot or trajectory if the point or
object being measured is moving. In 3-D, both horizontal and vertical coordinates
are of interest to the user—this is one of the most important benefits of using GPS
since many actual projects require all three coordinates to be measured.

The Satellite Coordinate System

Given that coordinates are the primary output of a GPS measurement, it is neces-
sary to understand coordinates and coordinate systems. They allow us to pinpoint
a specific location on or above the Earth’s surface. In GPS positioning, the satel-
lite coordinates are known, the ranges are measured, and the receiver coordinates
are computed on that basis. Therefore, knowing the satellite coordinate system is
a good starting point.

World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84)

The orbits of the GPS satellites are geocentric around the center of the Earth’s
gravity. This important consideration by the system designers (U.S. Department

23
24 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

of Defense) necessitated the development of a coordinate system appropriate for

global use. The coordinate system would be based on a global geodetic datum (a
mathematical surface, an ellipsoid, used to approximate the Earth’s shape and
size). The satellite technology required that the center of the ellipsoid and the cen-
ter of the geoid (Earth’s mass) coincide, meaning that the ellipsoid is geocentric
around the center of the Earth’s gravity, just as the orbits of the GPS satellites are.
The GPS satellite coordinates are referenced to the World Geodetic System
1984 (WGS-84), a geocentric datum (an ellipsoid, the center of which is located at
the Earth’s mass center) that has size and shape parameters of: semi-major axis
a  6,378,137 m and inverse flattening 1/f  298.257. WGS-84 is described in
detail in the Glossary; also refer to Table A6-1 in Appendix 6.
Three different 3-D coordinate systems can be used as a means of expressing
point positions with respect to the WGS-84 ellipsoid. All three systems have useful
applications in different situations. The user should understand the differences
between and the relationships among the three systems.

Geocentric Cartesian Coordinates

Geocentric Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) of a point are referred to an Earth-
centered (geocentric), Earth-fixed, right-handed, orthogonal, 3-D axis system
(Fig. 2-1). This system is sometimes referred to as the ECEF (Earth-centered
Earth-fixed) system. The origin of the coordinate system is at the Earth’s center
of mass that corresponds with the center of the WGS-84 ellipsoid (intersection of
equatorial plane and axis of rotation). The X-axis lies in the equatorial plane with
its positive end intersecting the Greenwich meridian. The Y-axis lies in the equa-

Figure 2-1. Geocentric WGS-84 Cartesian coordinates for satellite S. CIO is

the Celestial International Origin and the superscript CTS stands for
Conventional Terrestrial System.
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 25

torial plane with its positive end intersecting the ellipsoid at 90°E longitude. The
Z-axis is coincident with the Earth’s spin axis, positive toward the North Pole, also
referred to as the Celestial International Origin (CIO).
Geodetic Coordinates
The geodetic (or ellipsoidal) coordinates of a point are expressed using the geo-
detic latitude (␾), geodetic longitude (␭), and height above or below the ellipsoid
surface (h). They are also sometimes referred to as geographic coordinates. These
values also form a right-handed, Earth-fixed, 3-D coordinate system. The longitude
is expressed as positive to the east of the Greenwich meridian. Latitude is the angle
measured from the equatorial plane to the normal at the point (i.e., a line, normal
to the ellipsoid, passing through the point) and is expressed as positive to the north.
Ellipsoid height is expressed in meters. Figure 2-2 illustrates both the Cartesian
and the geodetic coordinates for a point P located above the ellipsoid surface.
Local Geodetic Horizon Coordinates
Local geodetic horizon coordinates or local topocentric coordinates are extremely useful
when integrating GPS-determined positions with terrestrial (e.g., total station)
observations. The local geodetic coordinate system is an Earth-fixed, right-handed,
orthogonal, 3-D coordinate system having its origin at any point specified (Fig. 2-3).
The north axis lies in the meridian plane and is directed positive toward the
North Pole (CIO). The up axis lies along a normal to the ellipsoid at the origin,
positive outside the ellipsoid surface. The east axis forms the right-handed system
by being perpendicular to the meridian plane, positive to the east. The origin of the
system has local geodetic coordinates (0, 0, 0)—the implication is that an infinite

Figure 2-2. Geocentric WGS-84 Cartesian and geodetic (ellipsoidal)

coordinates for point P. CIO is the Celestial International Origin and the
superscript CTS stands for Conventional Terrestrial System.
26 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 2-3. Local geodetic coordinate system (e, n, u). CIO is the Celestial
International Origin and the superscript CTS stands for Conventional
Terrestrial System.

number of local geodetic systems may be established, typically at each instru-

ment setup.
In terrestrial measurements, such as using total stations, the local geodetic
coordinates of any point can be referred to the origin of the local geodetic system
using the geodetic azimuth (␣), vertical angle (⬔), or zenith angle (⻫) and mark-to-mark
slant range (r) from the origin to the point being measured (Fig. 2-4). The follow-
ing relations are defined using trigonometry:

e  r cos(⬔)sin ␣  r sin(⻫)sin ␣ (2-1a)

n  r cos(⬔)cos ␣  r sin(⻫)cos ␣ (2-1b)
u  r sin(⬔)  r cos(⻫) (2-1c)

Coordinate Conversions
To convert from geodetic coordinates (latitude, longitude, height) to Cartesian
coordinates (X, Y, Z), use the following formulas:

X  (N  h) cos ␾ cos ␭
Y  (N  h) cos ␾ sin ␭
Z  [N(1  e2)  h]sin ␾ (2-2)
a
N ( radius of curvature in the prime vertical)
1  e sin2 ␾
2
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 27

Figure 2-4. Points in the local coordinate system.

where the parameters a and h are as defined earlier in the text (i.e., a is semi-
major axis and h is height above or below the ellipsoid surface) and e is eccentric-
ity which is also expressed in terms of flattening f as e2  2f  f 2. For WGS-84,
flattening f  1/298.257.
To convert from Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) to geodetic coordinates (lati-
tude, longitude, height), use the following formulas:

X2 Y 2
h N
cos ␾
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤
1 ⎫ (2-3)
⎪ Z ⎪
␾  arctan ⎨ ⎢1  e2 ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎬
⎪ X2 Y 2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ N  h ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
⎛Y⎞
␭  arctan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ X⎠

Iteration is required in this second formula because ␾ and h are dependent

upon one another. First, assume h  0 and solve for ␾. Next solve for h and once
again for ␾. Continue the iteration until the change in ␾ between successive itera-
tions is insignificant.
Finally, to convert from Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) to local coordinates
(e, n, u), use the following formulas:

⎡ e ⎤ ⎡ sin ␾ cos ␾ 0 ⎤⎡X⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ n ⎥  ⎢sin ␭ cos ␾ sin ␭ cos ␾ cos ␭ ⎥ ⎢ Y ⎥ (2-4)
⎢ u ⎥ ⎢ cos ␭ cos ␾ cos ␭ cos ␾ sin ␭ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
28 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

In this last conversion, the geodetic coordinates (latitude and longitude) of a

point are also required in order to be able to convert the Cartesian coordinates to
a local system.

WGS-84 and Local Datums

It is also important to understand that, besides the WGS-84 datum, other datums
exist for different uses around the world. For example, the North American Datum
1983 (NAD 83) is designed in a similar manner to WGS-84 except for the location
of the center of its ellipsoid, which is not designed to be at the geocenter (center of
Earth’s gravitational mass). WGS-84 is a worldwide system, whereas NAD 83 is used
only in North America except Mexico. In 1987, the two systems did not differ sig-
nificantly as the shift between them fell within the overall error budget. At that
time, they differed only by a centimeter or two. However, the new definitions of
the two systems—NAD 83 (CORS96) and WGS-84 (G1150)—differ by up to 1 to 2 m
within the continental United States. The main difference is that while WGS-84 is
global and therefore is in constant motion due to the shifting of tectonic plates
around the world, the NAD 83 system is fixed to one plate, the North American
plate. Consequently, within the continental United States, NAD 83 moves approxi-
mately 10 to 20 mm per year in relation to the WGS-84 system. This has implica-
tions when using GPS in certain situations. For instance, as will be discussed in
Chapter 5, some local GPS networks and service providers broadcast corrections
for GPS users to apply to improve the accuracy of their position coordinates. The
conversion between such corrections and local datums such as NAD 83 can cause
errors with datum shifts. Furthermore, U.S. survey foot and international foot con-
versions can cause additional errors when dealing with such local datums.
Appendix 6 includes brief notes on datum transformations and map projec-
tions. However, for detailed exploration of these two topics, some excellent
sources include Elithorp and Findorff (2009), Hofmann-Wellenhof et al. (2001),
and Van Sickle (2008).

GPS Receiver Position Measurement Principle

The true range, or geometric range, from a GPS receiver to a GPS satellite can be
represented in terms of WGS-84 coordinates (Fig. 2-5):

␳ rs  r s  rr  ( x s  xr )2  ( y s  yr )2  ( z s  zr )2 (2-5)

where
␳sr is the geometric range from the receiver to the satellite (m)
rs is the satellite position vector referenced to the WGS-84 (m)
rr is the receiver position vector referenced to the WGS-84 (m)
xsr, ysr, zsr are the satellite WGS-84 coordinates
xr, yr, zr are the receiver WGS-84 coordinates.
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 29

Figure 2-5. Geometric range from a receiver to a satellite.

The two fundamental GPS measurements for range (and hence position)
determination (explained in Chapter 2, “Ranging Methods”) are the pseudorange
(Eq. 2-6) and carrier-phase (Eq. 2-7) observations. The basic observation equations
for these measurements are (Lachapelle et al. 1992; Langley 1993):

Psr  ␳sr  d␳s  c(dts  dTr)  dsion  dstrop  ␧( prx)  ␧( pmult)sr (2-6)
⌽sr  ␳sr  d␳s  c(dts  dTr)  dsion  dstrop  ␭Nrs  ␧(⌽rx)  ␧(⌽mult)sr (2-7)

where
P sr is the pseudorange measurement by the GPS receiver to the satellite (m)
␳sr is true range or “geometric” range (m)
d␳s is the orbit error term (m)
dts is the satellite clock error (m)
dTr is the receiver clock error (m)
dsion is the ionospheric delay term (m)
dstrop is the tropospheric delay term (m)
␧(prx) is the error in pseudorange measurement due to receiver noise (m)
␧(pmult)sr is the error in pseudorange measurement due to multipath (m)
c is the speed of light (ms1)
⌽sr is the carrier phase measurement by the GPS receiver to the satellite (m)
Nsr is the carrier phase ambiguity between the GPS receiver and the satellite
(cycles)
␭ is the wavelength of the carrier phase (m)
␧(⌽rx) is the error in carrier phase measurement due to receiver noise (m)
␧(⌽mult)sr is the error in carrier phase measurement due to multipath (m).
30 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

The major differences between Eq. 2-6 and Eq. 2-7 are the presence of the
integer carrier phase ambiguity term (␭Nsr) in the carrier-phase measurements,
and the reversal of sign for the ionospheric bias term (d sion).
The level of carrier-phase measurement noise (at the millimeter level) is much
lower than the level of the pseudorange measurement noise (typically at the meter
level). The inability of civilian users to access the P-code pseudorange measure-
ments (under the U.S. military’s anti-spoofing policy of guarding against fake
transmissions of satellite data by encrypting the P-code to form the Y-code)
reduces the accuracy of GPS pseudorange positions. Therefore, pseudorange
measurements are generally used in applications where the accuracy requirement
is not high (the few-meter level), as is typical for single-epoch navigation applica-
tions. On the other hand, carrier-phase measurements are extensively used in
precise (centimeter-level) GPS applications.
The various error sources affecting the GPS ranging signal (contributing to
the error terms in the above equations) are explained in “Error Sources” below.

Calculating the Receiver Position

At its most basic, a receiver needs to observe at least four satellites (i.e., four
unknowns) to be able to estimate its position coordinates and a clock bias. This
requirement is based on the principle of least squares adjustment—a statistical
approach to finding the most probable result from a number of values. Satellite
coordinates and pseudoranges (satellite–receiver ranges) are needed to calculate
the average position (Fig. 2-6). The “Ranging Methods” section below discusses
the methods by which the satellite-receiver ranges (pseudoranges) are deter-
mined. First, let’s consider how the satellite positions are determined in the Carte-
sian coordinate system.

Satellite Positions
In order to determine the geometric ranges from the satellites to the receiver
(Eq. 2-5), the satellite position at the time of transmission of the GPS signal has to
be known. The satellite almanac and ephemeris data are needed for this purpose.
The almanac data provide only a rough satellite position; ephemeris data are
needed to determine the exact position. The almanac can be used to obtain a
rough indication of where the satellites are at a certain time, such as is needed for
the first acquisition (detection) of the satellites or to draw satellite plots in soft-
ware. Ephemeris data provide the Keplerian parameters (Fig. 1-5) and small orbit
corrections such as changes in the inclination of satellite orbits that can amount
to as much as 0.25  107 deg/s or as little as 0.001 deg per week. The calculation
for the satellite position in ECEF coordinates at time t within the ephemeris week
is provided in Appendix 3.
Since it takes the signals some time reach the receiver, the satellite will have
moved during that time. Therefore, a small correction is needed between the
satellite position as calculated for the time of arrival (TOA) and the actual posi-
tion on the time of departure (TOD).
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 31

Figure 2-6. GPS trilateration.

␻ e ⋅ ␳0
␤
c
X  X cos ␤  Y s sin ␤
s s

Y s  Xs sin ␤  Y s cos ␤ (2-8)

Zs  Z s
␻e  7.2921151467  105 rad/s (Earths angular velocity)

The estimated range, ␳0, is derived from the pseudorange measurement and,
if possible, corrected for the receiver clock bias. Otherwise the computation needs
to be iterative, that is, compute an estimated position using the measured pseudo-
ranges and derive the receiver clock bias from these measurements, then recalcu-
late the exact satellite position using the corrected pseudoranges.
Estimating the Receiver Position
In order to calculate the position by least squares, the GPS receiver needs to have
a starting approximate position. Usually, a receiver, on startup, would be able to
retrieve the last position that was computed before it was switched off, and these
32 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

would be sufficient as starting coordinates. Estimated receiver position can be

entered into a receiver in WGS-84 ellipsoidal coordinates and is internally trans-
formed to ECEF Cartesian coordinates.
Finding the Receiver Position
With the satellite coordinates, measured pseudoranges, and the estimated receiver
position, the most probable position of the receiver can now be found. In a least
squares adjustment (Hofmann-Wellenhof et al. 2001, p. 256), the computed ranges
(from satellite coordinates and the estimated approximate receiver coordinates),
observed ranges, and receiver clock bias are applied to a set of linearized model
equations (equal to the number of satellites involved) to find the final receiver
position (see Appendix 4).

Ranging Methods

The Ranging Principle

In GPS trilateration (Fig. 2-6), receiver–satellite ranges and satellite coordinates
are known. But how does the receiver or the user know the measured range? The
answer is in GPS ranging. GPS ranging is comparable to distance measurement by
electronic distance meters (EDMs) or total stations. An EDM instrument measures
distances by sending modulated waves to a distant reflector (Fig. 2-7a). The waves
are reflected back to the instrument, traveling double the distance (D) between the
instrument and the reflector. While some EDMs use pulsed laser emissions based
on travel time, a phase shift EDM is based on knowing the total number of whole
(and partial) wavelengths between the instrument and the reflector. This is partly
possible due to the partial wavelength ( p) being measured from the phase shift
between the transmitted and reflected waves, according to the distance equation:

␭[ N  p] 1
D  [␭N  ⌽ ] (2-9)
2 2

where N is an integer number of whole wavelengths (integer ambiguity), and p is

the partial wavelength (in cycles) from the phase shift between outgoing and
incoming wave (⌽  p␭ is the phase in linear units). The primary task is to solve
for the integer ambiguity.
An EDM can send three or four different wavelengths by using phase modu-
lation. By introducing different wavelengths to measure the same distance, the
cycle ambiguity can be resolved, enabling the measurement of tens of kilometers
with millimeter precision. This method is convenient for the EDM’s two-way rang-
ing system but is impossible in the one-way ranging used in GPS measurements.
Unlike in EDM, a GPS carrier signal travels the one-way distance (␭N  p␭  ␭N  ⌽)
between the satellite and the receiver (Fig. 2-7b). The GPS ranging must use an
entirely different strategy for solving the cycle ambiguity problem because the
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 33

Figure 2-7. Comparing electronic distance meter (EDM) distance ranging to the
GPS ranging principle: (a) EDM “two-way” ranging; (b) GPS “one-way” ranging.

satellites broadcast carrier signals of constant wavelengths, and the GPS satellites
are constantly in motion.
In order to further explain the GPS positioning principle, it is important to
first explain the satellite signal structure and the phase modulation for signal
transmission.
Signal Structure
GPS satellites broadcast radio (microwave-band) signals to enable GPS receivers
to determine location and time. GPS signals include ranging signals (used to
measure the distance to the satellite) and navigation messages. The navigation
messages include ephemeris data (used to calculate the position of the satellite in
orbit) and information about the time and status of the satellite constellation. For
the ranging signals and navigation message to travel from the satellite to the
receiver, they must be modulated onto a carrier signal. This is done by means of
phase modulations. The choice of GPS carrier signals is briefly explained in
Appendix 2 (L-band is used, based on the system design needs). The GPS design
uses carrier signals modulated by different binary codes and navigation data (Fig.
2-8). The binary codes include, for instance, the C/A-code carried on L1, L2C car-
ried on L2, and P(Y)-code carried on both L1 and L2. Navigation data are broad-
cast on all carriers (L1, L2, and L5). C/A-code and L2C are for civilian GPS
receivers and the P(Y)-code is reserved for military use.
34 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 2-8. GPS signal structure and carrier signal modulation.

Block II and IIR satellites both broadcast the same fundamental GPS signals
that have been in place since the beginning of the system. Their frequencies are
centered on L1 (1,575.42 MHz) and L2 (1,227.60 MHz). As mentioned in Chap-
ter 1, the civilian C/A code is carried on L1. The “precise” code (P-code) is car-
ried on both L1 and L2. When encrypted, the P-code is known as the P(Y) code,
or simply the Y-code.
With the launch of the first Block IIR-M satellite (September 21, 2005) came
the new and different signals that would augment existing codes. As mentioned in
Chapter 1, one of the significant improvements was the increased L-band power
on L1 and L2, and the broadcast of new signals such as L2C and the M-code (the
M stands for Modernized).
The M-code
The M-code is a new military code. It is carried on both L1 and L2, and will prob-
ably replace the P(Y) code eventually. It has the advantage of allowing the U.S.
Department of Defense to increase the power of the code to prevent jamming. It
was designed to share the same bands with existing signals, on both L1 and L2,
and still be separate from them (see the two green peaks in the M-code in Fig. 2-9).
The M-code is designed in such a way to allow minimum overlap with the maxi-
mum power densities of the P(Y) code and C/A code, which occur near the center
frequency. This is because the actual modulation of the M-code is accomplished
with the binary offset carrier (BOC) modulation, which differs from the binary
phase shift key (BPSK) modulation used with the C/A and P(Y) codes. An impor-
tant characteristic of BOC modulation is that the M-code has its greatest power
density at the edges of the L1 (and L2). This both simplifies the implementation
at the satellites and the receivers and also mitigates interference with the existing
codes. The M-code signal is tracked by direct acquisition, that is, the receiver cor-
relates the incoming signal with a receiver-generated replica of the code.
L2C signal
The L2C signal is a new civilian signal carried on the L2 carrier (the C is for Civil).
This means there are now two new codes broadcast on the L2, a carrier that pre-
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 35

Figure 2-9. GPS signal evolution.

viously exclusively carried only one military signal, the P(Y) code. Now the L2 will
carry a new military signal, the M-code, and a new civilian signal, the L2C (see
the red peaks on L2 in Fig. 2-9). Although L2C has a very similar power spectrum
to the C/A code, it is important to note that they are not merely copies of each
other. L2C is a bit more sophisticated than C/A code. It is actually composed of
two codes, L2CM and L2CL. The CM stands for Civil-Moderate length code,
which carries the improved navigation data. This new navigation message is
known as CNAV (the legacy navigation message is known by the acronym NAV).
The NAV is broadcast at 50 bps while the CNAV is at 25 bps (Van Sickle 2008).
The benefits of M-code and L2C signal
There are two more new signals (Figs. 2-9 and 2-10) to discuss under the latest
developments. But first, what are the practical benefits of the M-code and L2C
signal?
It has already been said that the M-code will allow the military to counter
intentional jamming by, for example, being able to increase the power of the sig-
nal. But what are the practical advantages of the civilian L2C? L2C is approxi-
mately 2.3 dB weaker than C/A on L1. Surprisingly, this is not a disadvantage.
Without going into the details, the CL (for Civil-Long) in L2CL is tracked in such
a way that it provides for a correlation about 250 times stronger than the C/A
code, even though L2C is weaker than C/A code. Because of this, L2C has better
tolerance to interference than does the C/A code. L2C also has better stability and
improved tracking in obstructed areas such as near buildings, urban canyons, and
forested areas.
There are many other practical benefits. For instance, a handheld code-based
receiver using one civilian code (C/A on L1) can achieve a positional accuracy of
36 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 2-10. New signal availability.

about 15 to 20 m under very good conditions. One of the largest error sources
degrading a GPS receiver position is the ionospheric delay (refer to Table 2-1).
With two civilian signals, one on L1 (C/A) and another on L2 (L2C), it becomes
possible to model the ionospheric delay in code phase. It is then possible to
achieve accuracies in the range of 5 to 10 m or even at the sub-meter level, given
the trend of potential future developments.
It should also be noted that both L2C and C/A codes have a slow chip rate of
1.023 MHz. The signal chip rate affects both the size and power consumption of a

Table 2-1. Error Source Contributions

Error Source Average Contribution

Satellite ephemeris 2.1 m

Satellite clock 2.1 m
Ionosphere delay 4.0 m
Troposphere delay 0.7 m
Receiver noise 0.5 m
Multipath 1.4 m
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 37

GPS chipset. The slower the chip rate, the longer the battery life and the smaller
the GPS chipset. This means a potential for further miniaturization of receiver
components.
L5 signal
L5 is a new carrier signal included with Block IIF satellites. The basic structure
looks similar to that of L1, and the data that are carried on L5 are similar to that
carried by L2CM. However, unlike L2C, L5 has the benefit of being in a band
designated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for aeronauti-
cal radionavigation services. Thus, L5 is in a “protected” frequency band (unlike
L2), and it is greatly anticipated for critical navigation and other applications. It
will not be prone to interference by ground-based navigation aids and it will be
available for aviation applications. No other GPS signals occupy this band, but L5
will share the band with E5—a signal from GALILEO, which is an entirely differ-
ent satellite system (described in Chapter 8).

L1C (third civil signal)

With Block III satellites, a number of phased enhancements will include, for
example, a new civilian code on the L1 frequency called L1C. L1C has a modula-
tion type different from all other GPS codes but the same as the planned
GALILEO codes. This new signal is a result of an agreement reached between the
United States and the European Union (EU) in June 2004 to create an interoper-
able GPS/GALILEO signal on L1. This makes the manufacturing of combined
GPS/GALILEO receivers much simpler. While the details of the L1C signal are
still provisional at the time of this writing, it is intended to provide some enhance-
ments over the C/A code and will have some similarities with L2C. It will have
double the power of the C/A signal and will carry a navigation message known as
C-NAV2 (cf. L2C).
Pseudo random noise (PRN) code
The C/A code is a 1,023-chip-long pseudo random noise (PRN) code transmitted
with a frequency of 1.023 MHz (repeats every millisecond). Each second,
1,023,000 chips are generated. A “chip” or “bit,” described by a 1 or a zero (Fig.
2-11), defines one cycle of the digital signal. Using the speed of light, the length
of one chip can be calculated to be 300 m. The P-code is also a PRN. It has a very
long PRN code that only repeats once a week. Whereas the C/A-code PRNs are
unique for each satellite, the P-code PRN is actually a small segment of a master
P-code. For protection against interference, the P-code can be encrypted in Y-code

Figure 2-11. A short pseudo random noise (PRN) code sample.

38 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

[anti-spoofing (AS) mode]. The unique C/A-code PRN for each satellite does not
correlate with any other satellite’s PRN code. The codes are highly orthogonal to
each other, allowing a GPS receiver to recognize multiple satellites on the same
frequency. The receiver identifies satellites by their PRN numbers, which appear
on the satellite view screens of many GPS receivers.

GPS Code-Based and Carrier Phase-Based Pseudoranging

The GPS positioning principle is based on two approaches for estimating the
satellite–receiver distance: (1) code phase-based range determination based on time-
shift from PRN code correlation, and (2) carrier phase-based range determination
using the satellite’s carrier signal instead of the coded messages contained within
the carrier signal.
Code Phase-Based Range Determination
In this approach, the receiver compares its internally generated “replica” PRN
codes with those transmitted by the satellites (Fig. 2-12). When a perfect match
occurs through time-shifting, the signal travel time is established. This process is
called locking onto the signal and can take several minutes. From knowledge of the
speed of light and the travel time, the distance can be estimated. The distance
estimated in this way is known as the pseudorange and the technique is often
referred to as code phase. It is not so precise due to clock biases and other factors
(see “Error Sources” below). The satellite’s PRNs are based on atomic clocks
whereas the replica PRNs are based on ordinary receiver clocks. Although the two
codes should be in phase when there is a match, they are always a little out of
phase. The PRN codes have a cycle width of almost a microsecond (at the speed
of light, a microsecond is almost 300 m). Good receiver design ensures that the
signals are almost perfectly in phase, with an error that is a percentage or two of
the cycle width. This translates to about 3 to 6 m.

Figure 2-12. Time-shift from PRN codes (the “slide” needed to match them
is the travel time).
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 39

Carrier Phase-Based Range Determination

In carrier phase-based ranging, the satellite–receiver distance is estimated using
the satellite’s carrier signal instead of the coded messages contained within. Iden-
tifying the cycle being received allows for sub-meter accuracy (the L1 wavelength
is about 19 cm). Identifying the phase position in a cycle allows sub-centimeter
accuracy (3 or 4 mm! if we can get to within 1% of perfect phase, like in code
phase-based receivers). In other words, the carrier frequency is much higher, so
its cycles are much closer together and therefore more accurate. The difficulty in
making carrier phase-based measurements is properly aligning the signals. While
the code signals are deliberately encoded to allow them to be easily aligned, all
carrier cycles are similar. This makes it difficult to know whether the signals are
properly aligned or are off by one or more cycles, and thus introducing an error
of 20 cm or a larger multiple of 20 cm. Therefore, the essence of the method is to
count the exact number of carrier cycles between the satellite and the receiver
(Fig. 2-7). The problem is that the carrier frequency is hard to count because it is
so uniform. Every cycle looks like every other and the cycle phase can be ambigu-
ous (for example, whether the signal has a 0-deg phase or a 180-deg phase).
Solving the ambiguity problem. Geodetic- and scientific-grade receivers start
with the pseudo random code and then move on to measurements based on the
carrier frequency for that code. Thus, the key to carrier phase-based GPS (“carrier-
phase GPS”) is to use code-phase techniques to get close to the answer. If the code
measurement can be made accurately to, say, a meter, then there will be only a
few wavelengths of carrier to consider for determining the actual cycle (phase)
that marks the edge of the timing pulse (Fig. 2-13). Resolving the “carrier phase
ambiguity” for just a few cycles would be a complex computational challenge.
Today, that process has been aided by algorithmic developments and the power
of modern computers and microprocessor technology.
The GPS receiver position calculations are based on satellite combinations
(four or more at once). Without knowledge of the particular carrier cycle being

Figure 2-13. Carrier phase ambiguity.

40 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

observed for each satellite, thousands of position solutions are possible. But with
enough data it is possible to demonstrate one most-probable solution by statistical
methods. The essence of centimeter-level GPS positioning is to acquire enough
data sets (or epochs) to resolve the cycle ambiguities. Once the cycle ambiguities
are resolved for a station, the lock may be maintained by uninterrupted observa-
tion. For each data epoch, a geodetic-grade receiver measures and records the
carrier cycle count for each satellite on L1, L2, and L5; the relative carrier phase
shifts between all satellite signals; and the estimated time of the data epoch.

Antenna Phase Center

The Satellite and the Receiver

The phase centers of both the satellite and the receiver antenna are important, as
they serve as the end points of the measured distance between the satellite and
the receiver on the ground. Their exact position is modeled by a consistent set of
phase center offset (PCO) and variation (PCV) values. The PCO describes the vec-
tor from the receiver antenna reference point (ARP) or the satellite’s center of
mass to the mean phase center, whereas the PCV values provide additional zenith-
and/or azimuth-dependent corrections to get the actual phase center position.
These definitions are shown in Figs. 2-14 and 2-15.
In order to define the phase center, it is important to first define a GPS
antenna gain pattern, which is the change in gain over a range of azimuths and
elevations. It is a series of contours of equal phase around the “electrical center”
of the antenna. Every GPS receiver antenna is designed to be omnidirectional and
has a specific gain pattern. The gain pattern ought to be hemispherical around
the antenna but it is usually not perfectly so.

GPS Receiver Antenna Phase Center

For most antennas, and especially for high-precision applications, the gain pattern
is designed to reject satellite signals from very low elevations to reduce the effects
of multipath and atmospheric delay. However, the most important aspect of the
gain pattern is its electrical center, which also referred to as the phase center. Figure
2-14 is an exaggerated illustration of a GPS antenna phase center. In a perfect GPS
antenna, the phase center of the gain pattern would be exactly coincident with its
actual physical geometrical center. If that were possible, the centering of the
antenna over a measured point would ensure its electronic centering as well, but
that absolute certainty remains elusive for several reasons (Van Sickle 2008).

Phase Center Variations

The position at each end of a GPS baseline is the position of the phase center of
the antenna at each end, not their physical geometrical centers. For each antenna,
the location of the phase center changes slightly with each satellite’s signal. For
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 41

Figure 2-14. Receiver antenna phase center.

Figure 2-15. Satellite antenna phase center.

42 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

instance, it is different for the L1, L2, and L5 signals. As the azimuth, elevation,
and intensity of the received signal changes, the difference between the phase
center and the physical center also changes. For the most part, the phase center
variation is due to changes in satellite elevation. The variations may be as much
as a few centimeters, although with today’s patch antennas it can be as little as a
few millimeters. Fortunately, the phase center variations are systematic errors that
can be modeled and compensated for when making measurements.
The International GNSS Service (IGS) provides reliable models for antenna
phase center corrections for most of the modern geodetic-grade receivers. By
using such models, it is possible to adjust the phase center impact out of the base-
line solution. In addition, most manufacturers recommend that users take care
when making simultaneous observations so that their antennas are oriented in the
same direction. Some manufacturers provide physical reference marks on their
antennas so that each one may be rotated to the same azimuth, usually north, to
maintain the same relative position between their physical and electronic centers.

Error Sources

There are four standard sources of error that contribute to the degradation of the
accuracy of a calculated receiver position. These include satellite orbital and clock
errors, signal propagation errors (ionospheric effects, tropospheric effects, and
multipath), receiver noise and clock errors, and position dilution of precision
(PDOP) due to satellite geometry.

Satellite-Related Biases
The satellite-related biases include satellite orbit (ephemeris) errors and satellite
clock errors.
Ephemeris (Orbital) Errors
These errors originate at the satellite and occur when the GPS signal does not
transmit the correct location of the satellites. The satellite orbit information is
generated from the tracking data collected by the monitor stations within the
Control Segment (Chapter 1, “Control Segment”). On a regular basis, the Mas-
ter Control Station (MCS) in Colorado updates the satellite positions, calculates
their predicted paths, and uploads this information back to the satellites. The
information is stored in almanac files, which are automatically downloaded to the
GPS receivers when they track the satellite signals. The receiver uses the almanac
data to calculate the distance to the satellite. In reality, it is impossible to per-
fectly model the satellite orbit. Hence, the predicted satellite path would differ
from the actual orbit. These discrepancies are the satellite ephemeris errors. If the
satellite is in a different location from its predicted location in the almanac, the
distance to the satellite is calculated incorrectly, which in turn generates inaccu-
rate coordinates.
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 43

Satellite Clock Errors

Because the receiver bases its calculation on the amount of time it takes for the
signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver, any errors in the satellite clocks
will affect the range measurement. The satellite clock bias is the difference between
the satellite clock time and true GPS time. Despite the fact that high-quality
atomic clocks (accurate to a nanosecond) are used in the GPS satellites, the satel-
lite clock bias is still unavoidable. Satellite clock bias can cause deviation of up to
108 seconds, leading to an error of roughly 3.5 m.

Signal Propagation Biases

When the satellite signals travel from the satellite to the receiver, the signals will
be affected by atmospheric delay and multipath. The atmosphere consists of two
main layers, the ionosphere and troposphere, which affect the propagation of
GPS signals.

Atmospheric Errors
As the GPS signals leave the satellites, they first pass through the ionosphere. The
ionosphere is the band of the atmosphere from about 50 to 1,000 km (30 to 625
mi.) above the Earth’s surface (Hofmann-Wellenhof et al. 2001). It consists of lay-
ers of electrically charged particles or ions. Because of free electrons in this layer,
the GPS signals do not travel at the speed of light as they transit this region. As a
result, the measured pseudoranges become too long (Eq. 2-6) while, on the other
hand, the measured phase ranges become too short (Eq. 2-7). The ionospheric delay
is a function of the total electron content (TEC) along the signal path and the fre-
quency of the propagated signal (Lin 1997). The TEC depends on time, season,
and geographic location, with major influencing factors being the solar activity
and the geomagnetic field (Fig. 2-16). In temperate zones, the ionosphere is more
stable and the ionosphere delay can cause 2- to 5-m errors. However, in polar and
equatorial regions where the ionosphere is less stable, errors can be greater. In
extreme cases, the error can range from about 50 m (165 ft) for signals at the
zenith of the observer to as much as 150 m (500 ft) for measurements made at the
receiver’s horizon.
The troposphere is that band of the atmosphere from the Earth’s surface to
about 50 km. The tropospheric delay is a function of elevation and altitude of the
receiver, and is dependent on many factors such as the atmospheric pressure,
temperature, and water vapor content. The tropospheric delay ranges from
approximately 1 m for signals at the zenith to about 10 m for signals at an eleva-
tion angle of 10 deg.

Multipath Errors
Multipath is the error caused by nearby reflecting surfaces at the receiver location.
Just as light reflects off a shiny surface, radio signals can be reflected by solid
objects and surfaces. GPS signals cannot penetrate solid objects like buildings,
44 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 2-16. Amount of sunspots since January 1995, with a forecast up to

2020. Source: NOAA.

thick tree canopies, cars, ships, and bridges. Instead, these objects deflect them,
causing the signals to arrive at the receiver via multiple paths (Fig. 2-17). The
reflected signals will interfere with the signals that are received via a direct path.
The reflected signal travels for a longer time instead of traveling a direct signal
path. As a result, this causes the receiver position to be calculated incorrectly, with
the position shifting in the direction of the multipath source. Theoretically, the
maximum pseudorange multipath error is approximately one chip length of the
code [that is, about 300 m (1,000 ft) for the C/A-code and approximately 30 m
(100 ft) for the P-code], while the maximum carrier phase multipath error is about
one-quarter of the wavelength (that is, about 5 cm for the L1 carrier and 6 cm for
the L2 carrier).

Receiver-Related Biases
The receiver-related biases include the receiver clock bias, internal interchannel
biases, antenna phase center variation, and receiver noise.
Receiver Clock Bias
Similar to the satellite clock bias, the receiver clock bias is an offset between the
receiver clock time and true GPS time. Due to the fact that GPS receivers are usu-
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 45

Figure 2-17. Multipath.

ally equipped with relatively inexpensive clocks, the receiver clock bias is very large
compared to the satellite clock bias. GPS time is based on highly accurate atomic
clocks, while GPS receivers contain inexpensive clocks similar to those in common
digital watches. The atomic clocks are precise enough to determine time up to 11
decimal places (e.g., 10:05:46.01234567890), while a GPS receiver’s clock is less
precise and may only determine time to six decimal places (e.g., 10:05:46.012345).
The slight difference between the two, as a result of rounding off, is due to the
poorer precision of the receiver clock. Despite being a small discrepancy, it often
results in an error of up to 1 m.
Phase Center Offset
In GPS positioning, the measurements made by the receiver are usually referred
to as the distance between the electrical center of the satellite’s transmitter and
the electrical center of the receiver’s antenna. The discrepancy between the elec-
trical center and the physical (geometric) center is the phase center offset. The elec-
trical center tends to vary with the direction and strength of the incoming signal.
In addition, the phase center variations for the L1 and L2 carriers may have dif-
ferent properties. For most antenna types, the antenna phase variation is usually
calibrated by the manufacturers. In addition, the antenna phase center models
for various antennas can be obtained from the National Geodetic Survey (NGS).
These models can subsequently be applied to mitigate the effect of antenna phase
variations. It is, however, recommended that for high-precision applications (dis-
cussed in detail in Chapter 5), care be taken not to mix antenna types or to swap
antennas between sites and receivers during data collection.
46 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Receiver Noise
The magnitude of the receiver noise is dependent on parameters such as the sig-
nal-to-noise ratio and tracking bandwidth. According to a rule of thumb for clas-
sic receivers, the measurement noise is approximately 1% of the signal wave-
length. Therefore, the level of noise in pseudorange measurements is about 3 m
(⬃300-m wavelength) for C/A-code and on the order of 0.3 m (⬃30-m wavelength)
for P-code, while the level of noise in carrier phase is a few millimeters for L1
(⬃19-cm wavelength) and L2 (⬃24-cm wavelength). Modern receiver technology
tends to bring the internal phase noise below 1 mm and to reduce the C/A-code
noise to the decimeter level.

Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP)

Position dilution of precision (PDOP) refers to the geometry of the satellites that are
being used to calculate a position (Fig. 2-18). It is a measure of the quality of the
GPS position coordinates based on the geometry of the satellites used to compute
the position. When satellites are widely spaced relative to each other, the PDOP
value is lower and the position accuracy is greater. When satellites are close
together in the sky, the PDOP is higher and the GPS positions may contain a
greater level of error. An ideal geometry of satellites is one in which four or more
satellites are evenly distributed in the sky. A poor geometry is one in which satel-
lites are close together.
PDOP is a combination of two other DOPs, the horizontal dilution of preci-
sion (HDOP) and the vertical dilution of precision (VDOP). Altogether, five dif-
ferent types of DOPs can be defined. For mathematical definitions behind the cal-
culations of DOP values, see, for example, Axelrad and Brown (1996, p. 414) and

Figure 2-18. Geometrical interpretation of position dilution of precision

(PDOP).
GPS POSITIONING AND MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 47

Hofmann-Wellenhof et al. (2001, pp. 271–275). It is important to note that the

PDOP value has a scaling effect on the total error contributed by all of the above
sources (satellite- and receiver-related biases, and signal propagation errors).
While values of PDOP can range from 1 to 100, in most circumstances the val-
ues are low, with the typical PDOP value worldwide being 2.7. The total error gen-
erated by all the other error sources is multiplied by PDOP value to give a final
overall error for the position coordinates. Therefore, if you assume a 5-m error
from all the other error sources, a PDOP of 3 gives an overall error of 15 m, while
a PDOP of 7 gives an overall error of 35 m.

Overall Error Contributions

All the errors discussed here make it sound like GPS is not as accurate as pro-
claimed. However, when all the errors are combined, they average out to about
3- to 15-m accuracy worldwide. Due to basic error correction algorithms built
into them, all receivers are capable of compensating for offsets due to receiver
clock bias. Table 2-1, adapted from Table 2 in Parkinson (1996, p. 480), shows a
breakdown of the theoretical contribution of each error source.

Error Correction Methods

Two methods for error correction are point averaging (for removing systematic
errors such as multipath) and differencing (a focus of Chapter 3). Point averaging
is used in high-end recreational receivers and some mapping-grade receivers. Dif-
ferencing, also known as differential correction, is a more advanced error correction
method that improves the calculated coordinates based on error measured by
another receiver at a known location (see Chapter 3, “Differential GPS”). There
are two types of differential correction: postprocessing and real-time. In both meth-
ods, two receivers are utilized, both of which must be mapping-grade or higher
quality. One receiver, known as the base station, is located at a precisely surveyed
location. The second receiver, known as the rover, is used to collect data (the rover
can be either stationary or moving while collecting the data). For differential cor-
rection to work properly, the two receivers must be working concurrently and
must be within 20 km (13 mi.) of each other. They are required to observe com-
mon satellites. Through data differencing, most of the errors (ephemeris, clock
biases, and atmospheric errors) can be removed to improve accuracy to the level
that is required for high-precision applications.
Correction for Satellite Clock Biases
One way to account for the satellite clock bias is to use the broadcast clock error
model generated by the Master Control Station and defined by polynomial coeffi-
cients. Even with the best efforts in monitoring the behavior of each satellite clock,
their behavior cannot be precisely predicted. As a result, there is a residual error
after applying the broadcast clock error model. In the case of relative positioning
(Chapter 3, “Relative Positioning”), the satellite clock bias can be eliminated by
48 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

differencing the measurements obtained from two receivers since the satellite clock
bias is the same for two receivers observing the same satellite at the same time.

Correction for Ionospheric Delay

Due to the fact that the ionospheric delays are highly correlated over distances
of up to a few tens of kilometers, the impact of the ionospheric delay can be sig-
nificantly reduced by forming a difference between the measurements made by
two receivers on short baselines to the same satellite (see Chapter 3, “Relative
Positioning”).
Correction for Tropospheric Delay
Unlike the ionospheric delay, the tropospheric delay is not frequency-dependent.
It cannot be eliminated through linear combinations of L1 and L2 observations.
Several “standard” troposphere models can be used to estimate the magnitude of
the tropospheric delay (e.g., the Saastamoinen model, the Hopfield model, the
Black model, and others). The signal refraction due to the troposphere is sepa-
rated into two components, the dry component and the wet component. Due to
the high variation in the wet component, it is difficult to predict or model this com-
ponent. As a result, the standard models can account for about 90% of the total
delay (the dry component). Similar to the ionospheric delay, the tropospheric delay
can be largely eliminated by forming a difference between the measurements made
by two receivers on short baselines to the same satellite. For high-precision static
applications, the residual tropospheric delays in the double-differenced observ-
ables may be treated as additional unknown parameters in the baseline estimation
procedure.
Correction for Multipath Effect
Since the multipath error depends on the receiver’s environment, it cannot be
eliminated or reduced by using the data differencing technique (Chapter 3, “Rel-
ative Positioning”). To reduce multipath effects, (1) make a careful selection of
the data collection site(s) in order to avoid reflective environments; (2) use a good-
quality antenna that is multipath-resistant; (3) use a receiver that can internally
digitally filter out the multipath disturbance; and (4) do not observe low-elevation
satellites (their signals are more susceptible to multipath).
CHAPTER 3

Improving Accuracy

Positioning and Data Processing Methods

Point Positioning
If one receiver is used to determine the absolute coordinates of any point on
Earth, in the WGS-84 system (described in Chapter 2), the positioning technique
is known as single point positioning. This technique can be further divided into two
classes depending on the range measurements used, namely, pseudorange-based
point positioning and carrier phase-based point positioning.
In the pseudorange-based point positioning mode, the basic principle is to
use resection (trilateration) by distances to determine the receiver’s coordinates.
If the satellite coordinates are assumed to be known (as they are provided to the
user within the almanac or ephemeris), the receiver’s coordinates can be com-
puted from the resection using the measured pseudoranges. For civilian users,
the accuracy of this method is currently about 5 m in the horizontal component
and 10 m in the vertical component (at the 95% confidence level).
Due to the availability of precise GPS orbits and satellite clock corrections, a
technique referred to as GPS precise point positioning (PPP) is possible, based on the
principle of carrier phase-based single point positioning. This technique uses
the carrier phase measurements from both frequencies (L1 and L2), with the post-
mission information in the estimation procedure, producing high-precision point
positioning results. Nevertheless, it requires a reasonably large amount of data and
postprocessed GPS orbit and clock products, implying that instantaneous solutions
are not yet possible. The orbit and clock products are offered by some organiza-
tions such as NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the International GNSS Serv-
ice (IGS). For practical examples of these services, see Chapter 4, “DGPS Networks
and Services” and Chapter 5, “Network RTK and CORS Networks Infrastructure.”

Relative Positioning
In the relative positioning method, also commonly referred to as differential GPS
(DGPS) positioning, two GPS receivers are used to observe the same satellites

49
50 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

simultaneously. One receiver, designated as the “base,” is set up at a reference

station the coordinates of which are known. The other receiver, designated as the
“rover,” is used to determine its coordinates with respect to the base (reference)
station. In this case, by subtracting the observations at the reference station from
those at the rover, the single-difference equations are derived from Eqs. 2-6 and
2-7 in Chapter 2. This technique reduces many of the systematic biases (e.g., satel-
lite orbit bias, satellite clock error, and ionospheric and tropospheric delays) and
is extensively used in data processing schemes for applications requiring millime-
ter- to centimeter-level accuracy. However, the effectiveness of the relative posi-
tioning technique is largely dependent on the distance between the two receivers.
The residual error increases as the distance between the receivers increases.
Relative positioning can further be divided into two classes depending on the
measurements used, namely, pseudorange-based differential positioning (code phase
DGPS) and carrier phase-based differential positioning (carrier phase DGPS).
In code phase DGPS, the estimation of the range error for each satellite is
carried out at the reference station. The estimated range errors (or corrections to
the measurements) are broadcast to the users by an appropriate communication
link (Parkinson and Enge 1996). For operations over a small area, one reference
station is typically used and the technique is generally referred to as local area dif-
ferential GPS (LADGPS). However, if a network of reference stations is employed
to generate the range corrections for each satellite, the correction data model is
valid over a much larger area and the technique is referred to as wide area differen-
tial GPS (WADGPS). Finally, in a case where the geostationary satellites transmit
to users the DGPS corrections for each satellite, together with additional GPS-like
ranging signals and an integrity message, the concept is known as a wide area aug-
mentation system (WAAS). Detailed explanations of these DGPS techniques can be
found in Enge and Van Dierendonck (1996). The DGPS systems, networks, and
services are discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
Carrier phase DGPS is realized by either differencing the carrier-phase meas-
urements made to the same satellite by two receivers at the same time, or differ-
encing the carrier-phase measurements to two satellites made by the same receiver
at the same time. The former method is referred to as single differencing between
receivers while the latter is referred to as single differencing between satellites. If the
difference between the single differenced observations is formed, a process
referred to as double differencing (the resultant double-differenced observable) is
the standard input for carrier phase-based data processing. There is even a third
differencing, referred to as triple differencing. In this case, a difference is formed
between two epochs of double-differenced observations. Each of the three data
processing methods is effective in reducing specific systematic errors (Fig. 3-1,
Table 3-1, and Appendix 5). However, the standard method used in carrier phase
DGPS is double differencing.
Carrier phase DGPS can be carried out in static or kinematic mode. If carried
out in kinematic mode, the technique is referred to as kinematic positioning, imply-
ing that either (or both) the reference and user receivers are in motion. Today,
with advanced receiver technology and improved data processing algorithms, it is
IMPROVING ACCURACY 51

Figure 3-1. Differencing GPS in different ways to eliminate systematic

errors.

Table 3-1. Data Processing Methods for Improving Accuracy Using Relative Positioning
Data Processing Method Overall Impact and Effectiveness in Eliminating Errors

Between-satellite difference Eliminates receiver clock bias.

(see Fig. 3-1) Assume simultaneous observations to each satellite.
Between-receiver difference Eliminates satellite clock bias.
(see Fig. 3-1) Greatly reduces ephemeris, ionospheric, and
tropospheric biases (if baseline is short).
Assume simultaneous observations by each receiver
Receiver–satellite double difference Eliminates receiver and satellite clock biases.
This is the basic method used for Significantly reduces effect of ephemeris,
high-precision GPS positioning and ionospheric and tropospheric biases (if baseline
in high-end GPS receivers is short).
Carrier phase ambiguity term remains.
Triple difference Eliminates carrier phase ambiguity term.
Useful for preliminary baseline computations
using carrier phase data, and for cycle slip
detection/repair.
Between-epoch difference Eliminates carrier phase ambiguity term.
(see Fig. 3-1) Greatly reduces ephemeris, ionospheric, and
tropospheric biases (if epoch separation is short).
52 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

possible to obtain high-precision results (sub-centimeter) in real time using the

real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS positioning method (discussed in Chapter 5, “Real-
Time Kinematic (RTK) Systems”).

Differential GPS
In DGPS, the base antenna is deployed over a benchmark or control point for
which the position is known. As demonstrated in Table 3-1, the method can cor-
rect for a number of GPS errors and thus enhance the position calculation beyond
the regular GPS level. The main classification of DGPS systems is based upon the
part of the GPS signal used to calculate the differences:

• Code phase DGPS uses the C/A code of the signal

• Carrier phase DGPS uses the carrier wave (L1, L2, L5)

The other classifications, WAAS and LADGPS [or local area augmentation sys-
tem (LAAS)], are generally based on the area over which the corrections are valid;
for example, WAAS covers an area the size of a continent or an ocean and LAAS
covers a small area such as a construction site or an airfield. The classification can
also be based on the location of station transmitting the corrections or the type of
communication link for transmitting the corrections. For example:

• Satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS) employ satellites to transmit the

corrections toward the mobile receivers. Usually SBAS systems are also WAAS
systems, but not necessarily the other way round.
• Ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS) employ transmitters at ground
level. These transmitters can either transmit over radio or telephone lines.

The WAAS and LAAS systems are further discussed in Chapter 4.

Code Phase DGPS
In code phase DGPS, the base measures the pseudoranges to the satellites. The
base also calculates the theoretical pseudoranges using the known control point
coordinates and satellite coordinates. From these calculations follows a range dif-
ference between the measured and the theoretical pseudorange, called the computed
minus observed (C  O). The C  O corrections are then sent, one for each satellite,
to the rover using some form of telemetry. The common forms of telemetry are
radio telemetry, satellite telemetry, or the use of cellular phones. Figure 3-2 illus-
trates the code phase DGPS principle.
The true error at the rover will differ from that at the base but, since the satel-
lites are at a relatively long distance compared to the base–rover distance, the
C  O corrections are generally valid. The longer the base–rover separation dis-
tance (the “baseline”), the lower the accuracy of the corrections and thus the preci-
sion of the rover position. Errors at the base, such as multipath, will have a direct
influence on the quality of the DGPS correction and thus on the rover position.
IMPROVING ACCURACY 53

Figure 3-2. Principle of code phase DGPS.

In code phase DGPS, a precision on the order of 1 to 2 m can be achieved.

However, the actual precision depends on the baseline length and the telemetry
frequency chosen for transmitting the corrections.

Carrier Phase DGPS

In the case of code phase DGPS, the signal travel time is measured using the C/A-
code. The C/A-code has a bit rate of about 1 MHz. For transmission from the satel-
lite to the receiver, this code is modulated onto a carrier frequency that is about
1,000 times faster. The carrier signal (L1, L2, or L5) is perfectly shaped as a sine
wave with a wavelength of about 20 cm. This carrier can function as a much more
accurate reference than the C/A code.
By counting the number of cycles and phase of the carrier wave, the travel
time can be determined much more precisely. As a consequence, however, deter-
mining the corrections with carrier phase DGPS requires more computations than
when using the C/A code. A major issue is the determination of the whole number
of wavelengths (cycles) between the satellite and the receiver. This whole number
of cycles is called the integer ambiguity and needs to be resolved during the initial-
ization of the system. Resolving the integer ambiguity requires two receivers mak-
ing measurements with at least five common satellites. From this starting point,
the receiver tracks the change in cycles as the distance between the satellite and
receiver changes with time.
54 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

The result of a carrier phase DGPS is a difference in the X, Y, Z coordinates

between the base and the rover. No absolute positions are calculated at either the
base or the rover—the absolute position of the rover is found by adding the dX,
dY, dZ to the absolute coordinates of the base, as illustrated in Fig. 3-3.
For practical applications, a carrier phase DGPS plays the role of long-range
total station equipment, giving the range and bearing without the need for a line-
of-sight between the base and the rover. For height measurements, it plays the
role of level equipment but its measurements are based on the ellipsoid rather
than the geoid, as with a traditional level.

Carrier Phase Techniques

Table 3-2 provides an overview of the carrier phase techniques that are in use
today. It is important to note the following definitions when using the table:

• Postprocessing: measurements are taken in the field and processed later in the
office.
• Real time: measurements are taken and processed in the field and coordinate
results are available or visible at the time of the measurements.

Figure 3-3. Principle of carrier phase DGPS.

(Xb, Yb, Zb) are absolute base coordinates; (Xr, Yr, Zr) are absolute rover
coordinates; (dx, dy, dz) is the distance vector between the base and the
rover, derived at the base.
IMPROVING ACCURACY 55

Table 3-2. Overview of Carrier Phase Techniques

Precision
Technique Specifics (Confidence Level) Applications

Static Postprocessing Horizontal: 1 cm Geodetic surveys,

Static initialization (95%) engineering control
1–2-h measurement Vertical: centimeters
Range: tens of km
Rapid static Postprocessing Horizontal: 0.5–1 cm Geodetic surveys, site
Static initialization Vertical: centimeters control surveys
5–15-min. measurement (95%)
Range: tens of km
Kinematic Postprocessing Horizontal: 0.5–2 cm Engineering and detail
Static initialization Vertical: 1–5 cm surveys, topographic
Continuous measurement (95%) and location surveys
Range: tens of km
Real-time Real-time or Horizontal: 0.5–2 cm Topographic and
kinematic postprocessing Vertical: 1–5 cm location surveys,
(RTK) Initialization during (95%) machine control and
movement guidance, real-time
Continuous measurement monitoring
Range: up to 15 km
Long-range Real-time or Horizontal: 1–5 cm Hydrographic surveys,
RTK postprocessing Vertical: 1–10 cm ship navigation and
Initialization during (95%) guidance, unpiloted
movement aerial vehicles (UAVs)
Continuous measurement
Range: tens to hundreds
of km
Satellite RTK Real-time or Horizontal: 1–5 dm Oceanographic surveys,
postprocessing Vertical: decimeters offshore surveys, ship
Initialization during (95%) navigation
movement
Continuous measurement
Range: hundreds of km

• Static initialization: the GPS measuring equipment or setup may not move during
initialization. Initialization is the process of resolving the integer ambiguity.
• Continuous measurement: measurements are taken without breaks or sessions,
and mostly while moving, thus creating a continuous profile or time series.
Static and Rapid Static
Static and rapid static carrier phase DGPS are the most commonly used techniques
for high-precision positioning applications requiring only a single set of precise
coordinates for every point measured. Examples of such applications include
56 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

geodetic surveys, engineering, and site control. Data are collected on one or more
points for 1 to 2 hours (or longer) in the static mode or 5 to 30 min. in the rapid
static mode. The data are postprocessed to solve the integer ambiguity, and base-
lines between surveyed points are calculated. In general, three other known points
external to the points being calculated are used to validate the baseline measure-
ments and to calculate absolute positions from the relative baselines. The exter-
nal points (control points) are used as project control. When used correctly with
well-known control points, the accuracy of these techniques can be less than 1 cm
for horizontal (X and Y) coordinates and around 2 cm for the vertical (Z) coordi-
nate. The only disadvantage of this technique is that it is postprocessed, so most
of the quality information needed is available with a delay of days to weeks (for
example, precise orbits are normally available approximately 2 weeks from the
date of data collection). In addition, the GPS antennas at the base and the rover
must remain stationary during the entire data collection period.
Kinematic
In this technique, the roving antenna is allowed to move after initialization but
the base station must still remain stationary. The roving antenna can also remain
stationary during the data collection process, and that would not negate the con-
cept of kinematic positioning. The data collected from both the base and the rover
are postprocessed. This technique is commonly used in detailed engineering and
topographic surveys, and is suitable for applications requiring the positioning of
a large number of point, line, or area features within a project location. Although
the results are postprocessed, this method provides a cost-effective carrier phase
solution and has the advantage of using relatively inexpensive receivers.
Real-Time Kinematic
Real-time kinematic (RTK) is the most commonly used carrier phase DGPS tech-
nique. Initialization is done “on-the-fly” (OTF) and, hence, this technique is also
sometimes referred to as RTK OTF. Its main advantage is that there is no need
for postprocessing or static initialization. The integer ambiguity is solved on-the-
fly using data transmitted by the base to the rover, and this can be done while the
rover is moving. In standard RTK only one base station is used but new methods
have been developed to allow for use of data from multiple base stations, thus
increasing accuracy and quality control. The achievable precision ranges from the
centimeter-level (with standard RTK) to decimeter-level (with long-range and
satellite-based RTK). See examples in Figs. 3-4 and 3-5.
Long-range RTK is based on same technology as standard RTK but has an
extended range of tens to hundreds of kilometers (Colombo et al. 2003) using
ultra-high frequency (UHF) data links. Similarly, satellite-based RTK has a range
of hundreds of kilometers using satellite data links. A technique for real-time,
wide-area differential kinematic positioning at the decimeter level has been tested
with data from GPS stations in Europe and the United States, streamed in real
time over the Internet by various organizations using the protocol known as Net-
work Transport of RTCM via Internet Protocol (NTRIP) (Fig. 3-4).
IMPROVING ACCURACY 57

Figure 3-4. Long-range kinematic positioning using data from Networked

Transport of RTCM via Internet Protocol (NTRIP) streams. RTCM is Radio
Technical Commission for Maritime Services. Source: Colombo (2008).

Network Reference Systems

The basic setup of a DGPS system consists of a single base station or a network of
base stations. As a general rule, single projects usually only require single base
station DGPS. Even on large projects that may employ multiple base stations, the
base stations are usually operating independent of each other.
DGPS networks comprised of multiple base (reference) stations have been set
up in many regions of the world (see Chapters 4 and 5 for further details). Most
of such DGPS networks are operated on a commercial or government basis
whereby the base stations continuously exchange measurements and check on
each other. This ensures higher network reliability, such that abnormalities or
errors in a single base station can be easily detected. In addition, it is possible to
use combined error corrections from multiple base stations, in a technique known
as a virtual reference station (VRS) network solution.
Two types of DGPS network reference systems exist; one is based on centralized
processing and the other is based on the onboard processing solution at the rover.
Centralized Processing Networks
In VRS networks a number of reference stations measure the range corrections
and transmit them to a central processing hub. The hub then combines the data
58 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 3-5. Long-range (1,000 km) kinematic positioning of buoys at

sea. (a) Buoys being towed by a small craft during test; (b) close-up of a
floating buoy showing a small, round GPS antenna on top. Source:
Colombo et al. (2000).

from the various reference stations into one solution set of range corrections. The
combined set of errors is transmitted via a data link to the rover, where the range
corrections are applied to the measured pseudoranges. In this kind of network
there is a need to transmit the estimated rover position to the network. Hence, a
bidirectional telemetry (such as that in cellular phones) is most desirable for data
transmission. Figure 3-6 shows the VRS data flow concept.

Figure 3-6. Virtual reference station (VRS) data flow.

Courtesy of Trimble Navigation Limited © 2011.
IMPROVING ACCURACY 59

In another form of centralized hub processing, multiple base stations are

included in a postprocessing solution for which telemetry is not required. Practical
examples of such networks (in addition to VRS) are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5.
Onboard Processing at the Rover
When processing onboard at the rover, a number of telemetry sources can be
used, such as SBAS and GBAS corrections. The rover combines these into a single
set of corrections for each satellite using a least-squares adjustment technique in
which a weighting of the different correction sources can be applied (e.g., based
on the telemetry method or the baseline distance between the base and rover). An
important aspect of this method is that multiple-reference DGPS receivers are
generally more expensive than the single-reference DGPS receivers.
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 4

Low-Cost GPS Systems

Two important factors can be used to distinguish a low-cost GPS system. First, at
the time of this writing they range in price from under US$100 to US$5,000 or
thereabouts. Second, positioning accuracy requirements are not as stringent as in
high-precision systems (the latter are discussed in Chapter 5). For these systems
other factors such as signal integrity, availability, and reliability may be more
important than high precision. They cost much less, relative to high-precision
systems, due to less investment in the hardware and signal processing—the posi-
tioning principles are based on point positioning and broadcast differential cor-
rections (described in Chapter 3).
Table 4-1 gives an overview of some of the features of low-cost GPS systems.
These features, as shown in the various columns of the table, will be explained
throughout this chapter. The discussion is based on two categories of low-cost GPS
systems, namely, navigational GPS systems and differential GPS (DGPS) systems.

Navigational GPS Systems

Navigational GPS systems are at the lower end of the spectrum in terms of both
accuracy and cost. There are many different types of navigational systems, as we
will see shortly. But first, let us look at the features of navigational GPS systems.

Receiver Channels and Frequencies

The GPS receiver consists of the radio receiver, the microprocessor, and the
input/output interface. The radio receiver defines the number of frequencies (L1,
L2, L5) that the receiver can receive as well as the number of satellites it can track
(acquire) at one time. Signals from different satellites enter the receiver simultane-
ously via a GPS antenna, but the antenna itself does not sort the information it gath-
ers. The signals are identified and separated from one another in the channels of
the radio receiver. A receiver may have as few as 3 or as many as 72 physical chan-
nels. However, one should bear in mind that the number of channels is not analo-
gous to the number of satellites tracked; every single frequency for each satellite
takes a single channel in a parallel receiver. A 12-channel, single-frequency receiver

61
 62
Table 4-1. Features of Low-Cost GPS Systems

Application Recreation Car Navigation Tracking Shipping Aviation GIS Construction Agriculture

Number of channels      
Number of frequencies 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2

APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Antenna (internal/external) i ie i e e ie e e
Power supply i ie i e e ie e e
Size        
Weight   
Robustness      
User interface s s  s s s sc sc
Display    
DGPS reception w1 w1    
DGPS range    
Communication   p p p i p p
Data exchange   

, less important; , important; , may or may not be important.

w1: WAAS/EGNOS is a benefit, but not required.
i, internal; e, external; s, screen; c, externally controlled; p, communication port.
LOW-COST GPS SYSTEMS 63

can track 12 satellites on L1, whereas a 12-channel dual-frequency receiver can track
6 satellites on L1 and L2. In the past, when radio chipsets were relatively expensive,
methods such as sequential and multiplex receiving were used whereby only a few
radio channels could be used to track a large number of satellites. The disadvan-
tage of those techniques was that only a few satellites could be tracked at a given
time. The alternative is parallel receivers, where the number of satellites that can be
tracked depends on the number of channels a receiver has. While this feature is less
important in navigational GPS systems and 12 channels were once excessive (c. 1995),
multichannel design is now the standard for in-car navigation receivers.

Antenna
Most navigational GPS receivers have a built-in antenna, but many can also
accommodate a separate externally connected antenna. The separate antennas
with their connecting coaxial cables in standard lengths are usually available from
the receiver manufacturers. For most navigational GPS receivers, the antennas
are single-frequency capable. The wavelengths of the GPS carriers are 19.0 cm
(L1), 24.4 cm (L2), and 25.5 cm (L5); antennas that are one-quarter or one-half
wavelength tend to be the most practical and efficient, so GPS antenna elements
can be as small as 4 to 6 cm. Most receiver manufacturers use microstrip (also
known as patch) antennas. These antennas can receive one or two GPS frequen-
cies, although dual-frequency microchip antennas often have two patches, one for
each frequency. A quadrifilar antenna is a single-frequency antenna that has two
orthogonal bifilar helical loops on a common axis. Quadrifilar antennas perform
better than microstrip antennas on crafts that pitch and roll, like boats and air-
planes. They are also used in many recreational handheld GPS receivers.

Power Supply
Power supplies to navigational units are mostly internal battery, some with recharge
capability. Some manufacturers also provide external power supplies as additional
accessories. A variety of batteries are used and there are various configurations.
Some GPS units use camcorder batteries but handheld recreational GPS units
often use disposable AA or AAA batteries. The most important question to ask
when considering power supply is how long it performs on a single charge. And is
there an external power supply to the receiver? In differential GPS applications
(see next section), rechargeable batteries are the norm.

Size and Weight

Generally speaking, the size and weight of a GPS receiver relate to the amount of
memory required for data processing and storage. Recreational receivers do not
have substantial memory as it is not needed for their designed applications. They
generally only use the C/A code on the L1 frequency and are accurate to approxi-
mately 10 to 30 m. They are smaller in size and weigh much less compared to
differential receivers. However, while most recreational and navigational receivers
64 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

are not capable of tracking the carrier phase observable (refer to Chapter 2,
Eq. 2-7), some have differential capability. These receivers were developed with
navigation in mind and, in fact, they are sometimes categorized by the number of
waypoints they can store. Waypoint grew out of military usage, and it means the
coordinate of an intermediate position that a person, vehicle, or airplane must
pass to reach a desired destination. With such a receiver, a navigator may call up
a distance and direction from the present location to the next waypoint.

User Interface and Display

Most receivers have a control and display unit (CDU). From handheld keypads to
touch-screen to digital map displays and interfaces to other instrumentation,
there are a variety of configurations. The control and display unit facilitates the
interaction between the operator and the receiver’s microprocessor. In recre-
ational handheld receivers, the CDU is screen-based and may offer a combination
of help menus, prompts, waypoint map display, the satellites being tracked, the
receiver’s position in 3-D, GPS time, and velocity information, among other fea-
tures. In some units, the CDU may also be used to display the satellite numbers
(or pseudo random noise, PRN) and dilution of precision (DOP) values. Gener-
ally, the information available from the CDU varies from receiver to receiver.

Communication and Data Interface

Additional accessories for data communication and interface may include exter-
nal cables for data download and interfacing with external instrumentation or
devices.

Handheld GPS Receivers

Recreational receivers are usually simple in construction, robust, waterproof, and
sometimes have additional altimeters, compasses, and thermometers to provide
users with all sorts of information. Figure 4-1 shows an example. They are great
for outdoor activities such as hiking or mountain biking, but engineers may also
use them to find project points in unfamiliar locations. At every level of GPS tech-
nology, the trend is to design smaller and better, with more features, and modern
handheld GPS receivers also display a small (base) map for crude navigation. Spe-
cific games such as geocaching rely on the use of such receivers to guide the
gamers toward an item stored at a specific undisclosed location.

Car Navigation GPS Systems

More than 90% of all GPS units sold today are used in navigation. In-car naviga-
tion GPS systems are relatively inexpensive and reliable (Fig. 4-2). They have
detailed, reliable in-built maps of portions of the world that are updated on a reg-
ular basis. They are the ultimate modern traveling companion and guide,
although users ought to be cautious not to overly rely on technology at the peril
LOW-COST GPS SYSTEMS 65

Figure 4-1. Garmin handheld recreational GPS receiver with compass and
barometric altimeter. Such receivers can be DGPS if WAAS-enabled.
Materials reproduced with the permission of Garmin. Copyright 2011
Garmin Ltd or its Subsidiaries. All Rights Reserved.

of totally forsaking paper-based topographic maps. The in-car navigation systems

have many desirable features. They have wide screens and integrated voice
devices—you can create a route and then put your mind on “cruise control” as
you follow clear, accurate, voice-prompted, turn-by-turn directions to safely reach
your destination. They have simple, intuitive menus that offer access to the shortest
and fastest routes, directions, and estimated arrival time at your intended desti-
nation. Automated voice prompts alert you to upcoming turns, course deviations,
and distance to your final destination. At the touch of a button you can view the
locations of all the nearest highway exits, gas stations, restaurants, ATMs, hospi-
tals, and rest areas on a full-color LCD screen.

Other Navigational GPS Systems

GPS manufacturers are developing more and more specialized receivers for partic-
ular industries, such as transportation fleet management and tracking. In addition
to the handheld and in-car navigation systems, another class of GPS navigators is
the micromodular receivers. They come in ultracompact sizes, making them easy
to conceal and integrate with other applications. They are quite affordable, with
66 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 4-2. In-car navigation system (can be DGPS if WAAS-enabled)

Materials reproduced with the permission of Garmin. Copyright 2011
Garmin Ltd or its Subsidiaries. All Rights Reserved.

low-end receivers costing around US$100, while higher-end receivers range from
US$200 to US$1,000. These receivers are designed for low power consumption to
fit the requirements of extended operations, and they can be installed simply as
position reporting beacons using a transmitter and the Internet (or another data
connection). They do not need an integrated user interface or screen display, but
they also have a data download capability, such as through specialized data trans-
fer cables. Some high-end receivers in this category can perform real-time differ-
ential corrections if they are designed with that capability or are attached to the
proper antenna. The market trend is to miniaturize these units, as manufacturers
race to design the world’s smallest GPS receiver (Chapter 7 discusses this in “Minia-
ture GPS Devices”).
A micromodular receiver is an all-in-one device. For example, a 1-in.  1-in. 
0.25-in. “black box” unit may be made up of an internal antenna, a position
calculation chip, and a data interface. Using such a receiver, an external con-
troller, and a transmitter, position information can be sent remotely to users.
The receiver calculates its location and sends the data to the controller, which
LOW-COST GPS SYSTEMS 67

functions as both a modem and a radio controller. The controller then sends
“packets” of digital information at programmed time intervals (e.g., every few
minutes). The packets are sent to the radio transmitter on a certain frequency
that is picked up by numerous receiving stations and Internet gateways. The dig-
ital position information is then shared between several servers on the Internet
and is used by automatic position reporting systems, overlaid on a detailed map,
and graphically presented to the user—anywhere in the world. While this is a
hypothetical illustration, it represents the typical application of micromodular nav-
igational GPS systems. Given their intended applications (e.g., continuous track-
ing), most of the micromodular systems are integrated with assisted-GPS (A-GPS)
technology in which additional signals from cellular tower networks aid continuous
position reporting.

Differential GPS (DGPS) Systems

Navigational handheld GPS units provide autonomous, single-point positioning

by using “unsmoothed” code pseudoranges. The positions from such receivers
are not accurate for professional work and applications such as engineering con-
trol and geographic information systems (GIS). They can achieve typical accura-
cies of 10 to 20 m, although some manufacturers make extraordinary claims
about what their particular brands of handheld receivers can achieve. In com-
parison, DGPS using code-based pseudoranges can achieve better real-time or
postprocessed position results. Because of this, code-based DGPS systems are
often used in collecting GIS and mapping data for which typical accuracies can
be anywhere from 5 cm to 10 m. Although DGPS still depends on code-based
pseudorange observations, at least two receivers are required. One receiver is
placed on a control station and the other is used for positioning. Both receivers
simultaneously track the same codes from the same satellites and, because many
of the errors are common to both receivers, they are correlated and tend to
cancel each other.
In real-time code-phase DGPS, range corrections are computed at the control
station (the DGPS site) and broadcast out to the second DGPS receiver. The
methodology by which the individual satellite range corrections are computed is
explained in Chapter 3, “Differential GPS”. Here, the real-time concept is illus-
trated in Fig. 4-3, where the range corrections are transmitted in terms of correc-
tions in the three coordinate components (i.e., the corrections are the differences
between the true coordinates and observed coordinates at the control station). In
this concept, a DGPS receiver must be capable of receiving and applying the trans-
mitted corrections. The DGPS range is the radius within which the DGPS correc-
tions are valid.
Some DGPS receivers combine code and carrier phase data (e.g., using C/A
code and L1 carrier phase) for improved accuracy. As a matter of fact, as GPS has
become more popular and the technology more advanced, the price for improved
accuracy has dropped; many receivers priced under US$1,000 are capable of real-
time differential correction.
68 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 4-3. Illustration of differential corrections in real-time code-phase

DGPS. The numbers shown are not factual—they are used only for
illustration of the DGPS concept.

Receiver Channels and Frequencies

Most DGPS receivers (code-phase and carrier-phase) in use today can have up to
72 channels and can receive GBAS and SBAS signals (differential correction sig-
nals). A 72-channel receiver can track 72 satellites on the L1 frequency or 36 satel-
lites on both the L1 and L2 frequencies. Besides the number of satellites a
receiver can track, the signal-to-noise (C0/N) ratio is also very important. The
higher the C0/N ratio, the more sensitive the receiver is and the better it can track
satellite signals in less-favorable conditions. Modern receivers are very sensitive
and can track satellites in adverse conditions such as under foliage, in urban envi-
ronments, and so forth.

DGPS Reception and Range

When selecting a DGPS system, the method used for transmitting the corrections
plays an important role. For instance, there are some free-of-charge corrections,
such as WAAS and European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS)
that can only be received with a suitably equipped DGPS receiver. There are also
a number of commercial code-phase DGPS services, and they also come with their
specially suited receivers. When a certain differential technique is selected, it is
LOW-COST GPS SYSTEMS 69

important to select the right type of telemetry (e.g., radio, cell phone, or satellite).
A DGPS can range from a few kilometers to thousands of kilometers depending
on the type of telemetry; in the case of commercial services, it comes at a price.
Even within a certain type of telemetry, there may be differences between manu-
facturers or service providers.

User Interface and Display

Most DGPS receivers have color LCD display screens that can perform well under
bright sunlight conditions and also change mode when the lighting condition
changes. For receivers that are to be used outdoors, good screen readability is
important. Experienced users will need a system that, besides simple operations,
has a wide variety of customizable settings. Menu options may be used to create
projects and feature dictionaries (in the case of GIS), select different data capture
methods, and set parameters such as epoch interval and satellite mask angles.
The information available from the CDU varies from receiver to receiver. Some
DGPS receivers are of the black box type and can only be programmed using an
external controller. These kinds of receivers can be suitable for certain applica-
tions, such as where a large number of untrained operators use the system.

Communication and Data Interface

Communication ports and internal data storage are very important features for
DGPS receivers. For data transmission to other equipment, the NMEA 0183 pro-
tocol is used. This protocol consists of hardware and message specifications, origi-
nally conceived in the maritime sector. In addition, most manufacturers use their
own specific data messages that can usually contain more information. However,
not all software is capable of using this protocol. For some applications, such as
GIS, a receiver that can transfer data in a number of formats is required.
For data storage, most receivers have internal memory, although USB mem-
ory cards and memory sticks are also widely in use. Most modern receivers
employ the same type of memory cards as found in digital cameras and similar
electronic gadgets.

Antennas
A DGPS system needs a minimum of two antennas, one for receiving GPS signals
and another for receiving the differential correction signals. Some receivers are
equipped with an integrated internal GPS antenna, while others can be connected
to an external antenna. The latter is important for receivers that are installed in
enclosed spaces such as aircraft and ships. In the WAAS and EGNOS concept (see
“DGPS Controllers and Data Collectors” and “DGPS Networks and Services,”
below), a single antenna will perform functions of both a GPS antenna and the
differential correction antenna.
70 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

GPS Antenna
This antenna collects the GPS signals; its primary function is to convert the elec-
tromagnetic waves into electric currents that are then processed as information by
the radio frequency (RF) section of the receiver. A GPS antenna can be passive or
active. An active antenna has a built-in amplifier that requires power from the
receiver. A passive antenna cannot amplify the signal. Active antennas are more
expensive but their advantage is that no signal is lost during transmission from the
antenna to the receiver. Furthermore, the receiver must be able to supply the cor-
rect voltage to the antenna if any signal is to be received at all. Although a DGPS
antenna can be designed to collect only the L1 frequency signals, most GPS anten-
nas can collect both L1 and L2 frequencies. The former is referred to as a single-
frequency antenna while the latter are dual-frequency antennas. In all cases, antennas
must be “right-hand circular polarized” (RHCP) to be able to receive the circular
polarized GPS signals broadcast from the satellites. And as seen in the previous
section, several antenna designs are possible but the common feature is that they
must have high sensitivity (also called high gain) since the satellite’s signal has such
low power density, especially after propagating through the atmosphere.

Differential Correction Antenna

The type of differential antenna depends on the telemetry method (e.g., radio, cell
phones, satellite). In radio telemetry, for example, the most common type of
antenna is a whip or rod antenna, depending on the type of application. Telemetry
using cellular phones requires a Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)-
type antenna, while satellite telemetry antennas are similar to a GPS antenna.

Power Supply
In high-end DGPS applications, rechargeable batteries are used, and they come
in different sizes, weights, and performance characteristics. Lithium-ion, nickel-
cadmium (NiCd), and nickel metal-hydride (NiMH) may be the most common
batteries, but lead-acid batteries may still have application in some instances. Each
of these battery types has its benefits and drawbacks that should be noted. For
instance, lead-acid batteries are heavy and generally bigger, and are only logically
useful as an external power supply to a receiver. They have a short life cycle but
they have high power and are economical and longer-lasting when charged. NiCd
batteries are more costly than lead-acid batteries, are small in size, weigh less, and
operate well at low temperatures. They are generally used as an internal power
supply but can be removed during nonoperation or for recharge. NiCd batteries
are just as toxic as lead-acid batteries. Lithium-ion batteries overcome several of
the limitations of these other batteries. They are light and have a good life cycle
and low toxicity. However, while the other battery types tolerate overcharging, a
lithium-ion battery does not. They are widely used in internally powered receivers.
Most code-tracking DGPS receivers that do not use the carrier phase observable
can operate for about 15 hours on a fully charged 6-amp-hour battery. In com-
LOW-COST GPS SYSTEMS 71

parison, GPS carrier phase receivers can operate 5.5 hours or longer on the same
size of battery.

Robustness, Size, and Weight

Robustness is important for most DGPS receivers, given their intended applica-
tions. Most of these receivers are dust- and watertight and they can operate under
various temperature conditions. For some applications, such as GIS and agricul-
ture, the size and weight of the receiver are important, especially for applications
where the user will have to carry the system around for an extended period of
time. However, for applications such as shipping and aviation, these two features
are less important. A receiver of any weight or size can be installed.

Maritime and Aircraft GPS Systems

DGPS receivers used in the maritime and aircraft industries are usually quite
bulky and not very sophisticated in terms of design, but are robust and reliable
(Fig. 4-4). In contrast to the car navigation industry in which GPS navigation
units are usually add-ons, DGPS is a primary means of navigation in the mar-
itime and aviation sectors. Given the safety-of-life applications in these sectors,
the GPS systems must be both reliable and available essentially all of the time. In
other words, a GPS drop-out in car navigation might only be a matter of incon-
venience to the driver, but a similar occurrence in aircraft or ship navigation can
have disastrous results. Consequently, DGPS systems in these applications rely
heavily on augmentation systems such as WAAS, especially in areas where relia-
bility is an issue such as approaches to airports and harbors and passages in
heavily trafficked routes.

Figure 4-4. Garmin 400 W aircraft GPS/WAAS receiver.

Materials reproduced with the permission of Garmin. Copyright 2011
Garmin Ltd or its Subsidiaries. All Rights Reserved.
72 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

DGPS Controllers and Data Collectors

Today the ability to obtain sub-meter accuracy in real time with DGPS service elim-
inates the need for postprocessing for many applications. In the United States,
DGPS service is available through the use of United States Coast Guard (USCG)
beacon receivers and satellite-based DGPS service (e.g., WAAS). The USCG service
is limited to the coastal areas, at about an 80- to 485-km (50- to 300-mi.) radius
of a single DGPS station. For areas where the USCG beacon service is not avail-
able, real-time, satellite-based DGPS service is available throughout most of the
world at a reasonable cost. New generations of data collectors are equipped with
the technology to allow for use of these services. For instance, the Trimble GeoXH
(as shown in Fig. 4-5) is capable of 1-m accuracy in the field using WAAS services,
but typically requires 1 to 2 min. at each point. Accuracy of less than 1 ft is also
possible after postprocessing.
In general, data collectors of 0.1- to 0.3-m (4-in. to 1-ft) accuracy can be used
for preliminary site surveys, as-built surveys for collecting asset information, envi-
ronmental impact reports, road centerlines, and in collecting urban asset data-

Figure 4-5. Trimble GeoXH 6000 series data collector (many other vendors
offer similar systems with similar features).
Courtesy of Trimble Navigation Limited © 2011.
LOW-COST GPS SYSTEMS 73

bases for GIS. Costs of the high-accuracy mapping systems are typically about
one-half to one-third of the cost of a survey-grade GPS unit.
An integrated data collector can be carried in hand with no need for cables
or a pole or backpack. However, some are designed for use on a range pole (Fig.
4-6), using communication via Bluetooth or serial cable. They are economically
priced between a few hundred to thousands of dollars, have a longer battery life
(14–16 hours), and are lightweight, thus making it easier for the user to carry the
units all day in the field. In addition, most data collectors have touch-screens and
come with a color display. Some have voice-activated systems that come in handy
if one wants to dictate notes. Most of the DGPS data collectors have at least two
serial ports, USB ports, and infrared ports. Some of them have built-in modems
and offer extended memory and compact flash memory card options.

Figure 4-6. Data collector on a range pole.

Courtesy of Trimble Navigation Limited © 2011.
74 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

DGPS Networks and Services

Four common sources of real-time differential correction signals are currently

available. The first source includes land-based beacon systems, such as the USCG
Maritime DGPS Service, which send out correction signals via radio waves.
According to the USCG website, their system provides 10-m accuracy in all estab-
lished coverage areas. The beacons are strategically located to cover the entire
coastline of the continental United States, the Great Lakes, Puerto Rico, most of
Alaska and Hawaii, and a large part of Mississippi River basin. Use of these sig-
nals simply requires the addition of a real-time DGPS beacon antenna to the GPS
receiver. However, the range of the beacons is limited and can only be effectively
utilized within 485 km (300 mi.) of the DGPS stations. Other countries are begin-
ning to develop their own coastal real-time beacon networks, modeled after the
USCG system. The correction broadcast by the USCG Maritime DGPS Service is
free to any user who has a receiver that can pick up the signals, but is only trans-
mitted in the United States.
A U.S. nationwide network, the Nationwide Differential GPS (NDGPS, Fig. 4-7),
is the descendant of the USCG Maritime DGPS Service. It is designed to fulfill
both the USCG’s original responsibility [to provide DGPS coverage to all harbors
and harbor approaches of the United States (Wolfe et al. 2000)] and an inland
component of a nationwide DGPS service. The Maritime Service continues to pro-
vide differential corrections along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf Coasts, the Great
Lakes, and the coastal waterways of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and southern Alaska.
However, as the number of users and uses of DGPS increased, the need to expand

Figure 4-7. The U.S. Nationwide Differential GPS (NDGPS) Network, a type of wide
area DGPS (WADGPS).
LOW-COST GPS SYSTEMS 75

the DGPS coverage area also increased. As a result, an agreement with the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) expanded the USCG’s DGPS coverage to the
inland rivers of the United States. A similar agreement with the U.S. Department
of Transportation (DOT) expanded coverage to transportation corridors. Thus,
NDGPS now provides double DGPS coverage across the continental United States
and along the transportation corridors in Alaska, and single coverage over the
rest of Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. According to the DOT website, the
NDGPS service provides 1- to 3-m accuracy to receivers capable of receiving the
differential correction signal. The service is operating with the support of three
federal agencies: USCG (39 sites), USACE (9 sites), and DOT (38 sites operated
and maintained by USCG under contract).
A second source of correction signals is the satellite-based subscription serv-
ices. The signals are transmitted from geostationary satellites and therefore are
available worldwide. These services are expensive, but the benefit is their avail-
ability in many areas where base stations do not exist.
A third source of real-time correction signals consists of the free satellite-
based services, such as the WAAS and similar systems worldwide [Canadian WAAS
(CWAAS), European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), Japanese
MTSAT Satellite-based Augmentation System (MSAS), and so forth]; see Figs. 4-8
and 4-9. The WAAS is part of the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration’s GPS-
based navigational system. It is a satellite-based DGPS system used to assist air-
planes in navigation and landing. WAAS-enabled receivers can generate coordi-
nates with an accuracy of less than 3 m (Garmin 2010). The CWAAS, EGNOS, and
MSAS are also satellite-based differential correction systems designed primarily

Figure 4-8. Wide-area augmentation system (WAAS).

76 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 4-9. Worldwide satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS)

service areas.

to aid in aircraft navigation in Canada, Europe, and Asia. All these services trans-
mit correction information from satellites over their service areas and are free to
users who have DGPS receivers capable of receiving the signals.
The fourth real-time DGPS correction source is the less common user-
transmitted correction signal. In this case, some high-end GPS receivers have
the capability to function as base stations and calculate correction information
on-the-fly. They can then transmit correction signals to the roving receiver via
radio or cellular link.
CHAPTER 5

High-Precision GPS Systems

Achieving High-Precision GPS Results

The Concept of Precision

Although accuracy and precision are sometimes used interchangeably, it is impor-
tant to explain the difference between the two for the purpose of this chapter.
Accuracy is the degree of closeness of an estimate to its true but unknown value,
and precision is the degree of closeness of observations to their mean. Figure 5-1
illustrates various relationships between these two parameters.
In statistical terms, the “true value” refers to the mean of a population of meas-
urements. In other words, accuracy is the spread/standard deviation (error) of meas-
urements with respect to the population mean of the parameter being measured.
The term precision is used with respect to the sample mean of the parameter being
measured. In this book, the parameters being measured by GPS are position coor-
dinates; in this context, precision would be more appropriate term to use because
the “true” coordinates might not be initially known. In some cases, such as in the
GPS continuously operating reference stations (CORS) described later in this chap-
ter, the position coordinates determined from long-term historical data can be
taken to be the true (population mean) coordinates of any given CORS station.
Achieving high precision (i.e., smaller standard deviations/errors) requires
either using more accurate instrument types or taking more observations using
the same instrument type, since the standard error reduces with the square root
of the number of repeated observations. The concept of precision using repeated
observations is based on the formula:

Sx–  Sx /兹莥莥
n (5-1)

where Sx– is the standard deviation of the mean of n observations, expressed in

terms of the standard deviation of a single observation (Sx).
These two aspects of achieving precision are some of the ways to help you
make decisions when planning a GPS project (further discussed in Chapter 6).
The quality of GPS measurements needed, such as 1 cm or 5 m, determines
what type of instruments and techniques you should adopt or how many times
you should repeat each measurement.

77
78 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 5-1. Various relationships between accuracy and precision. The true
value is located at the intersection of the crosshairs, the center of the
shaded area is the location of the mean estimate, and the radius of the
shaded area is a measure of the uncertainty contained in the estimate.

Achieving High Precision Using More Precise Instruments

To achieve high-precision (centimeter-level), instantaneous GPS positioning, car-
rier phase measurements are used (Eq. 2-7). This requires two frequencies (L1
and L2) of phase measurements, which is only possible with dual-frequency
receivers. Differencing techniques are applied to the phase observables to elimi-
nate most of the range errors (e.g., clocks, orbit, and atmospheric). In high-preci-
sion receivers the most common approach is double differencing. However, since
phase measurements also have cycle ambiguities that are unique to every individ-
ual satellite (and cannot be solved by double differencing), an additional process
known as ambiguity resolution (AR) is required. The double differencing and AR
requirements increase computational complexity, in comparison to a simple navi-
gation solution using code phase measurements. Different receivers apply different
AR techniques (Rizos 1997, pp. 345–381). The rigorous mathematical processes
involved are beyond the scope of this book, but it is important to note the differ-
ence between an “ambiguity-free solution” and an “ambiguity-fixed solution.” This is
explained with the help of Fig. 5-2 and Box 5-1.
Ambiguity-Free Solution versus Ambiguity-Fixed Solution
In the carrier phase-based solution using AR, a sufficient amount of data must be
observed before an ambiguity-fixed solution can be reached. Most of the modern
high-precision receivers can do this in a matter of a few seconds or minutes (for
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 79

Figure 5-2. The evolution of the quality of a GPS baseline solution as

ambiguities are solved. In region A (the ambiguity-free solution), the
precision and accuracy of the position coordinates steadily improve as more
data are collected. In region B (the ambiguity-fixed solution), the
unambiguous range data (based on precise phase measurements now
converted to precise range observations) are processed and there is no
improvement in the quality of the solution. The x-axis (time) refers to
epochs. Source: Rizos (1997, p. 369).

Box 5-1. Double-Difference Phase Data Solutions

There are two types of double-difference phase data solutions:

• Ambiguity-free solution (“bias” or ambiguity “float” solution), in which the
parameters to be estimated are the “rover” coordinates (one end of a base-
line) and the ambiguity parameters.
• Ambiguity-fixed solution (or “bias-fixed” solution), in which some or all the
ambiguity parameters have been resolved to their integer values.
The ambiguity-free solution is generally the first step. If successful, after this
solution the values of the ambiguity parameters (which theoretically should be
integers) may be close to integer values (but not exactly due to the presence of
residual biases such as atmospheric refraction, orbit error, multipath, etc.).
If the correct ambiguity values are identified, they can be held fixed in the
subsequent ambiguity-fixed solution. Such a solution is very strong because it
only contains the coordinate parameters (hence, it is equivalent to processing
unambiguous and precise ranges).
Note: It may not always be possible to attempt the ambiguity-fixed solution!
80 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

those receivers programmed to do so while observing). The double-differencing

process reduces the number of “observables” that need to be processed but, given
that each satellite observed at a particular receiver will have an ambiguity param-
eter, the number of unknowns are still relatively large. Take, for example, a sim-
ple baseline involving only two receivers (Fig. 3-3 in Chapter 3). The coordinates
of the base receiver are assumed to be known. The unknown parameters consist
of ambiguity parameters (which are constants for the entire observation session)
and the coordinates of the rover. In the case of six tracked satellites, there are five
(double-differenced) ambiguities to be resolved and three unknown coordinates
of the rover. The processing of double-differenced observation equations in a con-
ventional least-squares scheme permits the values of these unknown parameters
(and their uncertainties) to be estimated. This is the basis of the double-difference
ambiguity-free solution. The evolution of the uncertainties of the coordinate
parameters as the solution moves from ambiguity-free to ambiguity-fixed (Fig. 5-2)
can be explained as follows:

• In region A (the ambiguity-free solution) the precision and accuracy of the

position coordinates steadily improve as more data are collected. This is
sometimes also referred to as the float solution.
• As soon as sufficient data are available to resolve the ambiguities (at epoch
15), there is a dramatic improvement in the coordinate precision.
• In region B (the ambiguity-fixed solution), the unambiguous range data (based
on precise phase measurements now converted to precise range observations)
are processed and there is no improvement in the quality of the solution.
• If enough data are collected over an observation session, the precision of the
ambiguity-free solution (the float solution) will steadily improve, converging
to that obtained from an ambiguity-fixed solution.

Real-Time versus Postprocessed Data

Broadly speaking, there are two applications of carrier phase measurements: kine-
matic and static positioning. A more detailed classification has been defined pre-
viously in Chapter 3 (Table 3-2). In that classification, the real-time techniques
offer centimeter- to decimeter-level accuracies depending on the DGPS correc-
tion method used. In the real-time kinematic on-the-fly (RTK OTF) method, the
integer ambiguity is solved on-the-fly using data transmitted by the base to the
rover and “carrier-range” positioning can take place while the antenna is in motion.
To explain this further using Fig. 5-2, the OTF method is such that once the ambi-
guities are resolved (i.e., the rover is initialized) at epoch 15, there is no real justi-
fication for continuing to collect data beyond that time. However, through a pre-
programmed setup, the data can be logged onto the internal memory of the
receiver or into an external data collector for other purposes, such as postmission
screening or analysis.
In static positioning, the data are postprocessed and it is therefore not known
beforehand at what point (or even if) sufficient data have been collected to ensure
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 81

that an ambiguity-fixed solution is obtained. Hence, for applications such as geo-

detic surveys and engineering control, conservative observation session lengths of
not less than 30 min. (and usually 60 min. or more) are recommended. Static
applications use observations from receivers that are stationary for the duration
of their measurement. Most static applications can afford higher redundancy and
a bit more accuracy than RTK GPS. In general, the following strategies can be
used to decrease the length of observation sessions and increase the reliability of
ambiguity resolution processes:

• Keep baselines short! Chances for ambiguity resolution are much higher for
baselines of less than 20 km (12.5 mi.) in length (Fig. 5-3).
• Track as many satellites as possible and ensure good satellite geometry. Gen-
erally, a minimum of five visible satellites is recommended.
• Use dual-frequency observations and use precise pseudorange data whenever
possible—replacing geometric range quantities by measured pseudoranges.
• Use a priori information such as known baseline length. If baseline compo-
nents are known, then the double-differenced ambiguities can be directly
estimated.

The first two strategies are essential preconditions for reliable ambiguity res-
olution, but are largely beyond the control of the receiver operator. The last strat-
egy is useful for re-establishment (reinitialization) of the ambiguities when cycle
slips occur as the GPS antenna is moved from one point to another.

Figure 5-3. Example of the effect of baseline length (BL) on ambiguity resolution.
82 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Equipment for Centimeter-Level (or Better) Positioning

GPS receivers to be used for high-precision applications generally have the fol-
lowing features (Fig. 5-4):

• Able to measure carrier phase on at least one of the L-band carrier frequen-
cies (L1, L2, L5), and preferably two frequencies (dual-frequency).
• Have the capability of tracking substantially more than the minimum four
satellites simultaneously (using parallel multichannel tracking).
• Have the capability to record data for subsequent postmission analysis.
• Have a minimum data recording rate of 15 to 60 sec (preferably higher for
RTK and kinematic applications).

Figure 5-4. Equipment for centimeter-level (or better) positioning.

Clockwise from top left: geodetic antenna with radome antenna cover;
geodetic antenna at a base station; geodetic receiver; antenna on tripod
with receiver and a detached handheld controller.
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 83

• Antennas are chosen with stability and quality in mind in order to minimize
phase center variations and sensitivity to multipath.

Achieving High Precision Using Repeated Observations

For highest precision, the relative or differential GPS positioning is applied based
on carrier phase measurements between the receiver and the GPS satellites
(Fig. 5-5). This mode of positioning is achievable by using geodetic-grade GPS
receivers which are capable of producing centimeter- to millimeter-level accuracy.
The highest precision (millimeter-level) is possible due to postprocessing using
large volumes of data collected over a long period of time.
Observing Multiple Epochs and Sessions
When data are collected, the time interval at which every single measurement is
recorded is called an epoch; for instance, data can be recorded at 1-sec (or longer)
epochs. The time period during which multiple successive epochs are recorded
continuously at two or more receivers observing a common set of satellites simulta-
neously is called an observation session. An observation session can be as short as 1 min.
or as long as 2 hours or longer, but it cannot be shorter than the data-logging
epoch. Usually the receiver operator has to configure these two parameters before
taking measurements. However, in cases of continuous operation (e.g., at GPS
CORS), the measurement systems are usually configured to continuously store data
at short sessions of, say, 15 min. for postmission processing and analysis.

Figure 5-5. Achieving highest precision (millimeter-level).

84 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

When GPS positions are logged over time, the positions are scattered over an
area due to measurement errors. This dispersion of points is called a scatter plot,
which GPS manufacturers use to characterize their equipment’s accuracy. The
area within which the measurements or estimated parameters are likely to be is
called the confidence region. The confidence region is then analyzed to quantify the
GPS performance statistically. The confidence region with a radius describes the
probability that the solution will be within the specified accuracy. Two common
GPS accuracy measures are the distance root mean square (DRMS) and the circu-
lar error probability (CEP). These two measures are illustrated in Fig. 5-6.
Root mean square (RMS) is the value of one standard deviation (68%) of the
error in one, two, or three dimensions. DRMS is the radial or distance root mean
square error, calculated using the RMS values for the separate X and Y directions
according to the formula:

DRMS  RMSx2  RMSy2  ␴2x  ␴2y (5-2)

The probabilities described by 1DRMS and 2DRMS are the typical 68% and
95% values, respectively. (2DRMS refers to twice the DRMS and 3DRMS refers to
three times the DRMS. However, it should be noted that these measures are in

Figure 5-6. Scatter plot of repeated measurements. The center of the circle is
the location of the mean estimate and the radii are measures of uncertainties
in the estimate. CEP (the circular error probability) refers to the radius of a
circle in which 50% of the measurements occur; DRMS is the distance root
mean square.
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 85

two dimensions) In a 3-D case, mean radial spherical error (MRSE) corresponds
to 1DRMS in the 2-D case, and is given by the formula:

MRSE  RMSx2  RMSy2  RMSz2  ␴2x  ␴2y  ␴2z (5-3)

CEP is the value of the radius of a circle, centered at the actual position that
contains 50% of the position estimates. Values stated as CEP apply to horizontal
accuracy only.
Standard Deviation of Repeated Measurements
Although the highest precision is implied in static positioning, recorded GPS data
can be postprocessed as kinematic measurements (especially if the measurements
are recorded at 1-sec or shorter epochs). If the data are processed as kinematic
measurements, each epoch is in effect a measurement session, the standard devia-
tion of which can also be estimated.
For highest precision, data are usually collected in hourly or daylong sessions.
The session data are later postprocessed into a single static solution per session.
For example, an hourly session will provide a single position solution for the
rover, which is the mean of all the epochs observed within the hourly session.
Thus, each session solution is based on a set of repeated observations. In geodetic
applications, sessions can be archived into longer data sets spanning several days,
weeks, months, or years depending on the intended use of the data. This process
creates the time series data that can then be analyzed statistically. For instance,
according to the error propagation laws defined earlier, the precision of a day-
long solution should be higher than that of an hourly solution, and that of a week-
long solution should be higher than that of a daylong solution, and so forth. Fig-
ure 5-7 illustrates this principle, in which the standard deviation of the mean
improves as the number of repeated observations increases (i.e., as the time span
increases). The presence of large errors, linear trends, or outliers in a set of
repeated measurements may distort this relationship.
The primary advantage in GPS postprocessing is that the data can always be
reprocessed, each time with the goal of improving the coordinate precision. For
instance, when processing data 2 weeks after the observation, it is possible to
incorporate precise orbits and precise clock parameters that are usually available
from the websites of organizations such as IGS (International GNSS Service) and
NASA. The acronym GNSS stands for Global Navigation Satellite Systems, which
is further discussed in Chapter 8.

Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Systems

Single-Base RTK Systems

In practice, RTK systems use a single base station receiver. The base station
broadcasts its measured carrier phase to the rover, and the rover unit compares
its own phase measurements with the ones received from the base station. This
86 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 5-7. Standard deviations of repeated measurements. (a) A time

series of repeated measurements; (b) the standard deviations of their
respective means as a function of the number of measurements included in
calculating the mean.

allows the rover to calculate its relative position to millimeters-level accuracy,

although the absolute position is accurate only to the same accuracy as the posi-
tion of the base station. The typical nominal accuracy for dual-frequency RTK sys-
tems is 1 cm in the horizontal and 2 cm in the vertical.
There are several ways to transmit a correction signal from the base station to
the rover unit. The most popular way to achieve real-time, low-cost signal trans-
mission is to use a radio modem, typically in the UHF band. In most countries,
certain frequencies are allocated specifically for RTK purposes. Most modern
RTK equipment have a built-in UHF band radio modem as a standard option
(Figs. 5-8, 5-9, and 5-10).
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 87

Figure 5-8. RTK radio systems.

Initialization and Reinitialization

RTK systems require some time for initialization, usually at the start of measure-
ments. Once the base and rover have started tracking the same satellites, there is
usually a short wait time required for initialization. However, initialization is also
required whenever continuous tracking of satellites is inadvertently interrupted
or if the tracking stops for even a short length of time. Dual-frequency RTK
receivers are capable of reinitializing. Some receivers might require a return to a
known coordinated position for reinitialization.
Many RTK systems resolve the integer ambiguity using OTF initialization (refer
to “Real-Time versus Postprocessed Data” above). This standard function is a
method of resolving the carrier phase ambiguity very quickly and can allow the sys-
tem to initialize while the GPS unit is moving. The process can take less than 10 sec
under the best circumstances, which are where the receivers are tracking a large
number of satellites in a good geometry configuration [the position dilution of pre-
cision (PDOP) is small]; the receivers are dual-frequency; there is no multipath; and
the receiver noise is low. It also helps if there is good correlation of atmospheric
biases at both ends of the baseline. For this reason, RTK is best used when the dis-
tance between the base and rover is restricted to not more than 20 km (12 mi.).
88 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 5-9. A single-base/multiple-base RTK system.

Copyright by Leica Geosystems AG. Used with permission.

Communication Link
RTK systems require a real-time telemetry link between the base station and the
rover. This can be through a cable connection or a wireless connection, a telephone
or computer network, an optical link, or other wired communications. Wireless
telemetry is the most common, especially in portable RTK systems (Fig. 5-8) where
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 89

Figure 5-10. A single-base/multiple-base RTK system.

Courtesy of Trimble Navigation Limited © 2010.

users work in mobile mode. However, in some applications the wired connection is
the most sensible form of communication between the RTK base and the rover.
For instance, in dedicated RTK monitoring systems (on bridges, buildings, dams,
etc.) a cable link is the most suitable telemetry for data communication.

RTK Radio License

Traditionally, a radio link is the most common type of telemetry in RTK systems.
If a radio link is used, the modems at each end of the baseline must be tuned to
the same frequency. The units communicate with each other along a direct line-
of-sight. Most RTK radio equipment operates between UHF 400 to 475 MHz or
90 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

VHF 170 to 220 MHz. Voice communications also tend to operate in this same
range, which can present problems from time to time.
In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
requires cooperation among licensees that share frequencies. It is important for
RTK users to know that voice communications have priority over data communi-
cations. Users should be aware of and avoid using typical community voice
repeater frequencies. In addition, the FCC regulations require licensure of the
radio spectrum for private use (i.e., an application is required for licensing a radio
transmitter). Fortunately, when an RTK system is bought simultaneously with the
radio units, the radio licensing and frequency selection are often prearranged by
the GPS seller. Nevertheless, it is important to be aware of the licensing require-
ments in RTK operations and to avoid illegal operation without a proper license.
Elsewhere in the world, other international and national entities regulate fre-
quencies and use of radio signals. In some countries certain bands are designated
for public use (i.e., spread-spectrum communication) without any special licens-
ing requirements—for example, the 900-MHz band in the United States and the
2.4-GHz band in Europe.
UHF spread-spectrum radio modems are the most popular for DGPS or RTK
applications. The position of the transmitting antenna affects the performance of
the system. It is usually best to place the transmitter antenna as high as practical.
It is also best if the base has no overhead obstructions and is unlikely to be affected
by multipath (e.g., away from activities at a construction site). The base should be
within the line-of-sight of the rover but, if this is not practical, there should be as
little obstruction as possible along the radio link.
As mentioned earlier, most RTK systems work best when limited to a baseline
of less than 20 km (12 mi.). With a troublesome radio link, this distance could be
limited even further. For example, in areas with high radio traffic (e.g., many
RTK users at the same time), it can be difficult to find an open channel. For this
reason, most RTK radio transmitters allow users several frequency options within
the legal range.

Single-Base RTK with Repeater Radios

In certain circumstances, repeater radios can be used to extend the transmission
range of the single-base radio RTK. Projects in small sites of, say, 3 to 5 km (1.8
to 3 mi.) can be done with or without repeater radios. Radio RTK operations cov-
ering larger areas might require use of repeater radio(s) that work in conjunction
with the base radio transmitter. For example, a 35-watt Trimble 450 repeater
radio can work in conjunction with a dual-purpose base/rover unit with a built-in
0.5-watt transmitter (Fig. 5-10). The repeater can be moved to a location from
which it can still connect with the base in order to extend the base signal out far-
ther. This can be done without affecting the base unit once it is operational. Typi-
cally, a maximum of two repeaters can be used in a single project. The second
repeater is moved to its limits of connection with the first repeater and it retrans-
mits the first repeater’s signal farther out.
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 91

RTK with Cell Phones

This approach uses a cell phone connection to the Internet to access corrections
from the base or from multiple base stations. It is similar to a single-base RTK
operation but allows operation over much longer distances from the base than is
possible with radios. In addition, the cell phone connection tends to eliminate the
signal interruptions that can occur over the radio link. On the other hand, data
transmission delay (or latency), when it occurs on the Internet or due to poor cell
phone reception, can be a source of low-quality RTK positioning. The single-base
radio RTK requires setting up your own base. In most circumstances the base sta-
tion must be guarded or set in protected areas due to possibilities of theft or van-
dalism of unattended equipment.
In comparison with the radio RTK, the cell phone-based method typically
relies on permanent base stations scattered across a region. All that is required is
to set up the rover and log in over the Internet with a cell phone. The amount of
equipment that has to be carried is minimal and it is always with the operator in
the field. The use of cell phones in this regard is typically a characteristic of real-
time network solutions such as VRS (virtual reference stations), which are dis-
cussed in “Virtual Reference Stations” below.

Dedicated RTK Systems

In addition to portable RTK systems, some RTK systems are designed specifi-
cally for dedicated continuous (24/7) measuring operations. For example, the Leica
GMX902 (Fig. 5-11) is a dual-frequency GNSS receiver designed specifically for

Figure 5-11. Positioning with a dedicated RTK.

Copyright by Leica Geosystems AG. Used with permission.
92 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

monitoring applications. Given the nature of the application requirements (e.g.,

long-term use, sometimes in severe weather conditions), dedicated RTK systems
are of rugged construction, weatherproof, robust, and portable. Most manufac-
turers design systems for integrated solutions with automated data archiving and
high-speed, high-accuracy displacement calculation, with typical data measuring
rates ranging from 1 Hz to 100 Hz for some models. They are the most expensive
(can cost up to US$50,000 or more apiece) but are the highest-precision RTK
systems, for the most sensitive measurements. Additional key characteristics
include low power consumption and durability. They do not necessarily require
a radio or wireless communication link between the base and rovers. Instead,
telephone line or a fiberoptic link is usually the most suitable form of data com-
munication. In the case of centralized hub processing (mentioned in Chapter 3),
data from all receivers are transmitted to a centralized control room for process-
ing and analysis.

Network RTK and CORS Networks Infrastructure

Multi-Base Network RTK

In the case of network RTK systems, observations of several reference stations are
usually preprocessed in a central computing facility and network corrections are
then made available to the user over the Internet using cell phone connections
(Wegener and Wanninger 2010). The use of these systems, sometimes referred to
as real-time networks (RTNs), have been on the rise worldwide as both government
and commercial interests have led to proliferation of permanent GPS network
infrastructures. They eliminate the need for setup of base stations when doing
RTK operation and they extend the range of RTK coverage. In radio RTK sys-
tems, operations are usually restricted to within the radio range of a 3- to 5-km
(1.8- to 3-mi.) radius. A network RTK system can operate anywhere inside the
base station network covering an entire region. The cell phone network is used to
maintain connection with the server and provides access to the nearest base sta-
tions in the network for position corrections (Figs. 5-12 and 5-13).

Virtual Reference Stations (VRS)

Corrections can be determined for a particular position within an RTN in several
ways. One approach is the creation of a virtual reference station (VRS). As discussed
in Chapter 3, VRS is a type of RTK system that requires a two-way communica-
tion link. Users send data and their approximate positions to the control and pro-
cessing center. The control center returns corrections for an individual VRS via
the Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services (RTCM), and then the
baseline processing software inside the rover calculates its position using the VRS.
The VRS acts as a single nearby reference station. This concept of VRS is illus-
trated in Fig. 5-14.
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 93

Figure 5-12. A VRS RTK setup.

Courtesy of Trimble Navigation Limited © 2010.

Figure 5-13. The VRS RTK rover function: connect, correct, measure.
Courtesy of Trimble Navigation Limited © 2010.
94 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 5-14. Network RTK using VRS. Source: Wanninger (2008).

Wide Area RTK (WARTK)

Another approach involves sending RTK-type corrections or a broadcast of raw
data for all the reference stations. Wide area RTK (WARTK) systems consist of a
distributed network of reference stations communicating with a control center to
calculate GPS error corrections over a wide area (similar to WADGPS discussed in
Chapter 4). Real-time correction data are transmitted by radio or cellular modem
to the rover within the network area. The system improves the reliability and
operating range by reducing the systematic errors in the reference data. The dis-
tance at which the rover can be located from the reference base can be increased
while improving OTF initialization times. Although in both single-base and multi-
base network RTK the goal is to improve the rover position accuracy, the differ-
ence between the two methods is:

• In radio RTK a single base station, only a short distance from the rover, is
used, which means that vertical positions tend to agree well with each other
(Caution: Chapter 6, “The Vertical Component,” describes one of the limi-
tations of GPS—it is weaker in the vertical component, especially in the
RTK mode).
• In network RTK, multiple base stations are used to create an average correc-
tion for the rover. The base stations tend to be much farther away from the
rover than in radio RTK. The vertical positions are much better over longer
distances than what a single-base RTK can produce over longer distances.

Distance-Dependent Model
The central idea underlying RTN corrections is the combination of observations
from several base stations at precisely known positions. The data from the base
stations are combined to produce a virtual model of the area of interest; from this
model, distance-dependent biases such as ionospheric, tropospheric, and orbit
errors are calculated. Several techniques have been developed to model (or interpo-
HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 95

late) the distance-dependent biases between reference stations and user receivers
(Dai et al. 2001). The data processing consists of real-time ambiguity resolution of
the network carrier phase observations, and some quality control of the data. The
network information is then transferred to the user, depending on selected com-
munication links and data formats for transmitting the network data to the user.
VRS is the most widely used method. The user sends the rover’s approximate
position to the central computing facility and receives VRS observations in return,
using the RTCM format (RTCM 2006), to be used for baseline positioning. In this
method, an optimal set of reference observations are used, that is, the ones clos-
est to the rover, and the precise correction models for distance-dependent biases
are generated and transmitted. Based on the correction models and horizontal
coordinate differences between the master reference position and approximate
rover position, the reference observations are virtually shifted closer to the rover
(Fig. 5-14). This results in VRS observations that are used by the rover to deter-
mine the precise position from the processing of the short “virtual” baseline
between the VRS and the rover.
In calculating the distance-dependent biases, ionospheric and orbit biases are
modeled individually for each satellite. Tropospheric corrections, however, may
be estimated station by station. It is advantageous to separate the biases because
ionospheric errors show much larger temporal variations as compared to the
other distance-dependent biases.

Subscription versus Free Services

RTK dominates high-precision GPS applications, especially in areas that require
centimeter-level accuracy in real time. In many regions worldwide, RTN services
have been established by both governments and commercial interests to provide
RTCM real-time corrections to RTK users. These services are sometimes free but
often require subscription or fee payment before the user can access the broadcast
corrections over a data link via a modem such as a cell phone. The requirement to
set up base stations in the field can be avoided by using these RTN services (Fig.
5-13). In addition to extending the RTK range beyond the limitation of short base-
lines, these services alleviate the need to establish a radio frequency (RF) transmit-
ter and relevant components before a single measurement can be made.

CORS Infrastructure
Continuously operating reference stations (CORS) are the backbone of many GPS net-
works and services that exist today in support of high-precision GPS positioning.
While CORS can be configured to support differential GPS (DGPS) and RTK
applications, their primary function is to collect GPS tracking data from known
positions and archive the observations for subsequent downloads by users from
the Internet. Most of these networks are administered by governmental and sci-
entific organizations, although some are managed by public–private partnerships.
Uses of CORS, especially by scientific organizations, include the establishment of
96 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

long-term time series of precise position coordinates and velocities of stations

involved in the network. Such data are then used to predict precise positions of
the stations at any other desired time. However, the most important benefit of
CORS is the user’s ability to do relative positioning without having to set up their
own base station.
The original motivation for setting up a network of CORS was for geodynamic
applications such as long-term monitoring of plate tectonics and earthquakes. In
Japan, for example, the GPS Earth Observation Network (GEONET) was estab-
lished by the Geographical Survey Institute (GSI) after the Kobe earthquake in 1994.
Today, GEONET comprises more than 1,000 stations around Japan (Fig. 5-15).
Networks that support the establishment and monitoring of the International Ter-
restrial Reference System (ITRS) for geodetic applications have been created
around the world by the International GNSS Service (IGS). Users in the United
States can take advantage of the CORS network administered by the National Geo-
detic Survey (NGS). The continental NGS system has two components, the Coop-
erative CORS and the National CORS (Fig. 5-16). Together, they comprise a net-
work of hundreds of stations that constantly log dual-frequency GPS data, available
for download in the Receiver INdependent EXchange (RINEX) format.
Other CORS have been established regionally, such as through government–
university partnerships. Examples include the Southern California Integrated
GPS Network (SCIGN), GPSnet in the state of Victoria in Australia, EarthScope
[funded by the (U.S.) National Science Foundation], and NASA’s Global Differen-
tial GPS (GDGPS) Service.

Figure 5-15. GPS CORS in Japan.

HIGH-PRECISION GPS SYSTEMS 97

Figure 5-16. The U.S. national CORS network.

Courtesy of NOAA (2006).

Online CORS User Services

The greatest benefit of GPS CORS is the capability to execute differential GPS
positioning even if the user has only one receiver. The existence of online CORS-
based GPS processing services that are freely available and remotely accessible
from any location is an important element of that capability. The online GPS pro-
cessing services allow remote processing of GPS data files submitted via the Inter-
net. This reduces project costs significantly, especially for projects that require
external control. During remote processing, CORS data are either applied as an
external control or to estimate and remove some of the GPS errors that degrade
the position coordinates. Here is a list of some of these services:

• OPUS. An NGS utility that allows for processing of GPS receiver data for
rapid-static and static surveying methods. It computes an accurate position
for submitted data file and ties the coordinate results to any three closest NGS
CORS (NGS 2011).
• CSRS. The Canadian Spatial Reference System (CSRS) online database allows
users direct access to the primary horizontal and vertical control networks
98 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

archived on the Canadian Geodetic Information System (CGIS) and the CSRS-
Precise Point Positioning (PPP) online GPS processing system (NRCan 2011).
• AUSPOS. AUSPOS provides users with the facility to submit dual-frequency,
geodetic-quality RINEX data, observed in a static mode, to a GPS processing
system and receive rapid turnaround Geocentric Datum of Australia (GDA)
and International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) coordinates. This serv-
ice takes advantage of both the IGS stations network and the IGS product
range, and works with data collected anywhere on Earth (GeoSciAust 2011).
• GDGPS (Global Differential GPS Service) and APPS (Automatic Precise Positioning
Service). GDGPS and APPS accept GPS measurement files and apply the most
advanced GPS positioning technology from NASA’s Jet propulsion Labora-
tory (JPL) to estimate the position of GPS receivers, whether they are static,
in motion, on the ground, or in the air. The APPS accepts measurement rates
of up to 1 sec and all coordinate outputs are in an ITRF frame (XYZ and LLH
files). The other output formats include the Google Earth URL with the plot-
ted trajectory or site and instant positioning for web users (JPL 2011).
• SCOUT (Scripps Coordinate Update Tool). SCOUT, which is administered by the
California Spatial Reference Center (CSRC) processes RINEX files to calcu-
late precise coordinates and also allows users to obtain input files for their
processing software. It gives the option to select up to four reference CORS
to be used in the processing (CSRC 2011).

Although these services are available for use worldwide, the mode of applica-
tion may be limited for project locations where CORS network sites are few and
far between. In reality, many parts of the world still have no (or very few) control
networks established, limiting the use of online services. Nevertheless, some of
the services, such as AUSPOS and GDGPS, may still suffice for those locations,
especially in applications requiring centimeter-level precision.
 PART 2

Applications in Engineering
and Megaprojects
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 6

Utilizing GPS in Engineering and

Project Management

Considerations for Using GPS

Before beginning a project in which GPS is to be used, it is vital to be aware of a

number of issues associated with the system and equipment capabilities. Using
GPS effectively requires some appreciation of the capabilities of the technology,
as well as its limitations and challenges: Is it a suitable tool for the goals and objec-
tives of the project? Is it the only option for its purpose, or is there an alternative
solution to the problem? Are there cost-effective advantages of applying GPS to
the problem at hand? What are the limitations? All these questions are important
to consider at the onset without blindly applying the technology.
One decision that must be made is the selection of the GPS system(s) to be
used. Questions of cost, features, and functionality must be asked. It is also vital
to know whether or what additional equipment is needed. Why do some units have
the capability to collect more accurate data than others? Are there ways to increase
the accuracy of the data?
Most of these issues are addressed in previous chapters. Chapters 2 and 3 dis-
cussed the sources of error that contribute to lower accuracy and how the various
errors can be countered to increase accuracy. Chapters 4 and 5 discussed features of
different receiver systems, including accuracy levels and error correction methods.
Every application requires certain receiver characteristics and functionality.
Table 6-1 gives a generic example of considerations for selecting a GPS system.
Every user will have to determine the specifics for their application, and ultimately
every application will benefit from the most viable and cost-effective solution that
will fulfill the requirements.

Case Example: Considerations for Structural Monitoring

Figure 6-1 and Box 6-1 illustrate the decision-making process for utilizing GPS in
structural monitoring (Kijewski-Correa 2005). In this case, the selection of GPS as
one of the sensors for structural monitoring is dependent on the need to observe
both static and dynamic displacements of a structure. GPS has an advantage over
accelerometers, which can observe only the dynamic displacements (Table 6-2).
The selection of GPS also depends on the feasibility of the technology. For

101
102 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Table 6-1. Example of Specifics for Selection of a GPS System for an Application

Horizontal Vertical
Application Precision Precision Reliability Availability Timing

Car navigation   
GIS 
Tracking –  
Aviation   
Monitoring    
Construction     
Land survey    
Timing     

, less important; , important; , may or may not be important.

instance, if the structure is not expected to move at least 1 cm, the resolutions of
existing GPS technology [i.e., RMS positioning errors of, say, 3 mm  0.5 ppm
(static) and 5 mm  2.0 ppm (dynamic)] will likely be insufficient. For this reason,
GPS is more suitable to monitoring taller structures of 30 or more stories that are
generally flexible, though it can be applied to any structure provided the levels of
expected motion are 1 cm or more.
The selection of GPS also depends on budget constraints. The cost-effective-
ness of using GPS (a unit could cost tens of thousands of dollars) versus the cost of
traditional sensors—depending on the number of sensors deployed—is another
important consideration. For example, the cost of using GPS might be warranted
only if significant leaning, tilting, or settling of the structure is suspected. Once
the determination is made that GPS technology is needed, any number of GPS
vendors can be contacted for consultation.
Many vendors have technical staff (applications specialists) who will oversee
configuration and deployment of the system. In addition, the GPS manufacturers

Figure 6-1. Decision-making process in sensor selection for structural

monitoring. Source: Kijewski-Correa (2005, Fig. 7).
Courtesy of Dr. Tracy L. Kijewski-Correa, University of Notre Dame. Used with
permission.
UTILIZING GPS IN ENGINEERING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 103

Box 6-1. Decision-Making Process in Sensor Selection for

Structural Monitoring

Kijewski-Correa (2005, Fig. 7) presented a decision-making process in sensor

selection for structural monitoring (presented here in Fig. 6-1). In that discus-
sion, the question was posed regarding the role of GPS and other monitoring
technologies in the assessment of historic structures. Kijewski-Correa stated,
“The technology-selection process begins with the decision of whether static
vs. dynamic motions are of interest . . .” and is subsequently guided by the
following considerations:

• If it is not suspected that the structure is settling, leaning, or tilting (all examples
of static displacements) and if the investigator is interested simply in seeing the
structure’s relative motion under ambient vibrations, accelerometers should
be sufficient. This process would be regarded as dynamic-motion tracking.
• If both static and dynamic motions are of interest, a GPS system would be a
more appropriate choice. Accelerometers and GPS provide “global monitoring”
that does not require specific knowledge of where a potential structural prob-
lem may be occurring but investigates the motions of the building as a whole.
• If there is knowledge of existing damage (e.g., cracks) or some critical compo-
nent that needs to be investigated (e.g., a brace or connection), then a more
localized approach may be required, since it can focus on quantities such as
stresses, strain, or widening of cracks. If multiple-response sensors, both local
and global, are desired, the technologies can be integrated into one compre-
hensive solution. (Kijewski-Correa 2005)

may know of existing nearby reference networks established for surveying and
navigation. The use of such existing infrastructure would relieve the burden (in
both cost and effort) of setting up a new reference station for the structural mon-
itoring project.

Table 6-2. Complementary Features of GPS and an Accelerometer

GPS Accelerometer

Frequency  0 Hz  
Frequency 1 Hz 
0  Frequency  1 Hz  
Continuous and unattended operation  
⌬ 1 cm 
⌬ 1 cm  
Cost $$$ $

, sensor performs well; , sensor performs average; , sensor unable to perform.

104 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Additional important considerations include the fact that GPS can provide a
measure of total structural displacement, performing best at low frequencies ( f 
1 Hz) and large amplitudes (␴ 1 cm). The technology has real-time capability
and can be operated unattended and continuously. A significant drawback,
though, is its reliance on satellite orientation, resulting in degraded accuracy in
high position dilution of precision (PDOP) conditions. However, it is envisioned
that the global satellite availability will increase due to revitalization of GLONASS
(GLObal’naya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikowaya Sistema, a radio-based satellite naviga-
tion system similar to GPS, operated for the Russian government by the Russian
Space Forces) and new signals by other systems such as the European GALILEO
satellite system. More satellites in space mean more signals, and perhaps better
performance, in obstructed environments, which should help to eventually dimin-
ish inherent PDOP errors. Some of the latest receiver models are now capable of
tracking these new signals (GPS World 2010).

Considerations for Selecting a GPS Receiver or System

Selection of the right GPS receiver for a particular project is critical to its success.
Receiver selection must be based on a sound analysis of the following criteria:

• Applications for which the receiver is to be used (e.g., static or dynamic, code
phase or carrier phase)
• Accuracy requirements
• Power consumption requirements
• Operational environment
• Signal processing requirements
• Cost

As previously discussed, GPS receivers range from high-end, high-cost, high-accuracy

geodetic-quality to low-end, low-cost, low-accuracy recreational models. Moderate-
cost, meter-level accuracy, mapping-grade receivers are also available. Dozens of
vendors produce GPS receivers and there are hundreds of models and options
available. Current comparative information on GPS receivers and options is read-
ily available in various trade magazines, such as GPS World, POB (Point of Begin-
ning), and Professional Surveyor. The following factors and features should be
reviewed when purchasing or selecting a GPS receiver or system for a project.

Intended Application
In a much broader perspective, GPS applications include land-based, water-based,
and airborne positioning, with a wide range of accuracy requirements. Land appli-
cations include real-time topographic surveying, geodetic control, resource map-
ping, navigation, survey control, boundary determination, structural deformation
monitoring, and transportation. Most of these applications require carrier-phase,
UTILIZING GPS IN ENGINEERING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 105

geodetic-quality receivers. Water or marine applications include navigation and

positioning of hydrographic surveys, ships, dredges, and drill rigs, typically using
meter-level differential code-phase positioning techniques. GIS development
applications are commonly performed with low-cost recreational or mapping-
grade handheld GPS receivers, using either absolute point positioning or code
differential techniques. Airborne applications include navigation and position-
ing of aircraft (e.g., for photogrammetric-based mapping) and require high-end,
geodetic-grade receivers along with inertial measurement units (IMUs). Some
receivers can be used for all types of applications and accuracies; for example, a
GPS receiver may contain capabilities for performing code, carrier, RTK, WAAS,
GLONASS, or GALILEO positioning. Generally, the more applications a receiver
must fulfill, the more it will cost. It is important for the receiver’s potential project
applications be defined in order to select the proper receiver and the necessary
options, and to avoid a purchase of a US$50,000 GPS system when a US$10,000
system would have sufficed.

Accuracy Requirements
Knowledge of the point positioning accuracy requirements is essential when
deciding on the type of GPS receiver that will be required. Receiver cost typically
increases as accuracy is increased. For example, a geodetic-grade receiver is usu-
ally specified for high-quality project control work, particularly when precise ver-
tical control is being established. Accuracy requirements will further define proce-
dural requirements (static or kinematic), signal reception requirements (whether
use of either C/A- or L1/L2 P-codes is appropriate), and the type of measurement
required (pseudorange or carrier-phase measurements). If only meter-level posi-
tioning or mapping is involved, inexpensive single-frequency GPS receivers are
adequate, especially if sometimes combined with differential correction services.

Power Requirements
The receiver power requirements are an important factor in the determination of
receiver type. As seen in Chapters 4 and 5, receivers typically run on a variety of
internal and external power sources. Most systems operate on small rechargeable
internal batteries (e.g., drawing some 1 to 5 watts). A high-end GPS receiver can
operate for only a few hours on its internal battery, whereas a low-end, recre-
ational-grade receiver that draws less power may operate for 1 to 2 days on a set
of AA batteries. Use of external rechargeable batteries can also be considered as a
power source. If continuous operation, such as structural monitoring or naviga-
tion, is performed, then an external power option is desirable.

Operational Environment
The operational environment is also an important factor in the selection of
antenna type, antenna and receiver mounting device, receiver dimension and
106 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

weight, and durability of design. For example, the harsher the environment (high
temperature and humidity variability, dirty or muddy work area, etc.), the stur-
dier the receiver and mount must be. Most receivers are designed to operate over
wide temperature ranges and in 100% humidity conditions. The operational envi-
ronment will also affect the type of power source to be used.

Baseline Range
For static control surveys, the typical baseline lengths encountered will determine
the type of receiver that is required. Single-frequency receivers are usually ade-
quate for baseline lengths of less than 20 km (12 mi.). Beyond 20-km lengths,
dual-frequency receivers are needed. RTK operations require geodetic-quality,
dual-frequency receivers over all baseline lengths. Precise vertical control surveys
would also require dual-frequency receivers over all baseline lengths.

Data Logging
Most receivers can log data to an external logging device, such as a survey con-
troller, or directly to a laptop computer. Some mapping- and geodetic-grade
receivers can also log data internally for later download through a communications
port. Recreational-grade, handheld-type receivers can collect, process, and display
data internally. The amount of storage required is a function of the project needs
and the data logging rate: 1-sec, 5-sec, etc. Most high-end units use memory cards
for additional storage requirements. Quality receivers will have two to four or more
RS-232 ports, with high data transfer rates (e.g., 9,600 to 115,200 baud rate).

Operator Display
For some projects it will be necessary that the selected GPS receiver system has a
display unit. Most modern receivers and controllers contain simple icon-based dis-
plays for selecting GPS survey modes and data-logging options. Costs and options
will vary with the size of the LCD display on the receiver or controller. Quality
receivers provide audible and visual warnings when the data quality is poor.

Satellites and Channels Tracked

Many receivers can track 12 or more satellites. Some can track “all-in-view.” The
ability to acquire more than one satellite system (e.g., GPSGLONASSGALILEO)
would be advantageous in mountainous or urban areas where GPS satellites are
partially blocked.

Size and Weight

Size and weight are important if receivers are used for RTK or mapping type of
projects where the operators will have to carry the unit as they move from one
UTILIZING GPS IN ENGINEERING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 107

project location to another. It is also an important factor in applications such as

tracking, where concealment of the GPS unit is desired.

Free and Commercial DGPS Capability

Receivers with varied code DGPS capabilities are needed in some remote or
mountainous areas, especially for cases where one of the DGPS service provider
signals is poor or out. Some receivers are designed to acquire commercial and
free DGPS pseudorange corrections.

Antenna Type
A wide variety of antennas are available from GPS receiver manufacturers. In
addition, optional antenna types can be ordered with the same receiver. Some
antennas are built into the receiver and others are external. Multipath minimiza-
tion will require more expensive antennas, especially for static control surveys.
These include antennas configured with ground planes and chock rings. For high-
accuracy work, antenna reference points should be modeled.

Processing Requirements
Operational procedures required before, during, and after an observation session
are manufacturer-dependent and should be thoughtfully considered (and tested)
before purchase of a receiver. A receiver may be easy to operate in the field,
requiring very little user interface, but a tremendous amount of time and effort
may be required to download and process the data. Another determining factor
in the receiver selection process is whether a postprocessed or real-time solution
is required.

Cost
Receiver hardware and software costs are a function of development costs, com-
petition among manufacturers, and product demand. Historically, costs for pro-
curement of GPS equipment have fallen steadily and the trend continues. Cost
estimates must include full GPS systems along with auxiliary equipment, software,
training, and so forth.

Data Exchange Formats

In order to transfer data, a common exchange format is required. GPS vendors
usually have their own proprietary formats. However, most GPS receiver data can
be converted into a common text format, such as the Receiver Independent
Exchange (RINEX) format, which is commonly used for postprocessed data. Real-
time data exchange, such as in RTK positioning, is typically handled using the
Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services (RTCM) standard. Vendors
108 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

often allow for optional outputs such as ASCII, DXF, ArcInfo, DGN, NMEA 0183,
and so forth.

Planning and Installing a GPS Measurement System

Due to variability in GPS projects, it is impossible to discuss details that address

the needs of every project. The specifics of a GPS project will vary depending on
its purpose and requirements. Some projects are easily executed by one person.
Most large-scale projects need a multiskilled team effort, while for smaller proj-
ects with fewer personnel, many of the tasks being handled by multiple people in
a large-scale project can be accomplished by one person.
Because of the simplicity of many types of GPS receivers, it may be tempting
to assume that incorporating the technology means handing out a receiver and
noting down the coordinates. This couldn’t be further from the truth. GPS may
be a simple tool but using it effectively in a project requires insight, planning, and
forethought. The following topics are presented assuming a full-scale GPS meas-
urement system (refer to the project scale definitions in “What Does a GPS Meas-
urement System Entail?” in Chapter 1).

System Design and Work Flow

It is vital to thoroughly understand what the complete GPS measurement system is
going to entail. On that basis, the planning and layout of the measurement system
will facilitate a work plan. It is necessary to visualize procedures that must be accom-
plished and in what order the tasks are to be performed. But first there must be a
concept—mental or written—as to what is required to complete the project. These
typical questions can help address the various components of the planning process:

• How many receivers are needed and for what locations or measurement points?
• What types of receivers are needed? Are they mixed grade or the same types of
receivers?
• What are the data communication options?
• Is the work going to involve installation of permanent GPS monument(s) on
the ground?
• What will be used as the power source for the measurement system?
• What about security? Will the system be safe from theft or vandalism or is
there no such concern for the project?
• Is it going to be necessary to test or calibrate the equipment before installa-
tion or during use?
• Are the GPS data to be recorded and/or displayed for human analysis or are
they part of a “black box” sensor system?

While for some projects a schematic block diagram is essential for designing
the GPS measurement points and data communication systems such as cable layout
UTILIZING GPS IN ENGINEERING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 109

plans, a work flow plan may suffice in other cases. Existing information about the
project (e.g., as-built plans or scaled models) can be the basis for such design.
Block diagrams are especially important in full-scale projects such as buildings or
bridge systems, or if integrating a GPS measurement system with other systems
requires such knowledge about the system being studied.

Equipment and Resources

Specific equipment and material will vary from one application to another. Based
on factors such as size of the project, number and location of measurement points
or target features, time available to complete the work, and the specifics of the
data collection methodology, it is necessary to determine and acquire the relevant
types and quantities of equipment (Fig. 6-2), personnel, and other instruments
needed to successfully complete the project. If field trips are involved, the project
may require additional items such as computers and accessories, photographic
and communication devices, instruction manuals, field data sheets with pens or
pencils, tape or measuring devices, and personal gear.

Installation
In a full-scale project, installing a GPS measurement system may span several weeks
or months. Consider the installation of a GPS measurement system on a “mega-
bridge” system. The project may need several dozens of receivers, laying of ground
cables spanning several kilometers, installing a complex cable system on bridge
decks and towers, and building a control room for the measurement system. If the
project owners are interested in a fully independent system with both base stations
and rovers, then new reference stations must be established in the vicinity of the
project area (Fig. 6-3). All these tasks combined cannot be done in a day or two.
Given the magnitude of such a project, all project personnel must be properly
trained for the tasks at hand. Most importantly, the personnel must be well-trained

Figure 6-2. GPS equipment in a full-scale project.

Copyright by Leica Geosystems AG. Used with permission.
110 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 6-3. Building a reference station.

Copyright by Leica Geosystems AG. Used with permission.

regarding occupational health and safety issues. There must be strong management
interaction with field and office personnel throughout the entire conduct of the project.

Developing a GPS Project

Identify Project Goals and Objectives

Any project requires taking time to plan according to the goals and objectives. A key
component in a GPS project is the level of data accuracy and what information the data
are intended to supply, such as position, velocity, or time.

• Is GPS going to be applied as a standalone solution or an integrated solution with

other systems?
• What methods, equipment, and resources will be used to collect the data or install
the GPS system?
• How will the GPS data be processed or applied?

The answers to these questions will relate to the goals and objectives of the project; with-
out a strong link between the project questions and GPS data collection effort, there is
an increased possibility that the GPS system or the data collected will not be useful.

Determine Accuracy Needs

A review of the goals and objectives will help determine the project’s data needs, espe-
cially the level of accuracy. For instance, is it necessary to know the position of point(s) of
interest to the centimeter level, or will being within 5 to 20 m be sufficient? The answer to
this question has implications for what type of GPS receiver to use or buy, and what data
communication protocols and error correction methods or services to use, if needed.
UTILIZING GPS IN ENGINEERING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 111

Accuracy is the most important user element of GPS, and obviously an

important feature to consider when deciding which type of receiver to use. As
illustrated in Chapter 5, “The Concept of Precision,” accuracy is the amount by
which a measurement or quantity differs from the actual, real-world value that
it represents. Precision indicates the magnitude of the difference between a
measurement and the mean, that is, the dispersion among different measure-
ments. A GPS receiver can record coordinates with almost infinite precision but
that does not mean the GPS coordinates are always highly accurate. Both the
type of receiver and method of data collection can affect accuracy and precision
in different ways.
A professional user, such as a surveyor or engineer, cannot use a recreational-
grade receiver to obtain centimeter-level accuracy, and a novice user cannot pro-
duce centimeter-level accuracy with a professional geodetic-grade receiver. While
it is possible to simply turn on the receiver outdoors and let it begin calculating
coordinates, that is not enough to ensure a high level of accuracy. Many error
sources can degrade the accuracy of a GPS position and there are various correc-
tion methods to mitigate those errors. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

Select Data Collection Methods

Once the accuracy requirements are established, the next step is to determine the
data collection methods, that is, how the GPS positions are recorded and/or uti-
lized. For a real-time project where the object being measured or monitored is
mobile or quasidynamic, the measurement (or position) update rate is important. If a
GIS survey is being administered, then perhaps it is cost-effective to have the field
crew capture the GPS coordinates along with recorded features at the same time
the survey is administered. In other cases, a dedicated team may be charged with
collecting GPS points for postprocessing. If data storage is needed (e.g., for later
processing or as evidence), then the data-logging rate will influence decisions about
what additional equipment is needed, if any. Alternatively, on the basis of GPS
receiver storage capacity, decisions will be made about how long each data collec-
tion session should be. In the case of an installed dedicated GPS system for con-
tinuous measurement, a carefully planned data management system is para-
mount. As with the data accuracy needs, these factors will have implications on
what type of GPS receiver(s) to use.

Budget for Resources

Closely linked to the GPS data needs is the development of the equipment, mate-
rial, and personnel (man-hour) budget. Decisions will be made about what type(s)
of GPS receiver(s) to use or purchase, how many will be needed, GPS vendor selec-
tion, and so forth. But even if the equipment to be used is already procured and
available in-house, it is good practice to cost such items according to the duration
of use. Other ongoing costs such as GPS networks subscription fees, if applicable,
should be incorporated into the budget as well.
112 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Identify Logistics
Questions concerning logistics, such as transportation or deployment of people
and/or equipment, should also be addressed beforehand. Prior to the GPS equip-
ment being used, deployed, or installed, some training may be necessary on how
to use the equipment and materials, especially if the project involves multiple
people. In most cases the GPS equipment will be used to record coordinates and
pertinent information. Vendor-supplied manuals could be part of the training
material; the training should not only focus on the specifics of the project but also
provide an overview of what GPS is and how it works.

Understanding the Limitations

The Vertical Component

GPS is weaker in the vertical component, which is less accurate compared to hori-
zontal components, especially in the RTK mode. The precision will improve with
the length of observation time but it is critical to understand that a GPS vertical
component is not the same as that provided by optical surveying, such as using an
electronic distance meter (EDM) or a level. The GPS height results can be imme-
diate and of similar relative accuracy, but it is not a good idea to consider the
methods equivalent. GPS offers some advantages and disadvantages when com-
pared with conventional height measurement techniques. For example, RTK can
be much more productive since it is available 24 hours a day and is not affected
by weather conditions. However, when it comes to the vertical component, RTK
and the level are certainly not equal.
GPS measures heights relative to an ellipsoid (a mathematical figure). In con-
trast, the height differences obtained through conventional optical methods are
relative to the geoid, which is an equipotential surface at the sea level. An equipo-
tential surface is a level surface of equal gravity potential everywhere (Elithorp
and Findorff 2009). The height of a point obtained by optical leveling is known
as the orthometric height (H), whereas that obtained by GPS positioning is called
the ellipsoidal height (h). The two are not the same and the mathematical differ-
ence between them is called the geoid height (N).
GPS can be used to measure differences in ellipsoidal height between points
with good accuracy. However, unlike a level, unaided GPS cannot be used to meas-
ure differences in orthometric height. Stated in another way, “orthometric eleva-
tions are not directly available from the geocentric position vectors derived from
GPS measurements” (Van Sickle 2008, Ch. 5). However, from GPS measurements
of ellipsoidal heights, orthometric heights (which are mostly used in engineering
applications) can be derived when a geoid model for the measured point is avail-
able. In the past these calculations were done exclusively in a postprocessed mode,
but nowadays many manufacturers include a geoid model in their RTK systems.
Without a geoid model, GPS will only provide differences in ellipsoid heights
between the base station and the rover. It is not recommended to presume that
UTILIZING GPS IN ENGINEERING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 113

the ellipsoid surface is parallel to the geoid surface between the base and the rover
and ignore the deviation between the two. They may depart from one another by
as much as 1 m in a distance of 4 to 5 km (2.5 to 3 mi.).

“Without Warning”
In some sectors such as aviation, the GPS system integrity is critical—there must
be a way to issue a warning if the system accuracy is degraded. However, there is
no universal system in place to let the everyday civilian user know if the system
accuracy is compromised or degraded, and other GNSS systems that are cur-
rently under development will complement GPS in this regard. At the same time,
the United States has no intention of applying a blanket policy without notice,
like the selective availability (SA) that was imposed prior to May 2000 (Fig. 6-4).
That feature is no longer implemented in the new-generation satellites. How-
ever, GPS is still primarily a military system, although civilian users far outnum-
ber the military users.
To put things into perspective, if the system accuracy is inadvertently compro-
mised, the user might blindly rely on the coordinates—with possibly tragic conse-
quences. For instance, given the heavy reliance nowadays on the system, it can
make the difference between an ambulance arriving at the correct address and

Figure 6-4. The end of selective availability (SA) on May 2, 2000. SA was a
technique to reduce the accuracy of unaugmented, single-receiver GPS
measurements. Initially, the highest-quality signal was reserved for military
use and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded by
SA. This changed with U.S. President Bill Clinton ordering SA turned off at
midnight May 1, 2000, improving the precision of civilian GPS from 100 m
(about 300 ft) to 20 m (about 65 ft). The U.S. military by then had the ability
to deny GPS service to potential adversaries on a regional basis (NGS 2010).
114 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

saving a life or ending up the wrong address and failing to save it. Similarly, it
could make the difference between a dispatched GPS-aided building demolition
unit arriving at the wrong house across the street, or getting to the correct address.

Unobstructed Line-of-Sight
Due to the line-of-sight (LOS) requirement between the antenna and satellites,
unaided GPS is not effective for “concealed” positioning. Although miniaturization
makes it possible to use the GPS technology in a nearly nonintrusive and/or con-
cealed manner, using it effectively in obstructed environments is still a challenge.
The antenna portion of a GPS receiver, whether external to or embedded within
the receiver (and no matter how small it is), must be placed in such a way that there
is a direct LOS between the antenna and the spaceborne satellites. For this reason
it is almost impossible to use unaided GPS as a concealed device wherein both the
receiver and the antenna are completely concealed inside the object being posi-
tioned. If needed, the solution might be to design the antenna as part of the body
of an object while still meeting the LOS requirement. Alternative methods using
assisted-GPS (A-GPS) and wireless networks (discussed in Chapter 7, “Integrations
and Wireless Communications” and “Wireless Trilateration Technologies”) can
aid tracking in situations in which GPS alone cannot work.

Satellite Geometry
Another issue closely related to the LOS requirement is the PDOP at the location
of the GPS receiver (see Chapter 2, “Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP)” and
Fig. 2-18). This is mostly relevant in static GPS surveys for high-precision applica-
tions where observing a sufficient number of healthy satellites is critical to obtain-
ing high accuracy. Obstructed environments such as urban canyons or deep
gorges are not good candidates for good satellite geometry. However, in some sit-
uations observing data for a longer period may help improve the results due to
the changing satellite geometry.

Susceptibility to Interference and Jamming

GPS is based on radio signals that are transmitted from the spaceborne satellites
to a receiver on or near the Earth’s surface. The GPS “carrier” radio signals have
known frequencies within the microwave L-band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Radio waves are known to be susceptible to interference and jamming. Due to
considerations of interference, integrated solutions such as inertial navigation sys-
tem (INS)/GPS systems are routinely used in applications involving safety and
security, such as in military and civil aviation.
GPS signals are so “weak” that they are easily swamped by the smallest of
interfering signals. The GPS signals reaching the Earth’s surface are around
163 dBW (50  1018 watts), which is well below the receiver noise floor. In “The
Civilian Battlefield” (Inside GNSS 2011a), the author details some of the ways to
UTILIZING GPS IN ENGINEERING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 115

counter the threats of interference, jamming, and spoofing of GNSS receivers.

According to the article, a 10-mW jammer will prevent a receiver from acquiring
the C/A code at a distance of 10 km, and a receiver already tracking the C/A code
will lose lock about 1 km from the jammer. While jamming denies the availability
of a service, spoofing fools the GPS receiver into thinking it is still tracking satel-
lites, when in reality it is processing fake GPS signals.
Combining GPS with INS is one of the well known solutions to this problem,
as the two systems are highly complementary. For example, although INS typi-
cally provides very good short-term accuracy, it drifts and loses accuracy over time
as errors accumulate. However, INS cannot be jammed. GPS, on the other hand,
provides exceptional long-term accuracy but is highly susceptible to jamming and
spoofing. Antenna and receiver design options can also mitigate or eliminate the
problem of jamming and spoofing.
Spectrum allocation for bandwidth use (e.g., for smart phones and other
devices) is yet another challenge facing the GPS system. For example, on January
26, 2011, the Federal Communications Commission gave conditional approval to
LightSquared, a multi-billion dollar venture backed by Harbinger Capital Partners
and other hedge funds, to build a new broadband network that has the potential
to overwhelm GPS receivers across the country (Inside GNSS 2011b). LightSquared
planned to provide nationwide 4G (fourth generation) mobile broadband service
using two geostationary satellites and a new network of around 40,000 ground
stations called ancillary terrestrial components (ATCs). The company planned to offer
its expanded service in the frequency band ranging from 1525 to 1559 MHz. Most
GNSS systems (GPS included) and related augmentation and regional services
use (or plan to use) the adjacent band ranging from 1559 to 1610 MHz. For exam-
ple, the GPS L1 C/A code is a 20.46 MHz signal centered at 1575.42 MHz. The
L1C signal planned for GPS Block III satellites will be more than 24 MHz wide,
coming even closer to the proposed LightSquared spectrum. Each of the planned
ATCs’ ground stations would transmit a signal roughly 1 billion times more pow-
erful than a GPS signal. This could potentially overload and crash GPS receivers.
The above scenario clearly demonstrates a major contemporary issue facing
the GPS community at the time this book is being written. The FCC “. . . condi-
tioned final approval of LightSquared’s operations on the company finding a way,
in cooperation with the GPS community, to address the overload problem” (Inside
GNSS 2011b, p. 20).
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CHAPTER 7

Application Examples

Structural Health Monitoring

The early work in GPS monitoring of civil engineering structures can be

traced to monitoring of settlements, thermal expansion, and other long-
period displacement trends in bridges and dams. Since GPS displace-
ments showed excellent correlation against measurements by traditional
accelerometers, the technology was deployed for dynamic monitoring of
a number of bridges: the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, . . . the Tsing Ma, . . .
and Ting Kau Bridges in Hong Kong. The Di Wang Building in China,
two buildings in California, and another in Singapore have been moni-
tored by GPS. (Kijewski-Correa 2005)

Structural health monitoring (SHM) is becoming increasingly important due

to the large network of aging infrastructures worldwide. Monitoring of built struc-
tures is traditionally accomplished using accelerometers or strain gages, which
are unable to resolve the global displacements of the structure, including static,
quasi-static, and dynamic components. Given the need to observe these various
response components, GPS has become a viable alternative for SHM. The technol-
ogy has been successfully applied in full-scale deployments worldwide.
Through ongoing monitoring programs, the responses of structures are
measured under a wide range of conditions with the aim of improving the under-
standing and techniques for their design. The measurements are correlated
against the predictions of finite-element models and wind-tunnel tests used in
their designs. The data gathered from these projects also serve as metrics for per-
formance assessment. GPS and accelerometer systems provide valuable informa-
tion on the in-situ behavior of structures so that the next generation of structures
can benefit from the experiences of their predecessors.
Figures 7-1 and 7-2 are two case examples of full-scale structure monitoring
projects incorporating the use of permanently deployed GPS alongside other
measurement technologies. The first example is a schematic overview of the sensor
array deployed on tall buildings in downtown Chicago to measure the wind-
induced response (Kijewski-Correa et al. 2006). The second example is a project in

117
118 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 7-1. Schematic overview of generalized sensor array in a Chicago

full-scale building monitoring program.
Source: Kijewski-Correa et al. (2006, Fig. 1).

Hong Kong for measuring the wind-, traffic-, and temperature-induced responses
of suspension bridges.
In the first example (Fig. 7-1) the sensors shown with the dashed lines are
deployed at the floor level (inside the building), while those shown with the solid
lines are installed at the roof level. Notably, the GPS antenna is installed at the
roof level due to the requirement for a clear view of the sky, to observe the satel-
lites; the other GPS electronic hardware components are installed at the floor
level. The communication data cables provide the connection between the roof-
level and the floor-level components. The schematic also indicates two orthogo-
nal pairs of accelerometers at two opposite corners of the highest floor of the
building. These are meant to capture the sway and torsional motions during sig-
nificant wind events. In contrast, one GPS antenna is sufficient to capture the
sway, but two antennas are still needed to capture the torsional response. The sys-
tem is supplemented by a pair of ultrasonic anemometers at the opposite corners
of the building rooftop, several meters above roof level, to provide a measure of
the wind speeds above downtown Chicago.
As mentioned in previous chapters, the true benefit of using GPS in such
monitoring programs is in being able to resolve both static (permanent) and
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 119

Figure 7-2. Full-scale bridge monitoring program in Hong Kong. (a) Tsing
Ma Control Area (TMCA), Hong Kong; (b) GPS antenna on the bridge tower;
(c) sample instantaneous displacements.
Copyright by Leica Geosystems AG. Used with permission.

dynamic (periodic) movements in a global spatial reference frame. This is possible

because of the position of the antenna (the “rover”) on the roof level being rela-
tive to another reference antenna (the “base”) firmly mounted on a solid founda-
tion elsewhere or on a nearby low-rise building. The evolution of the relative base-
line between the rover and the base over time will capture both the trend (of
permanent displacement, if any) and the periodic behavior of the whole building
120 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

in response to wind loading. In contrast, an accelerometer cannot capture the

static deformation of the structure.
In addition to its application for monitoring wind-induced motions, GPS has
also gained much recognition for its performance in seismic regions. Thus, while
these case examples are primarily concerned with wind and/or traffic-sensitive struc-
tures, the application extends to seismic-induced motions (Çelebi and Sanli 2002).
In bridge monitoring, the rover antennas are placed at strategic locations on
the deck and towers. While in the case of tall building monitoring the number of
antennas may be limited by the space on the roof level, several receivers—up to a
dozen or more—may be placed in pairs on the deck and towers of a long-span
suspension bridge (Fig. 7-2). Such a configuration will allow for the full deforma-
tion mode (rotations and displacements) of the bridge to be resolved by the GPS
measurement system. However, in addition to the GPS component, the full meas-
urement array may consist of other localized sensors to measure the deformation
of structural components (e.g., cables, towers, and deck sections), cable force, deck
strain and stresses, and accelerations of the bridge deck:

. . . the WASHMS for Tsing Ma Bridge (TMB), Kap Shui Mun Bridge
(KSMB) and Ting Kau Bridge (TKB) consisted of 774 sensors in seven
major types: anemometers, temperature sensors, dynamic weigh-in-
motion sensors, accelerometers, displacement transducers, level sensing
stations, and strain gauges. The commissioning of GPS-OSIS in January,
2001, brought an additional 29 sensors into the overall system. (Wong
et al. 2001)

Robotics and Machine Control

Automated Machine Guidance with GPS

GPS robotics and machine control are used to guide heavy machinery in many
types of construction. It complements the historical stakeout for earthwork and
large-scale construction that has relied on effective but slow technologies and
processes. The real benefit of using GPS in these applications is in terms of pro-
ductivity and cost reductions. It is also highly desirable to automatically guide
machines to work in extreme environments (Fig. 7-3).
The two types of automated machine guidance (AMG) systems that use GPS
(Bennett 2010) are indicate and automatic. Indicate machines use lights, tones, or
in-the-cab display systems to guide the operator (Fig. 7-4a). The operator manu-
ally moves the blade or bucket to a particular grade or elevation using constant
feedback from the system without ever having to interpret the grade stakes. The
indicate systems are relatively inexpensive and allow the operator to maintain full
control of the equipment. Automatic systems use onboard computers and servo-
like mechanicals to operate semiautonomously. The operator still drives the
machine but the GPS machine control system automatically interprets the design
model and controls the actual movement of the blade or bucket.
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 121

Figure 7-3. A GPS-controlled machine hard at work.

Site Calibration
By default, the GPS rovers on an AMG system output latitude, longitude, and
ellipsoidal height, or Cartesian (X, Y, Z) coordinates, based on the WGS-84 refer-
ence ellipsoid. However, most engineering projects are designed to work with

Figure 7-4. (a) A machine operator from MACTEC Development Corp.

watches the in-cab AMG display while grading ball fields at the Lyndhurst
Recreation Complex in Lyndhurst, N.J.; (b) checking AMG grading progress
at the Kingsland Landfill in Lyndhurst, N.J. with RTK GPS.
Courtesy of Joseph Priestner, LandMarker Geospatial © 2010.
122 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

plane coordinate systems only. Because of this requirement, some GPS systems
have the option to select from certain preinstalled standard plane coordinate sys-
tems. In the absence of such options, a site calibration is required to carry out a
transformation between the computed coordinates and the local survey control to
achieve a tight correlation such that all positions reported by the AMG system are
relative to the on-site survey control used by others involved in the project.
A calibration of the GPS system is needed in order to relate GPS positions
that are measured in terms of the global WGS-84 system to local grid coordinate
projections, such as the State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), the Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM), or a local elevation system (Appendix 6). In addi-
tion, a vertical calibration is needed to adjust the observed GPS ellipsoidal eleva-
tions to a local vertical datum and account for undulations in the local geoid over
the project area.
A calibration should be done on a project area whenever new points are to be
established. It is based on a set of points that have 3-D coordinates in both WGS-84
and the local grid coordinate projection system. The number of points that can
be used in a calibration is manufacturer- and software-dependent. Smaller-sized
projects may be calibrated by one 3-D point; however, for larger-sized projects
three or four 3-D points are recommended. Calibration points should be well dis-
tributed around the project exterior. The calibration results should be carefully
examined for reasonable horizontal and vertical residuals.
For example, in performing a site localization using coordinates and eleva-
tion values supplied by a contractor, the project surveyor can, by default, tie into
four or more control points around the project by holding them fixed. However,
there is a need to also verify the local control data supplied by the contractor since
site localization can warp data enough to fit bad survey control data. Different
approaches can be tried. For example, as a check, the surveyor can hold only one
point fixed and perform a quick, minimally constrained adjustment. This could
detect any problems with the local control data supplied by the contractor (Priest-
ner 2010, p. 14). In addition, the professional surveyor can also perform inde-
pendent calibration checks of the GPS system periodically during construction.

Orientation, Slope, and Height Guidance

GPS rovers triangulate the exact location of a constantly moving machine by using
error corrections from a base receiver or a reference network (refer to Chapter 5,
“Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Systems”). Using the error corrections and data
from its onboard GPS rovers, the machine constantly generates coordinates that
its computer can use as reference against the design model, and manipulate the
vehicle’s blade and bucket accurately. Dual-antenna systems integrated with other
sensors allow for the slope and orientation computations (Fig. 7-5), for which it is
also necessary to have the computed GPS coordinates converted into a local hori-
zon system (refer to Fig. 2-4).
GPS machine control yields levels of horizontal accuracy to within a single
centimeter; this accuracy level is not sufficient for complex 3-D highway and site
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 123

Figure 7-5. Dual-antenna system for (a) slope and (b) orientation guidance.
Courtesy of Trimble Navigation Limited © 2010.

construction projects which also require a precise elevation component. Because

of the inherent inaccuracy in the height component (refer to Chapter 6, “The
Vertical Component”), the GPS machine control systems are also integrated with
laser control systems. For instance, tripod-mounted lasers send out a horizontal
beam in a 360-deg arc within the construction site. Receiving prisms on the exca-
vator or bulldozer automatically notify operators when they have reached the
desired elevation, thereby enabling a millimeter-level vertical accuracy. Thus, the
vital role of GPS in machine control is automation, in terms of orientation and
cross-slope, despite the weakness in vertical component.

The Benefits of Using GPS

With GPS machine control the entire grading process proceeds faster, more
efficiently, and more accurately. Traditionally, civil engineers create designs,
drafters convert them into 2-D paper documents, and technicians, surveyors, and
contractors interpret these documents to produce lists of cuts, fills, and staking
coordinates. According to Timothy Bennett of Bennett Engineering & Land Sur-
veying (Sagamore Beach, Massachusetts), “During grading, every time the equip-
ment operator bumped a stake or completed a couple of passes, the field team
would have to repeat the entire process. . . . GPS machine control eliminates
these and other factors that can slow project completion and increase costs”
(Bennett 2010, p. 19).
124 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Maritime Operations

Ship Navigation at Large Ports and Harbors

In offshore navigation, GPS is a tool for any phase of maritime navigation, such
as ocean, coastal, port approach, and port maneuvers, in any weather conditions.
Among the most difficult maneuvers for vessels (Fig. 7-6) is the approach to port
and precision docking, particularly under poor weather conditions. In such con-
ditions, locally assisted satellite navigation is a fundamental tool for all kinds of
harbor operations and precision docking. The increased availability of satellites
(as discussed in Chapter 8) will help to provide the service even in an environ-
ment with limited sky visibility.
In relation to Table 6-1 in Chapter 6, the considerations for using GPS in ship
navigation are similar to those of tracking, with “GPS signal availability” being
the top priority. Satellite navigation provides a means for implementing the reg-
ulations on automatic identification systems (AIS) and vessel traffic management
systems, increasing navigation safety and collision prevention as regulated by the
International Maritime Organization. In the future, additional satellite systems
such as GALILEO will add to the signal availability, high accuracy, and integrity
needed for navigation at open sea. These will enhance confidence in the calcu-
lated position of a vessel. GALILEO will also be an additional means for imple-
menting the AIS regulations and thus contribute to improved AIS reliability,
increased safety, and vessel traceability.

Figure 7-6. A shipping vessel loaded with containers.

APPLICATION EXAMPLES 125

GPS satellites also enable precise navigation along inland waterways, espe-
cially in critical geographical environments or meteorological conditions. With
the help of GPS systems and infrastructure, the vessels navigate through rivers
and canals where the accuracy and integrity of navigation data are essential to
automate accurate maneuvers in narrow waterways. However, as is the case in air-
craft navigation, GPS is not to be used as the sole means of navigation for marine
vessels. Backup systems such as radar and compass or direction finder and dis-
tance measuring equipment are still necessary.

Container Tracking
Cargo shippers want to be able to give their clients accurate information on the
whereabouts of their containers (Fig. 7-7), anywhere en route (over the ocean and
over land), in a seamless and efficient way. Governments want to ensure that cargo
arriving on land is properly taxed and that no leakage is occurring during transit.
They also want to know that dangerous goods aren’t being smuggled into their
country. Importers want to ensure that the goods they are bringing into a country
will arrive securely, complete and intact. They also want to know when those goods
will arrive and be ready for pick-up.
Container tracking can be accomplished in a number of ways, most notably
today by associating the container with the carrier—whether a cargo vessel,
tractor/trailer, or rail car. In many cases it is possible for shippers or consignees
to access carrier information about the location of the transport to track the
container.
The key to many of the potential benefits of container tracking and monitor-
ing is sensor technology. Sensors that monitor temperature, humidity, shock,
vibration, and so forth provide cargo owners with important information about

Figure 7-7. Shipping containers awaiting transportation at a container

terminal.
126 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

the condition of their goods. Using GPS technology, positions of containers and
ships can be plotted to within about 10 m.
Figure 7-8 shows a schematic example of container tracking service using GPS
(Ahn 2005). When GPS is used as one of the key elements of tracking, containers
equipped with GPS antennas and receivers are carried by ship through the ocean.
When they reach the next terminal of container yards, they are unloaded and
directed to the final inland destination. Throughout the journey, all activities and
the status of the containers, including the GPS positions, are reported via a suit-
able communication link such as low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites. (Satellite com-
munication is most suitable in this kind of application since it is global, covering
many countries and oceans. Other alternatives such as cellular communications
have limitations in wide-area coverage and would require roaming services to
cover many countries.) The information can be relayed on to the stakeholders
over the Internet from a network control center.
As noted earlier, one of the constraints in using GPS in this kind of applica-
tion is that the antenna should be exposed to provide a line-of-sight to the GPS
satellites, and larger position errors can be expected in obstructed regions. Other
elements of a GPS receiver such as the data controller, the RF module, and the
battery can be concealed inside the container without affecting the reception of
the satellite signals.
Since in most instances it takes more than 3 months for the container to be
reclaimed, the battery life should be able to last longer than 3 months without
recharging. A solar battery could be a solution but weather does not always allow
the container to be exposed to the sun at all times. Other considerations for power

Figure 7-8. A schematic of container tracking using GPS.

APPLICATION EXAMPLES 127

requirements may include the expected number of data or message transmissions

during the shipment period.

Material Tracking in Large Construction Sites

Construction-site theft is a concern for the construction industry, particularly

when a project is in the early stages and most of the materials are unsecured. Hun-
dreds of millions of dollars in heavy construction and farm equipment are stolen
annually throughout North America, according to the National Equipment Regis-
ter (NER 2011).
Two factors can contribute to construction-site theft: (1) the rising costs of
building materials, which are becoming harder to afford but easy to sell for fast
money, and (2) the isolation of new developments, especially when there are no
security procedures for monitoring the area. But stealing can also be an inside
job. Furthermore, one construction site can have multiple subcontractors, adding
to the complexity of the problem.
In a constant battle to stay ahead of the thieves, construction companies are
increasingly relying on technology to safeguard their equipment. They count on
technology tools such as cameras, GPS, and alarm systems. Individual item costs
can range from US$5 to US$50,000 or more, and the technology applied should
be effective both in terms of the cost and application. Most importantly, compa-
nies don’t want to tip off thieves by letting them know how they protect the equip-
ment. Thus, it is necessary that the technology applied should be as small as pos-
sible and concealable so that the thieves cannot easily detect it.
A miniature GPS tracking device should be able to track equipment anywhere
except in obstructed areas such as within tunnels or inside buildings. However,
most of the GPS tracking devices are nowadays based on assisted-GPS (A-GPS)
complemented with wireless positioning technologies (further discussed in “Inte-
grations and Wireless Communications,” below) that enable them to circumvent
the signal outage problem.
If thieves broke into a site where a home was being built and took valuable
appliances, and the builder had concealed a GPS device in one of them, it may be
possible to track and recover all of the appliances and find the people responsible
for the theft. The GPS tracking concept is similar to that illustrated in Fig. 7-8,
except for the short-range communication links typically used to relay the infor-
mation from the GPS device to the user.

Site Control and Design

Surveys of built structures, facilities, utilities, or terrain must be controlled to some

reference framework, both horizontally and vertically. The reference framework
should consist of control points and/or benchmarks located in the vicinity of the
project. Those control points can then be used to perform supplemental surveys
and control of the project.
128 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Control by GPS methods, where applicable, is increasingly common given the

worldwide proliferation of continuously operating reference stations (CORS) net-
works and related services (refer to Chapter 5, “Network RTK and CORS Net-
works Infrastructure” for more information). With the ease of extending control
with GPS, it is fairly simple to establish some form of project control with refer-
ence to the WGS-84 ellipsoid. Control can be brought in from existing points
using static GPS observations. From these points, subsequent details can be sur-
veyed using real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS methods. Although the control would
be simply referenced to the satellite-based WGS-84 system, connections to local
reference frameworks such as the Universal Transverse Mercator System (UTM)
grid can be made. Figure 7-9 is one of the worldwide examples in which RTK GPS
has been used to control megaprojects.
Bringing distant horizontal and vertical control to a project site using tradi-
tional methods can be costly and may exceed the cost of performing the local site
survey itself. In particular, a distant benchmark may require a lengthy level line
to bring in accurate vertical control. More options are available for bringing in
horizontal control to a project site by using GPS methods, such as GPS static
options using CORS networks.
Permanent networks of CORS can be used to establish control at virtually any
place. The use of CORS stations eliminates the need to occupy full baselines with

Figure 7-9. GPS/RTK technology was used in the construction of the

Øresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden.
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 129

two receivers. A single GPS receiver is set up at a primary control point in the
project site, and 1- to 2-hour static GPS observations are recorded. These obser-
vations become the end of any number of selected baselines using stations in the
CORS network. Azimuth orientation at the project site is easily performed as part
of the process of bringing in CORS control. A second GPS receiver is set up at a
marked point, hundreds of feet away from the first GPS point. GPS observations
over the short baseline are made concurrently with the CORS baseline connec-
tions. The fixed solution over this short baseline will provide adequate azimuth
orientation for subsequent control work at the project site. An absolute accuracy
of 10 to 30 sec over a 1,000-ft baseline would be adequate for small sites in which
no real property connections are required. If the site has deeded boundary align-
ments (e.g., bearings shown along a road or boundary), then these deeded bear-
ings may be used for azimuth reference. GPS-derived azimuths would have to be
corrected to fit the local orientation.

Nongeoreferenced Control
“Georeferenced” control is rarely required for construction projects. To georef-
erence a control means to define the coordinates of its points in an absolute
framework such as WGS-84 (refer to Chapter 2, “World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS-84)”). An arbitrary control network would be adequate for all design, stake-
out, and construction. Maintaining a good relative accuracy with an adjoining
project or control network is far more important than accurate connections to dis-
tant networks. Likewise, connections to adjoining property boundary monuments
are significantly more critical than connections to distant networks. Surveys involv-
ing real property boundaries must always be connected to established property
corners or adjoining right-of-way boundaries. Locations of structures, buildings,
roads, utilities, and so forth are surveyed and mapped relative to the property
boundaries. Likewise, stakeout of planned construction must be performed rela-
tive to the boundaries. Control framework coordinates may be placed on prop-
erty corner marks, and subsequent stakeout work should not be performed rela-
tive to distant control.
In such cases, an arbitrary grid system can be established in minutes. The
baseline is quickly marked with stakes, hubs, rebar, or nails at each end. Detail
surveys using RTK GPS can then be conducted, using the arbitrary baseline. If
needed, supplemental control traverses can be run to set additional marked con-
trol points around the project site. Optionally, RTK radial control points can also
be set relative to the baseline.

Approximately Georeferenced Control

If georeferenced control is required on an isolated project, autonomous GPS posi-
tioning could be used to establish approximately georeferenced coordinates at
the primary control point. All data observed on the arbitrary grid system can then
be later translated and rotated to a georeferenced coordinate system. If only
130 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

approximate georeferenced control is required, a handheld GPS receiver is ade-

quate; in that case it should be noted on project records that the resultant coordi-
nates are approximate. A brief visual recording of the position is sufficient. A
quick, autonomous GPS position on the other end of the baseline can be used to
establish a rough geodetic azimuth ( 1 deg at best) of the baseline.

Precisely Georeferenced Control

If more precise georeferencing is required, long-term (1- to 2-hour or longer)
static GPS observations can be made at the primary control point. With geodetic-
quality receivers a high accuracy will be obtained. If two geodetic receivers are
available, a fixed solution is possible over a short baseline with only a few minutes
of static observations.

Geohazards Monitoring

High-Rate GPS
High-rate GPS is a technique whereby positions are estimated at a rate of once per
second or higher, using high-precision GPS phase observations. Today, the high-
est GPS receiver sampling rate is 100 Hz (100 samples per second), according to
the annual GPS receiver surveys by the GPS World magazine. However, this might
change in the future. Developed only in the last few years, high-rate GPS was used
to determine the time-dependent surface displacements caused by the 2002
Denali earthquake, the 2003 San Simeon earthquake, the 2003 Tokachi-Oki
earthquake, the 2003 explosive activity of the Stromboli volcano, and the tsunamis
induced by the 2004 Kii peninsula earthquake and the 2004 Tsumatra earthquake
(Fig. 7-10). Other examples include high-frequency bridge and building displace-
ment monitoring (see earlier examples in Figs. 7-1 and 7-2).

GPS “Seismometer”
The recent recordings of earthquakes with 1-Hz GPS show a great promise for
using GPS as a new type of seismometer. Lack of independent direct measure-
ments of the surface displacements limits an assessment of the accuracy of high-
rate GPS. The most obvious possibility is to compare high-rate GPS data to seis-
mic measurements, but seismic instruments record either velocity (seismometers)
or acceleration (accelerometers) and thus require an integration (or double-inte-
gration) process for displacement, whereas GPS naturally produces position esti-
mates. Seismometers suffer drift ratio or bias instability while GPS is stable over
the whole measurement time. However, GPS has certain weaknesses, too. For
instance, receiver background noise is prevalent in the high-frequency (short-
period) range where seismometers tend to perform better. GPS requires sky visi-
bility and the antenna must be visible to the satellites being observed. There is no
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 131

Figure 7-10. Tsunami detection with long-baseline, 1-Hz GPS. Source: Ohta et al.
(2006) with permission.

such requirement with the seismometers as they can be deployed indoors or out-
doors. These are some of the strengths and weaknesses of each independent sys-
tem. However, rather than focus on the weaknesses, what are their complemen-
tary benefits? The technical considerations for measuring seismic events (Lee and
Wu 2009) are introduced here to provide a frame of reference for that discussion.
To record seismic waves, both the available technology and the nature of the
Earth’s background noise are important. The Earth is constantly in motion and
the planet’s background noise is usually classified as either microseisms or micro-
tremors. Microseisms have frequencies below about 1 Hz, are often the largest
background signals, and are usually caused by natural disturbances (largely caused
by ocean waves near shorelines). Microtremors have frequencies higher than
about 1 Hz and are due to human activities (such as traffic and machinery) and
local natural sources (such as wind and moving vegetation). Ground motions from
earthquakes vary by more than ten orders of magnitude in amplitude and six
orders of magnitude in frequency, depending on the size of the earthquake and
the distance at which it is recorded. Figure 7-11 illustrates the relative dynamic
range of some common seismometers for global earthquake monitoring. A “low
Earth noise” model is the lower limit of Earth’s natural noise in its quietest loca-
tions—it is desirable to have instruments that are sensitive enough to detect this
minimal background Earth signal.
132 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 7-11. Relative dynamic range of some common seismometers for

global earthquake monitoring The Y-axis is marked in decibels (dB) where
dB  20 log (A/Ao); A is the signal amplitude and Ao is the reference signal
amplitude.
Modified from Hutt et al. (2002, Fig. 1), with permission.

In the analog instrument era (prior to about 1980), short-period and long-
period seismometers were designed separately to avoid microseisms, which have
predominant periods of about 6 sec. Short-period seismometers were designed to
detect tiny ground motions from smaller, nearby earthquakes, while long-period
instruments were designed to recover the motions of distant, larger earthquakes
(“teleseisms”). Additionally, strong-motion accelerometers, generally recording
directly onto 70-mm-wide film strips, were used to measure large motions from
nearby earthquakes. In today’s much more capable digital instrumentation, two
major types of instruments are deployed: (1) broadband seismometers, which replace
and improve upon both short-period and long-period seismometers, and (2) strong-
motion accelerometers for high-amplitude, high-frequency seismic waves from local
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 133

earthquakes, which often drive broadband seismometers off scale. In addition to

having large variations in amplitudes and frequencies, seismic waves from earth-
quakes also attenuate rapidly with distance, that is, they lose energy as they travel,
particularly at higher frequencies. These effects must be considered in order to
monitor seismic waves effectively.
Seismometers are sensitive enough to detect the minimal background Earth
signal in the range where the GPS receiver signal is typically too noisy [seismome-
ters and accelerometers have larger-frequency bandwidth and are very accurate
( 0.03–0.5 m/s2)]. However, since strong-motion seismometers measure accelera-
tion, one way that high-rate GPS can contribute to the field of seismology is by
providing accurate measurements of displacement as a strong-motion instrument
(Larson 2009). Such instruments are used to study large-amplitude ground
motions and the response of engineered structures to such motions. While GPS is
a much less precise accelerometer, it has been shown that it more accurately meas-
ures displacement caused by very large earthquakes. Through recent recordings
of earthquakes, real-time regional GPS networks have been shown to be essential
to medium to large earthquake response. The Southern California Integrated
GPS Network (SCIGN) mentioned in Chapter 5 is one example.
Here are some of the reasons to look at high-rate GPS as a complement to
broadband seismometers and accelerometers:

• GPS directly measures displacement (not velocity or acceleration). GPS can provide
direct, instantaneous 3-D displacement and absolute position on a well-defined
global reference frame, WGS-84. The connection to the WGS-84 frame makes
it easier to assess how an object or a built structure might have moved with
respect to the surrounding bedrock, for example, after a shock such as an
earthquake. The GPS constellation can be considered an “ideal pendulum”
since GPS satellites are not affected by earthquakes (Ge et al. 2000).
• GPS does not incur sensor drifts that are common with seismometers and accelerome-
ters. Typically, after integrating strong-motion accelerations to displacement,
large drifts are visible (Fig. 7-12).
• GPS does not clip. Although considerably less sensitive than a seismometer,
GPS detects displacements that would otherwise cause seismometers to clip
(i.e., “cut off” signals with large amplitudes). This is illustrated in Figs. 7-13
and 7-14, using plots of teleseismic waves captured from the April 4, 2010 MW
7.2 Baja California earthquake in Mexico. Most of the broadband seismome-
ters in southern California clipped during this earthquake, and on-the-fly 1-Hz
GPS provided the only direct measurements of dynamic and static (i.e., total)
displacements. Note that even at the Piñon Flat Observatory, 180 km (112 mi.)
from the epicenter, the broadband seismometer clipped.

“Earthquake Simulators”
Many researchers have proposed higher-rate-sampled [10-sample-per-sec (Hz) or
even higher] GPS data for GPS seismology as well as engineering. It is important
134 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 7-12. Seismometer sensor drift. Source: Miyazaki et al. (2004).

to be able to assess the accuracy of such high-rate GPS seismometers (Elósegui

et al. 2006). There are no 10-Hz GPS data from large natural earthquakes avail-
able and there are no direct, independent measurements from a similar technol-
ogy. To circumvent this problem, so-called earthquake simulators have been rou-
tinely used to enable the movement of a GPS antenna in a known manner with a
temporal spectrum similar to a real seismic event. The difference between the
antenna position inferred from GPS observations and the known “true” antenna
position will directly yield the time-dependent error in the GPS measurements.
According to Dr. Guoquan Wang of the Puerto Rico Seismic Network at the Uni-
versity of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, “The accuracy of high-rate kine-
matic GPS is independent of the sampling rate of the receiver, while it depends
on the motions of the antenna” (Wang 2011). The RMS errors during antenna
movement can be considerably larger (e.g., two to three times larger) than those
during nonmovement.

Miniaturized GPS Systems

GPS receivers have been miniaturized to just a few integrated circuits, making the
technology very economical and accessible to virtually everyone. These days GPS
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 135

Figure 7-13. Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center (SOPAC)’s California
Real-Time Network GPS observations sampled at 1 Hz compared to seismic
displacement at the Piñion Flat Observatory.
Courtesy of Sharon Kedar, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.

is finding its way into wristwatches, phones, tracking devices, cars, boats, planes,
construction equipment, movie-making gear, farm machinery, and laptop com-
puters. Miniaturization is seen as an inevitable trend in many industrial products
and systems development. There is an increasingly strong market demand for
“intelligent,“ “robust,” “multifunctional,” “smaller,” and “low-cost” products, and
miniaturization seem to be the only viable solution to satisfy such market demand.

Enabling Technologies
Miniature Devices
Packing many miniature functional components into a single device has led to the
evolutions of many systems (Fig. 7-15). Significant technological development
toward miniaturization was initiated with the invention of transistors by three Nobel
Laureates, W. Shockley, J. Bardeen, and W. H. Brattain of Bell Laboratories in
1947 (Hsu 2008). This crucial invention led to the development of the concept of
136 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 7-14. Plots comparing 1-Hz GPS observations to co-located

seismometers.
Courtesy of Sharon Kedar, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California,
and Yehuda Bock, Director, Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center
(SOPAC), Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, University of
California–San Diego.

Figure 7-15. Enabling technologies for miniaturization.

APPLICATION EXAMPLES 137

integrated circuits (ICs) in 1955 and the production of the first IC 3 years later by
Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments. ICs have enabled the miniaturization of many
devices and engineering systems. The invention of transistors is thus regarded as
the beginning of the “Third Industrial Revolution” in human civilization.
MEMS and Microsystems
MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical System), a pioneer technology for miniaturiza-
tion (Hsu 2008), is any engineering system that performs electrical and mechani-
cal functions with components in micrometers (1 ␮m  1/10 the diameter of
human hair).
Miniaturization using MEMS and microsystems is a necessity in engineering
applications. Smaller size of the systems means less of a space requirement; this
allows the packaging of more functional components in a single device. Fewer
material requirements mean lower cost of production and transportation, and
ready mass-production in batches.
Miniaturized devices are particularly suited for integrated applications due to
their smaller size and weight. They tend to move or stop more quickly due to low
mechanical inertia. They are thus ideal for precision movements and for rapid
actuation. Miniaturized systems encounter less thermal distortion and mechanical
vibration due to low mass. They have higher dimensional stability at high temper-
ature due to low thermal expansion.

Miniature GPS Devices

So how small can a GPS receiver device get, given the available miniature tech-
nologies? It is essentially a race between different manufacturers as they compete
to produce the world’s smallest GPS receiver device. However, the race is not just
about producing the smallest; it is also about producing a better product (Rizos
2003). Lower power consumption, increased data rate, increased accuracy, less
susceptibility to radio frequency (RF) interference, multifeatured functionality,
and higher sensitivity to weak received signals are all end goals for a better prod-
uct. For the same reasons previously stated, smaller is considerably cheaper.
According to Rizos (2003), “Modern digital receiver designs have achieved a high
degree of miniaturization as a result of the microelectronics revolution. Current
receiver designs are ‘postage-stamp’ size, consisting of two (or even one) hard-
ware chips, making them well suited for embedding within more complex sys-
tems.” Tens of millions of GPS receiver chipsets have been embedded within cel-
lular phones and all other kinds of tracking devices.
Early GPS receivers were quite bulky and had to be worn like a backpack. In
contrast, today’s receivers are extremely compact and easy to integrate with other
portable electronic devices. Figure 7-16 shows a remarkable case of miniaturiza-
tion that took place in a period of just 30 years! But how accurate can these micro-
miniature GPS systems be? They can be very efficient for some applications. For
instance, they can record up to 100 hours of location and speed data accurate to
within 2.5 m, using low-power sources such as two AAA batteries (Fig. 7-17). With
138 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 7-16. GPS receiver evolution.

such data, users can accurately determine where a person traveled, how fast they
drove, where they stopped, and for how long. The recorded data can be displayed
over a street map, satellite images, or in a text report.
Most manufacturers nowadays strive to accommodate both the low-end
and high-end requirements for GPS receiver applications. Low-end receiver

Figure 7-17. (a) A 16-channel GPS tracking device with in-built antenna
and magnet mount; (b) a software solution for interface with Google Earth.
Source: www.u-blox.com, with permission.
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 139

development trends include chipsets, systems on chips, single chips, dataless

channels, and multipath mitigation. High-end receiver development trends
include multifrequency (L1, L2, L5), multichannel receivers and multisystem
receivers (e.g., GPS  GALILEO  GLONASS). Chips and OEM modules are the
ideal solution for high-performance, low-power, cost-sensitive GPS applications
such as automotive navigation systems, low-power trackers and loggers, smart
phones, fleet and asset management systems, mobile computers, and personal
navigation devices (PNDs).

Integrations and Wireless Communications

Integration of GPS with other technologies is important for various reasons. Due
to limitations of the individual systems, it may be ideal for various application sce-
narios to consider GPS integration with technologies such as inertial sensors,
fiberoptics, and pseudolites (a contraction of the term “pseudo-satellite”). Through
such integrations the complementary benefits of the individual systems are uti-
lized and their limitations overcome. For example, inertial sensors have a drift
bias problem but they can provide autonomous navigation during a GPS outage.
Fiberoptic sensors have high-resolution and measurement capabilities that are
immune to RF, electromagnetic, and temperature interferences. Pseudolite tech-
nology, nearly as old as GPS, has been studied for many years as a possible means
to augment GPS in obstructed environments such as urban canyons or open-pit
mines (Dai 2002).
Wireless communications provide opportunities for both conventional posi-
tioning technologies such as RTK and personal positioning technologies using
assisted-GPS (A-GPS) and wireless networks (cellular, Wi-Fi, ultrawideband, etc.)
(Pfeiffer 2003). One of the popular protocols for transmitting wireless data is
Bluetooth.

Inertial Navigation Systems

GPS integrated with an inertial navigation system (INS) is ideal for use on a mili-
tary platform or weapons, marine and air navigation, machine guidance and con-
trol, field robotics, and precise mobile mapping/imaging applications (Rizos 2003).
GPS is now clearly the standard option for navigation but GPS-only positioning is
not recommended for many navigation applications. Because it is vulnerable to
interference and intentional jamming, applications such as aircraft, ship, missile,
and spacecraft navigation cannot rely solely on the GPS system. While GPS is a
wave-based technology relying on radio signals, INS is a “dead reckoning” technol-
ogy for inertial and orientation systems. INS can provide autonomous navigation
information during periods of GPS outage or intentional interference.
INS systems have progressed from the crude electromechanical devices that
guided the World War II V-2 rockets to the current solid-state devices installed in
many modern vehicles (Schmidt 2004). That progression is mainly due to the
140 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

ballistic missile programs of the 1960s which accelerated the need for high accu-
racy at ranges of thousands of kilometers using autonomous navigation systems.
In the context used here, the word “autonomous” means that no man-made sig-
nals from outside the vehicle are required to perform navigation. If no external
man-made signals are required, there can be no jamming or interference.
INS systems do not indicate position perfectly because of errors in compo-
nents (gyroscopes and accelerometers) and errors in the model of the gravity
field that the INS utilizes. Those errors cause the error in indicated position to
grow (drift) with time. The best autonomous military aircraft INSs have errors
that grow at the rate of about 500 m/hour (Schmidt 2004). For vehicles with short
transit times, such errors might be acceptable. For longer-duration missions it is
usually necessary to provide periodic measurements to the navigation system
such that the errors caused by the INS are reset as close to zero as possible.
Although limited by open-sky visibility requirements and subject to interference,
GPS offers worldwide, highly accurate navigation information at very low cost,
and has therefore rapidly become the primary aid to be used in updating iner-
tial systems.
In an INS/GPS system, multiple GPS measurements are combined in a
Kalman filter to update the INS. The Kalman filter provides an opportunity to
calibrate some of the GPS errors, such as satellite clock and ephemeris errors, as
well as several of the INS errors. When properly implemented, accuracies in the
integrated navigation solution will improve significantly, such as from the 20-m
level to 1-m level or better.
The major INS error sources are due to gyroscope and accelerometer inertial
sensor imperfections, incorrect navigation system initialization, and imperfec-
tions in the gravity model used in the computations. The major errors for the
gyroscopes are in measuring angular rates, while the major errors for the
accelerometer component are in measuring acceleration. For both instruments,
the largest errors are usually a bias instability [measured in deg/hour for gyro-
scope bias drift, or micro-g (␮g) for the accelerometer bias], and scale-factor sta-
bility [which is usually measured in parts per million (ppm) of the sensed inertial
quantity]. The smaller the inertial sensor errors, the better the quality of the
instruments, the improved accuracy of the resulting navigation solution, and the
higher the cost of the system. As a rule of thumb, an INS equipped with gyroscope
with a bias stability of 0.01 deg/hour will see its navigation error grow at a rate of
1 nmi/hour (nautical mile per hour) of operation (Schmidt 2004). The navigation
system performance specifications lead directly to the selection of specific inertial
instruments in order to meet the mission requirements.

Fiberoptic Sensors
Fiberoptic sensor (FOS) technology can augment GPS in many engineering appli-
cations (Phares et al. 2005). In contrast to GPS, these sensors can be embedded
in the body of a structure to continuously monitor performance with a long-term
data record. They can detect performance by sending light beams down a fiberop-
tic cable of a known length, at regular intervals, and by measuring changes in time
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 141

of flight. There are various types of FOS, and each type is based on a different
property of the light waves traveling down the fiber.
FOS are known to exhibit high shock survivability and are capable of measur-
ing strains at multiple (two or three) orders of magnitude better than conven-
tional electrical resistance gages. They can detect strain along the entire length of
the sensor (cable). Other advantages include their compactness and freedom from
drift and electromagnetic interference. They can easily be incorporated into vari-
ous types of measuring devices (e.g., accelerometers, displacement transducers),
and many physical quantities can be measured simultaneously with the proper
system design and calibration.

Wireless Trilateration Technologies

As noted earlier, a major shortcoming of GPS is the received signal strength, which
is on the order of 160 dB. The weak GPS signals can penetrate transparent glass
material but are easily blocked by other materials such as concrete, wood, or steel.
This limits GPS to outdoor applications requiring open spaces. Obstructed out-
door environments such as urban canyons or tree canopies can also cause poor
satellite geometry or lack of sufficient satellites for a trilateration fix. These cir-
cumstances are undesirable for some applications.
Efforts to improve the GPS receiver technology in order to track very low sig-
nal strengths, as would be encountered inside buildings, include wireless assisted-
GPS (A-GPS) and high-sensitivity receiver designs. To complement such efforts,
wireless communication networks such as cellular towers and Wi-Fi networks can
be used to carry out a cellular triangulation to locate the user to within a few tens or
hundreds of meters. The advantage of such networks over GPS is that they can
work both indoors and outdoors.
The E911 mandate issued by the U.S. Federal Communication Commission
(FCC) in the early 2000s has been an important driver for the development of
positioning technologies capable of being embedded within cellular phones. The
mandate requires that cellular carriers be able to automatically locate anyone
making an emergency 911 call. The general specifications include the positioning
accuracy of the device making a 911 call to be on the order of 50 to 100 m (67%
of the time), depending on the technology used. Thus, by law, hundreds of mil-
lions of cell phones must have location awareness. As a result of the E911 mandate,
the number of GPS receivers embedded within cellular phones far outnumbers
the standard GPS receivers in the market.
Two of the most prominent means for outdoor tracking are GPS and existing
cellular networks. The accuracy for a GPS navigation fix is now routinely within 5 to
20 m, but GPS requires line-of-sight to satellites and does not work well in urban
canyons of large cities. To get around this shortcoming, wireless carriers employ
the A-GPS technology. In this approach, the cellular networks assist GPS receivers
to locate satellites, speeding up the search process and helping GPS to function in
areas where it might not otherwise work.
There have also been cases of TV-enabled GPS wherein powerful broadcast
television signals are used, as opposed to cellular signals, to triangulate position
142 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

(Pfeiffer 2003). Such broadcast signals may be preferable to cellular networks

since they have wider geographical coverage and can much more easily pene-
trate buildings.
Some cellular carriers use their existing cellular networks alone in a cellular
triangulation using cell towers to pinpoint a user’s location, but this usually pro-
vides only a rough indication of the caller’s location. The accuracy is poor and
can be anywhere between 30 to 150 m, depending on conditions. However, a
method called time difference of arrival (TDOA) can be used to improve the cellular
triangulation accuracy. Similar to GPS trilateration, the TDOA approach plots
location by measuring the exact time it takes for a signal from a cell phone to
travel to and from three or more cellular towers. If only two cellular towers (or
base stations) are present, such as may be the case in rural areas, then the angles
of the arriving signals can be used instead (triangulation). Users of this approach
include AT&T Wireless whereas as of this writing Sprint and Verizon employ the
A-GPS approach.
Another approach for locating users both indoors and outdoors is by using a
popular wireless networking technology known as Wi-Fi. In most of the large
urban areas, numerous carries have installed Wi-Fi transceivers in hotels, cafes,
and other commercial buildings to deliver high-speed Internet access to mobile
users. By using some sort of database of a recorded network’s signal strength, a
location can be matched to a specific signal strength so that when customers access
the network, it knows where they are. With accuracy ranging from 1 to 20 m, Wi-Fi
mapping is more precise than cellular triangulation. However, a major shortcom-
ing with this approach is that the Wi-Fi transceiver covers a limited geographical
area of only about 90 m in radius. It is particularly insecure and susceptible to sig-
nal interference, as a “stalker” might be able to determine a user’s location based
on their signal.
Ultrawideband, though not fully developed at the time of this writing, is
another wireless technology that uses on/off energy bursts that are billionths of a
second in duration at extremely low power (one-thousandth the power of a tradi-
tional cell phone) over a large frequency spectrum. The ultrashort pulses enable
signal travel time to be determined in picoseconds, allowing indoor positioning
to within centimeters. Ultrawideband stations (transmitters/receivers) can be
installed at strategic locations, such as within the same building. Position is deter-
mined by triangulation if at least three signals are received, and vertical mapping is
possible if four signals are received. This in turn makes it possible to figure out
how high the position is off the ground, or on which floor of a building a person
is located. As with GPS or Wi-Fi, ultrawideband can be incorporated into cell
phones and PNDs.

Opportunities and Challenges

The GPS receiver technology has undergone a dramatic transformation from very
bulky, analog-based electronics to miniature digital devices that can be embed-
APPLICATION EXAMPLES 143

ded in cell phones and PNDs. Manufacturers continue to aim for higher preci-
sion and faster measurement for all application sectors. Complementary tech-
nologies and wireless communication networks combine with GPS to enable seam-
less outdoor/indoor positioning. For instance, your GPS-enabled cell phone would
report your location within a certain city block, and once you walk through the
front door an indoor technology such as Wi-Fi takes over.
There are many advantages and opportunities in these developments, but
there are also some real challenges to be addressed. For example, the E911 man-
date is in the interest of security and safety, and has provided a tremendous boost
to the location awareness technology developments. Location-based services are
now part of normal everyday life as wireless carriers can pinpoint our locations
even if we are unaware of such possibilities. But do people want their friends, the
government, or strangers knowing where they are at all times? Some carriers give
consumers the ability to turn off location finding at their handsets, or the option
to be “invisible,” but privacy is still a matter of concern for many. Nevertheless,
the advantages of location-aware computing seem to outweigh the disadvantages.
Miniaturization provides opportunities for many applications ranging from
mass-market to professional consumers interested in embedded or integrated
GPS solutions. There is a wide range of competing (and complementary) prod-
ucts and options. For example, an awareness of existing GPS networks could help
a project manager make the decision of whether or not to purchase additional
GPS equipment. This could be a US$10,000 decision.
Consumers interested in developing a GPS application ought to know the
capabilities and limitations of the technology, as well as those of the complemen-
tary technologies. Understanding the limitations of GPS is one of the topics
addressed in Chapter 6.
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CHAPTER 8

The Future of GPS

GPS Modernization

Improving the GPS Configuration

The GPS constellation is about numbers and geometry. Having augmentation
satellites on orbit is not a new state of affairs for GPS. While GLONASS (once fully
operational, in 1996 for about 6 months) struggles to return to full operational
capability with 24 satellites (213), and GALILEO is being built, the GPS constel-
lation size has been at 24 or more satellites since 1996. New efforts by the U.S.
military include a reconfiguration of the GPS constellation to improve global cov-
erage, as well as regional coverage in areas where coverage can be degraded (for
instance, in the mountainous regions of Afghanistan or in urban canyons in the
big cities). In January 2010, the official military announcement laid out a new ini-
tiative to reposition some of the GPS satellites:

The [243] initiative will take up to 24 months to fully implement as satel-

lites are repositioned within the constellation based on constellation health.
The beneficial impact to all GPS users, including civilian users, will be slowly
realized during that time period. Over the next two years, the number of
GPS satellites in view from any point on earth will increase, potentially
increasing accuracy of GPS receivers. (Defense PNT Newsletter, January 2010)

In terms of numbers, adding more satellites would improve global coverage.

The auxiliary satellites on orbit have the added advantage of improving the geom-
etry and consequently the accuracy of GPS for U.S. and allied warfighters, espe-
cially in mountainous regions and urban canyon situations. However, improving
the system geometrically needs a different approach. For instance, moving three
existing GPS satellites to new orbit locations would have a profound effect on GPS
capabilities worldwide ( Jewell 2010). There are more than 30 GPS satellites in
MEO (medium Earth orbit) that are used globally. However, many of the addi-
tional satellites have been flown in tandem, side by side, with considerably older
satellites, effectively limiting the constellation geometry to that of 24 satellites.
Simply moving three existing GPS satellites to new orbit locations would positively

145
146 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

affect the positioning capabilities of GPS for all civil, commercial, and military
users worldwide.

Operational Control Segment (OCS) Software

The GPS ground control must modernize in step with the new codes/signals. The
current GPS ground control system, known as the Architecture Evolution Plan
(AEP), has been controlling the constellation since September 2007. AEP was
upgraded on January 11, 2010 to enable telemetry, tracking, and commanding
for the new GPS IIF satellites and provide over-the-air (OTAR) distribution of
encryption keys for military user P(Y)-code equipment, better known as SAASM-
based UE (selective availability anti-spoofing module user equipment). The next-
generation operational control segment software will replace the AEP system. The
U.S. government’s fiscal year 2011 budget included allocations for these planned
developments (Box 8-1).

Benefits to Civilian Users

The 243 configuration and the new control segment software will benefit all GPS
users globally (Figs. 8-1 through 8-3). The 243 will be especially beneficial to the

Box 8-1. President Plans $1.23 Billion for GPS in FY 2011

President Obama’s proposed budget for fiscal year 2011 (FY11) would allocate
$1.057 billion for Department of Defense (DoD) GPS-related procurement and
development activities, and nearly $180 million to the Department of Trans-
portation (DoT) for civil GPS programs. Those figures compare with $830 million
in FY10 DoD appropriations and slightly more than $150 million in GPS-related
DoT expenditures in the current budget cycle.
The proposed FY11 DoD items include $34.471 million for GPS Block IIF satel-
lites and Operational Control Segment (OCS) development, $828.171 million for
GPS Block IIIA and Next-Generation Operational Control Segment (OCX) devel-
opment, and $194.8 million for other program support.
GPS-related DoT budget items include $58.5 million for the addition of new,
civil-unique capabilities to the GPS program, $95 million for the Federal Aviation
Administration’s Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), $14.5 million for the
FAA Ground-Based Augmentation System—widely known as the Local Area Aug-
mentation System (LAAS), and $7.6 million for the inland component of [the]
Nationwide Differential GPS (NDGPS) system.

Source: Inside GNSS magazine, March/April 2010 Edition, p. 14. Used with permission.
THE FUTURE OF GPS 147

Figure 8-1. The benefits of GPS modernization.

Figure 8-2. Basic positioning. (a) Today; (b) tomorrow.

148 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 8-3. Advanced positioning. (a) Today; (b) tomorrow.

RTK (real-time kinematic) users who currently require six satellites in view for a
very precise (centimeter accuracy) position. In the past, users that require long
dwell times and experience high mask angles have been forced to use GLONASS
satellites as an augmentation, which works, of course, but GLONASS satellites have
historically been less accurate than the GPS system. When 243 is fully imple-
mented, hopefully GLONASS augmentation will no longer be necessary.

GNSS Technologies

GPS is one component of the worldwide effort now known as the Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS). Another component of GNSS is the Russian GLONASS,
and a third is the GALILEO system administered by the European Union (EU).
While GPS and GLONASS are operational systems, GALILEO is still under devel-
opment and is expected to be fully operational by 2014. It is also likely that more
constellations will eventually be included in the GNSS.
THE FUTURE OF GPS 149

The current GNSS infrastructure can be classified into four layers (Table 8-1):

• Global navigation satellite systems: currently GPS (United States), GLONASS

(Russia), future GALILEO (Europe) and COMPASS/BeiDou 2 (China).
• Regional satellite navigation systems: IRNSS (India), BeiDou 1 (China), and QZSS
(Japan).
• Regional satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS): WAAS (United States),
EGNOS (EU), MSAS (Japan), and GAGAN (India).
• Ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS): differential GPS (DGPS), local area
augmentation system (LAAS), and local GBAS typically based on a single GPS
reference station providing RTK corrections.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

GLONASS
Developed during the Cold War period as the USSR equivalent of GPS, the
GLONASS constellation, consisting of 24 satellites at an altitude of 19,100 km
(11,860 mi.), is deployed in three roughly circular orbital planes inclined about
64.8 deg toward the equator. In a full constellation at least five satellites are in
view from any given point at any given time. The basic concepts of GLONASS are
similar to those of GPS but there are technical differences, one of which is the way
in which the satellite signals are transmitted. GPS, GALILEO, and COMPASS use
the code division multiple access (CDMA) technique, whereas GLONASS uses the
frequency division multiple access (FDMA) technique.

Code division multiple access (CDMA)

GPS satellites all transmit on the same frequency but with different pseudo random
noise (PRN) codes. A GPS receiver gets a unique segment of the C/A and P codes

Table 8-1. Navigation Satellite Systems Classification

Name Country

Global navigation satellite systems GPS United States

GLONASS Russia
GALILEO European Union
COMPASS/BeiDou China
Regional satellite navigation systems IRNSS India
BeiDou China
QZSS Japan
Satellite-based augmentation systems WAAS United States
EGNOS European Union
MSAS Japan
GAGAN India
Ground-based augmentation systems LAAS United States
DGPS United States
RTK/RTN United States
150 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

from each satellite but all on a single carrier frequency on which they are trans-
mitted. In other words, even though each GPS satellite broadcasts its own unique
segment of the C/A code (referred to as a PRN), they all arrive at the receiver at the
same frequency, L1 (1575.42 MHz). The same is true of the P code—each unique
segment of the P code (a satellite’s PRN) arrives at the L2 frequency, 1227.60 MHz.
This approach is the CDMA technique.

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

GLONASS uses an FDMA approach in which the satellites transmit using the same
codes but at slightly different frequencies. Unlike GPS, each code that a GLONASS
receiver collects from any of the GLONASS satellites is exactly the same. Also
unlike GPS, there are a range of frequencies to assign to each GLONASS satellite
from two L bands. GLONASS satellites transmit two types of signals: a standard-
precision (SP) signal and a high-precision (HP) signal. The SP signal gives hori-
zontal position accuracy within 55 m and vertical position within 70 m, based on
measurements from four satellite signals. The HP service is a more accurate signal
for Russian military use. The two signals are transmitted on different frequencies
using a 15-channel FDMA technique.
Antenna and receiver designs for FDMA are more complex and can be harder
to calibrate for the highest accuracy. Combined GPS/GLONASS receivers are
available for surveying and mapping but are not likely for mass markets. There
are indications that GLONASS may try CDMA in the future (the same as GPS,
GALILEO, and COMPASS).

Other differences between GPS and GLONASS

GLONASS orbits are inclined steeper than GPS to give slightly better coverage at
high latitudes. The GLONASS satellites repeat every 8 days while GPS satellites
repeat every day (actually 23 hours 56 min.). The GLONASS ground control is
limited to tracking stations only in former USSR territory (not global like GPS);
this limits the ephemeris accuracy.

GLONASS satellites
Phase I of the GLONASS system was completed in 1991 with seven active satellites
in each of two orbital planes separated by 120 deg (Hofmann-Wellenhof et al.
2008). Twelve GLONASS spacecraft were added to the network during 1993–
1994. The second-generation satellites, known as Uragan-M (GLONASS-M), with
a 7-year operational life, were first launched in 2001 with subsequent launches in
2004 and 2005 (Fig. 8-4). A total of 14 were in orbit at the end of 2005. The third-
generation satellites, which will number 24 when the constellation is complete in
2012, are known as Uragan-K (GLONASS-K) and are designed with a lifetime of
10–12 years. They feature an additional L-band navigational signal.

GALILEO
The GALILEO satellite positioning system (Fig. 8-5) is the European GNSS pro-
gram. It is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. The GALILEO
positioning system is referred to as “GALILEO” instead of the abbreviation “GPS”
THE FUTURE OF GPS 151

Figure 8-4. The Uragan-M (GLONASS-M) satellite.

to distinguish it from the existing U.S. system. It is intended to provide higher

precision to all users than is currently available through GPS or GLONASS, to
improve the availability of positioning services at higher latitudes, and to provide
an independent positioning system upon which European nations can rely in the
absence of GPS or GLONASS. The GALILEO constellation should become oper-
ational by 2014. Like the GPS system, GALILEO will utilize CDMA.
GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B
Just over a dozen years after the idea was first proposed, the work on GALILEO cul-
minated in the launch of a GIOVE-A (GALILEO In-Orbit Validation Experiment-A)
152 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 8-5. The GALILEO constellation. Source: European Space Agency (ESA).

satellite (Fig. 8-6a). In addition to testing and validating the concept, the GIOVE-
A satellite allowed the European government authorities to register the GALILEO
frequencies with international regulators. This was necessary to buy time for the
EU to build additional satellites without losing the frequency reservations. On
April 27, 2008, a follow-on satellite, GIOVE-B, was launched (Fig. 8-6b). Galileo
Industries, the consortium responsible for building GIOVE-B and the first batch
of operational satellites, has scheduled their launches aboard Russian Soyuz rock-
ets as an illustration of partnerships necessary for the success of GALILEO.
GALILEO signals
Just like GPS signals, GALILEO navigation signals are right-hand circular polar-
ized (RHCP) (Hein et al. 2003). The signals will be in the frequency ranges 1,164 to
THE FUTURE OF GPS 153

Figure 8-6. GALILEO In-Orbit Validation Experiment (GIOVE) satellites for

the GALILEO global navigation satellite system. Source: European Space
Agency (ESA).

1,215 MHz (E5a and E5b), 1,215 to 1,300 MHz (E6), and 1,559 to 1,592 MHz
(E2-L1-E1), which are part of the Radio Navigation Satellite Service (RNSS) allo-
cation. The carrier frequencies (Fig. 8-7), as well as the frequency bands overlap
with those of GPS and GLONASS. The overlapping of the signals is helpful in
terms of the envisioned interoperability between GPS, GALILEO, and GLONASS.
The initial interoperability agreement was signed between the EU and the United
States in 2004. This agreement clarified the technical details of frequencies and
code modulation (e.g., the new GPS civilian code L1C will be modulated the same
way as GALILEO signals). The L3 band on GLONASS-K satellites will be within
the frequency band that overlaps with GALILEO’s E5b signal. GALILEO’s E5a
signal is centered at exactly 1,176 as is L5 of GPS, and both GALILEO’s L1 and
GPS’s L1 are centered at 1,575.42 MHz.
GALILEO levels of service
GALILEO is designed with different levels of service. These include the open serv-
ice (OS) and safety-of-life services (SoL) available to all GALILEO users on the
E5a, E5b, and L1 carrier frequencies; commercial service (CS) accessible only to
some dedicated users that gain access through encrypted custom solutions; and
the public regulated service (PRS) with encrypted ranging codes and data is acces-
sible to authorized users. The SoL service provides integrity monitoring, meaning
that users are warned if there are signal problems. The PRS is meant to assist pub-
lic security and civil authority, with protection against jamming. The CS data are
transmitted on the E5b, E6, and E2-L1-E1 carriers. The PRS data are transmitted
on E6 and L1 carrier frequencies.
154 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure 8-7. GALILEO navigation signals and frequencies. Source: European

Space Agency (ESA).

COMPASS/BeiDou
The COMPASS Navigation Satellite System (CNSS), or BeiDou-2, its Chinese
name, is a Chinese navigation satellite constellation. The BeiDou-2 system will
build on the predecessor (BeiDou-1) regional positioning program. COMPASS/
BeiDou-2 comprises a 35-satellite constellation, with five satellites in geostation-
ary orbit and 30 in medium Earth orbit [12-hour, 55-deg inclination, 21,000-km
(13,050-mi.)-altitude circular orbits]. While BeiDou-1 is intended for users in
China and its neighboring countries, BeiDou-2 is intended to provide navigation
and positioning services to global users. The initial satellite launch of the BeiDou-2
system was in April 2007, with a planned date of completion of 2015.
The CNSS positioning concept is no different from the other GNSSs. And
like other GNSSs, it is driven by reasons such as sovereignty and military control.
Frequencies overlap closely with those of GALILEO and GPS. Its CDMA signals
are also very similar to “modernized” GPS. For users, more satellites and signals
is a boon. Political and industrial competition is driving GNSS developments and
the users will benefit. A hundred or more navigation satellites could be available
in the next decade, with a multitude of different signals being broadcast from
each satellite. Figure 8-8 illustrates the overall timeline of GNSS developments.

Regional Satellite Navigation Systems (RNSS)

BeiDou-1
BeiDou-1 is China’s first space-based regional navigation and positioning net-
work. It is a three-satellite constellation developed by the China Academy of Space
Technology. Its method of operation requires two-way transmissions between the
user and a central control station via a high-altitude geostationary satellite. First,
THE FUTURE OF GPS 155

Figure 8-8. Timeline of GNSS developments.

the central control station sends inquiry signals to a user via two satellites. When
the user terminal receives the signal from one satellite, it sends a response signal
back to both satellites. The central station receives the responding signals sent by
the user from two satellites and calculates the user’s 2-D position based on the
time difference between the two signals. Because the BeiDou-1 system requires
two-way transmissions between the user and the central control station via satel-
lites at high-altitude geostationary orbit, its user segment needs extra space for a
transmitter and a more powerful battery. Consequently, the BeiDou-1 user seg-
ments are much larger (20-cm antenna), heavier, and more expensive compared
to GPS user receivers.
IRNSS
The Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) is a seven-satellite
constellation under development by the Indian Space Research Organization.
Three of the satellites will be placed in geostationary orbit, with four in geosyn-
chronous inclined orbit of 29 deg relative to the equatorial plane. Navigation sig-
nals will be transmitted in the S-band frequency (2–4 GHz).
IRNSS is being developed to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 m
throughout India and within a region extending approximately 2,000 km (1,250 mi.)
around it. The government approved the project in May 2006, intending the sys-
tem to be completed and implemented by 2012.

QZSS
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a proposed three-satellite regional
time transfer and GPS enhancement system, receivable within Japan. The first
156 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

satellite, Michibiki, was launched on September 11, 2010, and is expected to be

fully operational by 2013. The satellite is placed in a periodic highly elliptical
orbit (HEO), allowing it to stay in view for more than 12 hours a day with an ele-
vation above 70° (that is, the satellite appears almost overhead most of the time),
hence the term “quasi-zenith.”
QZSS is targeted at mobile applications, to provide communications-based serv-
ices (video, audio, and data) and positioning information. However, the positioning
service can provide only limited accuracy on its own and is not currently designed
to work in a stand-alone mode. It is viewed as a GNSS augmentation service.

Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)

A satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) is one that supports wide-area or
regional augmentation using additional satellite-broadcast messages. Such sys-
tems commonly consist of multiple ground stations located at accurately surveyed
points. The ground stations take measurements of one or more of the GNSS
satellites, the satellite signals, or other environmental factors, which may affect
the signal received by the users. Using these measurements, information mes-
sages are created and sent to one or more satellites for broadcast to the end
users. Figure 8-9 represents various SBASs that are implemented worldwide.
The U.S. Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) was commissioned for use
by civil aviation in July 2003. In 2007, WAAS vertical guidance was identified as
being available nearly all the time, covering the full continental United States,
most of Alaska, northern Mexico, and southern Canada. EGNOS (European Geo-

Figure 8-9. SBASs worldwide.

THE FUTURE OF GPS 157

stationary Navigation Overlay Service) started its initial operations in July 2005
and was declared operational for safety-of-life services in March 2011. MSAS, the
Multifunctional Satellite Augmentation System, became operational for safety-of-
life applications in September 2007, according to the Japan Civil Aviation Bureau
(Butterworth-Hayes 2009). India’s GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Naviga-
tion) is being built to provide a navigation system for all phases of flight over India
and its neighbors, to be fully operational by May 2011.

Ground-Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS)

A ground-based augmentation system (GBAS) is an augmentation to GNSS that
focuses its service on a localized area such as around an airport [e.g., an approxi-
mately 30-km (19-mi.) radius]. In GBAS, corrections are broadcast to users via a
very high frequency (VHF) radio data link from a ground-based transmitter or via
cellular towers or Internet transmission.
A local area augmentation system (LAAS) is the FAA version of the GBAS
that has been defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
LAAS is based on a single GPS reference station facility located on the prop-
erty of the airport being serviced. It allows users within 45 km (30 mi.) of the
LAAS ground station to perform GPS-based position fixes with 0.5-m (95%
confidence level) accuracy and to perform all civil flight operations up to non-
precision approach.
The DGPS and RTN networks and services discussed in Chapters 4 and 5,
respectively, are also GBAS systems. For instance, the U.S. NDGPS network is a
nationwide GBAS comprised of several coastal and inland networks, operated by
the United States Coast Guard, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the U.S.
Department of Transportation. Several commercial RTN networks exist for real-
time corrections via radio link or the Internet.

Market Trends and Opportunities

A Projected Growth Sector for the Next 20 or More Years

GPS is an indispensable tool in every sector of the world economy. It is one of the
global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) that are predicted to be the major driv-
ers of the world economies during the next few decades. Apart from GPS, which
is owned by the United States, parallel similar technologies include the Russian
GLONASS, the European GALILEO, and the Chinese COMPASS/BeiDou. Other
nations such as India and Japan are also on track with regional satellite systems
that are already boosting scientific research and mass market possibilities. By
design, a single GNSS consists of more than two dozen space satellites that aid
in navigation, positioning, and timing. The civilian applications have been limit-
less and continue to expand, currently including areas such as precision farm-
ing, car navigation systems, personal navigation and tracking devices, wireless
158 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

communications and cellular services, engineering, construction, transportation,

telematics, location-based services, emergency search and rescue, tourism, mar-
itime, aviation, mining, mapping, meteorology, and climate science.
The most recent market research suggests that, notwithstanding the impact
of the 2008–2009 economic crisis, the GNSS industry is still growing at a solid
pace (Pietka and Urrutia 2010). GNSS system shipments are projected to reach
more than 500 million worldwide in 2010 and to continue growing to 1.1 billion
in 2014. According to ABI Research forecasts, “Current projections suggest that,
over the period 2009–2014, GNSS markets will grow at compound annual rate of
24 percent. . . . In today’s crisis scenario, few other industries are granted such
bright prospects” (ABI Research 2010). A market study conducted by the GSA
(the European GNSS Supervisory Authority) foresees that the overall worldwide
GNSS-enabled market size for civil applications, combining sales of GNSS devices
plus GNSS-based services, will amount to about €236 billion in 2025. Market
trends suggest that GNSS-based products and services are still in the early “major-
ity phase” of an innovation adoption cycle.

Impact on Revenue and Jobs

Although GPS (which is a GNSS) was initially primarily a military system, it has
led to unexpected exponential growth in civilian applications and research
interests. Hundreds of GNSS companies have been (and continue to be) created
worldwide, and universities and institutions have continually expanded numer-
ous research positions and programs in GNSS and related areas. The European
GNSS alone is projected to create hundreds of thousands of jobs during the
next two decades. Recently, Inside GNSS magazine featured an essay by eco-
nomic analysts in the European Commission’s Galileo Unit describing how
GALILEO, the European GNSS now under development, can contribute to
Europe’s recovery from the global economic crisis. The following is an excerpt
from that report:

Just in terms of market opportunities, GALILEO has the potential to gen-

erate €100 billion of accumulated revenues for European companies in
the global market for navigation applications in the period 2005–2030.
Such an outsource would lead to the creation of as many as 100,000 high-
tech jobs across Europe.
A review of these estimates taking account of possible impacts of the
economic crisis suggests that, in a worst-case scenario, the total accumu-
lated benefits coming from GALILEO over the period 2008–2030 would
be between €55 and €62 billion. . . . Even under this pessimistic scenario,
the accompanying increase in employment is projected to produce around
1,400 permanent jobs created in up-stream industries—GALILEO infra-
structure and operations—and between 17,000 and 21,000 incremental
jobs in down-stream industries—GALILEO product manufacturers and
service providers. (Inside GNSS 2010a)
THE FUTURE OF GPS 159

When considering market developments and the importance that GNSS com-
mercial services have acquired in recent years, some key conclusions become
apparent:

• GNSS represents a long-term growth industry with potential revenues in the

range of tens of billions of dollars, even in a context of a severe economic cri-
sis. Political and industrial competition is driving GNSS developments and
civilian users will certainly benefit. More than 100 GNSS satellites could be
available in the next decade with a multitude of different signals being broad-
cast from each satellite.
• Today, the EU is the most important market for the GNSS products after the
United States. Russia is developing their GNSS and so are China, India, and
Japan. And who knows which other countries might soon follow suit? In the
next 15 years, world economic dependence on GNSS is likely to increase, and
so will the GNSS job opportunities. There is a steady worldwide demand for
skilled professionals who can participate in GNSS-related research, product
and system developments, and testing.
• GPS has been fully operational since 1993 and is currently undergoing mod-
ernization phases. The Russian GLONASS is similarly being revitalized, with
many satellite launches having occurred in the recent past. There is a big push
by the EU community to declare GALILEO fully operational by 2014. The
system is currently being developed, tested, and validated, and many funding
phases have been successful. There is a growing demand for the relevant
workforce and skills, and the number of job seekers specifically interested in
the GNSS industry is on the rise. All these are key indicators of the potential
for growth in GNSS job opportunities as the technology matures. Potential
areas of immediate and future job demand include administrators, program
managers, business developers, sales engineers, software engineers, research
scientists, system developers, university researchers, executives, program-
mers, and product developers.

High-Precision GNSS
For the remainder of this chapter, high-precision GNSS is defined as GNSS
equipment, software, or services capable of providing horizontal precision of
10 cm or less using GNSS technology. High-precision GNSS is an essential pro-
ductivity tool in globally important industrial sectors such as mining, agricul-
ture, and construction. Important milestones include the value of high-preci-
sion GNSS systems used for industrial applications such as machine control in
agriculture and civil engineering, exceeding that of high-precision GNSS for
traditional uses such as surveying and science applications (see earlier discus-
sions in Chapter 7).
Annually, there are at least half a dozen or more GNSS market research
reports predicting the future performance of GNSS products and services. Most
of the GPS/GNSS market reports discuss the background and status of the entire
160 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

spectrum of GNSS, including GPS and GPS modernization, GLONASS and

GLONASS modernization, SBAS, GALILEO, COMPASS/BeiDou, QZSS, and
IRNSS systems, as well as market trends and potential challenges and opportuni-
ties. While this book discusses these topics in a conceptual and application con-
text, the market reports include details on financial projections and competitive-
ness of products and services for the GNSS markets surveyed.
Some GNSS market research reports are specific to a particular GNSS con-
sumer product, industry, or application, while others are more general in scope.
The Military GPS/GNSS Devices Market 2009–2019, by MarketResearch.com, is one
example of an industry-specific report. Another example is World-Wide Precision
Positioning Markets 2008–2012 by Lorimer and Gakstatter (2008). This second
example is general in scope but specific to high-precision GNSS applications,
including surveying, engineering, agriculture, mining, deformation monitoring,
GIS, and marine for both machine control and nonmachine control applications.
It covers details on the projected U.S. value chain in high-precision GNSS infra-
structure, the market for GNSS receivers, finished GNSS goods, and GNSS aug-
mentation and distribution services. According to this report, the global value of
precision GNSS products and services would grow to between $6 billion and
$8 billion by 2012.

Products
As seen in Chapter 7, there is a trend toward higher precision in GNSS receiver
technology. New GNSS signals and new technologies have created new market
dynamics. Perhaps an important area with the most impact on high-precision
applications is autosteer and machine control technology. In this particular area,
there is a new breed of GNSS technology providers in agriculture, construction,
engineering, and related applications.
Autosteer and other high-precision GNSS applications contribute to increased
productivity in all applicable sectors. For instance, the worldwide market for high-
precision GPS in agriculture is booming (Lorimer and Gakstatter 2008). For many
years the leading technology for precision agriculture was GPS L1 receivers pro-
viding sub-meter precision. That precision was good enough for yield mapping,
applying chemicals, field mapping, aerial spraying, and various other tasks where
sub-meter precision was really useful. In the autosteer and machine control tech-
nology, the sub-meter precision was not good enough but, at 1-cm horizontal
accuracy, dual-frequency RTK technology fits that application perfectly—making
autosteer in agricultural equipment a practical application of high-precision
GNSS. In offering high-precision GNSS solutions, many of the GPS/GNSS ven-
dors have adjusted their product strategies to utilize the network RTK infrastruc-
ture sector (discussed in Chapter 5).

Network Services
The growth in the number of high-precision GNSS users, estimated at more
than 300,000 globally in 2008, is encouraging governments and private indus-
THE FUTURE OF GPS 161

try to invest in high-precision GNSS infrastructure (Lorimer and Gakstatter

2008). This infrastructure uses GNSS reference stations and wireless communi-
cations to deliver a data service to multiple users, removing the need for indi-
vidual users to operate their own GNSS reference stations. Such infrastructure
and associated data services are forecast to be the fastest growing component of
the value chain.
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APPENDIX 1

Overview of Civilian GPS Receiver

Classification

Figure A1-1. Overview of civilian GPS receiver classification.

163
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APPENDIX 2

Why GPS Carrier Signals Are in the

L-Band

All GPS signals are in the L-band of the frequency spectrum (Fig. A2-1). Because
L-band waves penetrate clouds, fog, rain, storms, and vegetation, GPS units can
receive accurate data in all weather conditions, day or night. There are circum-
stances in which GPS units may not receive signals accurately, such as inside con-
crete buildings or under heavy forest canopies.
The principle of position determination by GPS and the accuracy of positions
depend on the nature of the signals transmitted. A suitable signal structure was
developed to fulfill a number of requirements. The choice of the GPS carrier fre-
quency (to transport data signals) was submitted to the following requirements:

• Frequencies should be below 2 GHz, as frequencies above 2 GHz would

require beam antennae for the signal reception.
• Ionospheric delays are enormous for frequency rages below 1,000 MHz and
above 10 GHz.
• The PRN codes (explained in the Glossary) require a high bandwidth for code
modulation on the carrier frequency. Therefore, a range of high frequencies
with the possibility of a high bandwidth had to be chosen.
• The chosen frequency should be in a range where the signal propagation is
not influenced by weather phenomena like rain, snow, or clouds.

Based on these considerations, the choice of L-band frequencies proved to be

advantageous. Each GPS satellite (Block IIF and beyond) transmits three carrier
signals in the microwave range of the electromagnetic spectrum, designated as
L1, L2, and L5 (frequencies located in the L-band between 1,000 and 2,000 MHz
of the spectrum). The L1 frequency is 1,575.42 MHz (wavelength 19.05 cm), the
L2 frequency is 1,227.60 MHz (wavelength 24.45 cm), and the L5 frequency is
1,176.45 MHz (wavelength 25.48 cm).

Broadcast versus Emitted Radio Waves

The GPS (L-band carrier) signals are broadcast radio waves. Broadcast radio waves
are created by use of transmitters. Emitted radio waves originate from astronomical

165
166 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure A2-1. The electromagnetic spectrum.

objects such as stars and galaxies. GPS uses the former while radio astronomy uses
the latter.

Broadcast Radio Waves

Transmitters use electrical signals at radio frequencies (RFs) to produce an RF
carrier wave. The part of a transmitter that creates the RF carrier wave is called
an oscillator. On transmission, the RF is modulated with the information to be
relayed. A receiver demodulates the modulated radio signal and removes the
RF to leave the information frequency. A transmitting antenna takes waves that
are generated by electrical signals inside a transmitter and converts them to
waves that travel in an open space. A receiving antenna receives radio waves
and guides them to a receiver, where they are reconstructed into the original
message.
APPENDIX 2: WHY GPS CARRIER SIGNALS ARE IN THE L-BAND 167

Emitted Radio Waves

The field of radio astronomy originated from the discovery that most astronomi-
cal objects in space emit radiation in the radio wavelengths as well as optical (light)
wavelengths. Astronomical objects such as planets and comets, giant clouds of gas
and dust, and stars and galaxies emit light at many different wavelengths. Some
of the light waves they emit have very large wavelengths—sometimes as long as a
mile. These long waves are in the radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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APPENDIX 3

Calculation of Satellite Position from

Ephemeris Data

Table A3-1. Representation of GPS Broadcast Ephemeris

Time Parameters
t0e Reference time, ephemeris parameters (s)
t0c Reference time, clock parameters (s)
a0, a1, a2 Polynomial coefficients for clock correction (bias (s), drift (s/s), drift rate (aging)
(s/s2))

Keplerian Parameters
兹莥莥A Square root of the semi-major axis (m1/2)
e Eccentricity (dimensionless)
i0 Inclination angle at reference time (semicircles)
⍀0 Longitude of ascending node at reference time (semicircles)
␻ Argument of perigee (semicircles)
—–
M0 Mean anomaly at reference time (semicircles)

Pertubation Parameters
⌬n Mean motion difference from computed value (semicircles/s)
⍀̇ Rate of change of right ascension (semicircles/s)
i̇ Rate of change of inclination (semicircles/s)
Cus Amplitude of the sine harmonic correction term to the argument of latitude
(rad)
Cuc Amplitude of the cosine harmonic correction term to the argument of latitude
(rad)
Cis Amplitude of the sine harmonic correction term to the angle of inclination (rad)
Cic Amplitude of the cosine harmonic correction term to the angle of inclination
(rad)
Crs Amplitude of the sine harmonic correction term to the orbit radius (m)
Crc Amplitude of the cosine harmonic correction term to the orbit radius (m)

Source: Seeber (2003).

The individual satellite time, tSV, is corrected to GPS system time, t, using:

t  tSV  ⌬tSV

169
170 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

in which

⌬tSV  a0  a1(t  t0c)  a2(t  t0c)2 (A3-1)

Differentiating Eq. A3-1 with respect to time yields satellite clock drift.
The satellite coordinates in the WGS-84 Cartesian system are computed for a
given epoch, t. The time, tk, elapsed since the reference epoch, t0e, is tk  t  ⌬t0e.

Table A3-2. Calculating Satellite Coordinates from GPS Broadcast Ephemeris

Constants

GM  3.986005 1014 m3/s2 WGS-84 value for the product of gravitational

constant G and the mass of the Earth M
␻e  7.292115 105 rad/s WGS-84 value of the Earth’s rotation rate
␲  3.1415926535898 (exactly)

Keplerian Parameters to ECEF Coordinates

T  2␲ GM A 3
Satellite orbital period

GM
n0  3
Computed mean motion
A
n  n0  ⌬n Corrected mean motion
—– —–
M k  M 0  ntk Mean anomaly
—–
Ek  M k  esin Ek Kepler’s equation of eccentric anomaly is solved by
iteration.
Because of the small eccentricity of GPS orbits (e 
0.001), two steps are usually sufficient:
—– —–
E0  M , Ei  M  esin Ei1, i  1, 2, 3, ...
cos Ek  e
cos ␷ k  True anomaly
1  e cos Ek

1  e sin Ek
2

sin ␷ k  True anomaly

1  e cos Ek
⌽k  ␷k  ␻ Argument of latitude
␦uk  Cuc cos 2⌽k  Cus sin 2⌽k Argument of latitude correction
␦rk  Crc cos 2⌽k  Crs sin 2⌽k Radius correction
␦ik  Cic cos 2⌽k  Cis sin 2⌽k Inclination correction
uk  ⌽k  ␦uk Corrected argument of latitude
rk  A(1  ecos Ek)  ␦rk Corrected radius
ik  i0  i̇tk  ␦ik Corrected inclination
Xk  rk cos uk Position in the orbital plane
Yk  rk sin uk Position in the orbital plane
⍀k  ⍀0  (⍀̇ ␻e)tk  ␻et0e Corrected longitude of ascending node
Xk  Xk cos ⍀k  Yk sin ⍀k cos ik Earth-fixed geocentric satellite coordinate
Yk  Xk sin ⍀k  Yk cos ⍀k cos ik Earth-fixed geocentric satellite coordinate
Zk  Yk sin ik Earth-fixed geocentric satellite coordinate

ECEF, Earth-centered, Earth-fixed.

Source: Seeber (2003).
APPENDIX 4

Calculation of Point Position from

Pseudoranges

Based upon the receiver–satellite range observation (refer to Eq. 2-6 in Chapter
2), the pseudorange measurements, Prs(t), can be modeled as:

Psr(t)  ␳sr (t)  c(dts(t)  dTr(t))  d sion(t)  d strop(t)  MP(t)  ε (A4-1)

where
t  time of epoch
P rs  pseudorange measurement
␳sr  satellite–receiver geometric distance
c  speed of light
dts  satellite clock bias
dTr  receiver clock bias
d sion  ionospheric propagation error
d strop  tropospheric propagation error
MP  multipath
ε  receiver noise
(ranges in meters, time in seconds)

Neglecting the propagation, multipath, and receiver errors, Eq. A4-1 becomes:

Prs(t)  ␳sr (t)  c(dts(t)  dTr(t)) (A4-2)

The geometric distance between satellite s and receiver r is given by:

␳ rs ( t)  ( x s ( t)  xr )2  ( y s ( t)  yr )2  ( z s ( t)  zr )2
orr (A4-3)
␳ ( t)  f ( xr , yr , zr )
s
r

with [xs, ys, zs]  satellite position, [xr, yr, zr]  receiver position in an Earth-centered
Earth-fixed (ECEF) coordinate system.

171
172 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

In GPS point positioning (also called GPS trilateration or GPS triangulation),

the goal is to solve for [xr, yr, zr, dTr], assuming that [xs, ys, zs, dts] are known. A
major problem here is that the unknowns [xr, yr, zr ] are not linearly related to the
observables.
Assuming that the approximate coordinates of the receiver [xo, yo, zo] are
known, one can write that the actual coordinates equal the approximate coordi-
nates plus a slight adjustment:

xr  xo  ⌬xr
yr  yo  ⌬yr (A4-4)
zr  zo  ⌬zr

⌬xr, ⌬yr, ⌬zr are the new unknowns, and we can now write:

f(xr, yr, zr)  f(xo  ⌬xr, yo  ⌬yr, zo  ⌬zr) (A4-5)

Since the approximate point [xo, yo, zo] is known, Eq. A4-5 can be expanded using
a Taylor’s series with respect to that point:

∂f ( xo , yo , zo )
f ( xr , yr , zr )  f ( xo , yo , zo )  ⌬xr 
∂xo
(A4-6)
∂f ( xo , yo , zo ) ∂f ( xo , yo , zo ) 1 ∂2 f ...
⌬yr  ⌬zr  
∂yo ∂zo 2! ∂x2

On the basis of Eq. A4-3:

f ( xo , yo , zo )  ( x s ( t)  xo )2  ( y s ( t)  yo )2  ( z s ( t)  zo )2 ␳os ( t) (A4-7)

Hence, the partial derivatives in Eq. A4-6 are given by:

∂f ( xo , yo , zo ) x s ( t)  xo

∂xo ␳os ( t)
∂f ( xo , yo , zo ) y s ( t)  yo (A4-8)

∂yo ␳ ( t)
s
o

∂f ( xo , yo , zo ) z ( t)  zo
s

∂zo ␳os ( t)
APPENDIX 4: CALCULATION OF POINT POSITION FROM PSEUDORANGES 173

Substituting Eq. A4-8 into Eq. A4-6:

x s ( t)  xo y s ( t)  yo z s ( t)  zo
f ( xr , yr , zr )  f ( xo , yo , zo )  ⌬xr  ⌬yr  ⌬zr (A4-9)
␳os ( t) ␳os ( t) ␳os ( t)

We now have an equation that is linear with respect to the unknowns ⌬xr, ⌬yr, ⌬zr.
Now going back to the pseudorange measurements P rs(t) and rewriting Eq.
A4-2:

x s ( t)  xo y s ( t)  yo z s ( t)  zo
Prs ( t)  ␳os ( t)  ⌬xr  ⌬yr  ⌬zr  c( dt s ( t)  dTr ( t)) (A4-10)
␳os ( t) ␳os ( t) ␳os ( t)

Equation A4-10 can then be rearranged by separating the known and unknown
terms on each side [the satellite clock correction dts(t) is provided in the navigation
message]:

x s ( t)  xo y s ( t)  yo z s ( t)  zo
Prs ( t)  ␳os ( t)  cdt s ( t)  ⌬xr  ⌬yr  ⌬zr  cdTr ( t) (A4-11)
␳os ( t) ␳os ( t) ␳os ( t)

Let:

x s ( t)  xo
axsr 
␳os ( t)
y s ( t)  yo (A4-12)
a ysr 
␳os ( t)
z s ( t)  zo
azsr 
␳os ( t)
l s  Prs ( t)  ␳os ( t)  cdt s ( t)

and assume that at time t we have four satellites visible simultaneously. For the
four satellites, use Eq. A4-11 to generate the following simultaneous equations:

l1  a1xr ⌬xr  a1yr ⌬yr  a1zr ⌬zr  cdTr

l2  a2xr ⌬xr  a2yr ⌬yr  a2zr ⌬zr  cdTr
(A4-13)
l3  a3xr ⌬xr  a3yr ⌬yr  a3zr ⌬zr  cdTr
l4  a4xr ⌬xr  a4yr ⌬yr  a4zr ⌬zr  cdTr
174 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

We can then simplify the notation by assigning:

(A4-14)

where
L  vector of n observations. Must have at least four elements (i.e., four satel-
lites), but in reality will have from 4 to 12 elements depending on the
satellite constellation geometry.
X  vector of u unknowns. Four elements in this case.
A  matrix of linear functions of the unknowns ( design matrix), n rows by
u columns.

We can now write the problem in Eq. A4-13 in a matrix-vector form:

(A4-15)

In general, n  u, leading to an overdetermined system. Because actual data

contain observational errors and noise, this system is nonconsistent. In order to
make it consistent, one must account for a noise vector, r. Equation A4-15 becomes:

(A4-16)

The noise vector, r, represents residuals, that is, observations minus model .
The least squares solution to Eq. A4-16 is:

(A4-17)

P is the weight matrix, defined by:

1
P  ␴2o ∑ L (A4-18)
APPENDIX 4: CALCULATION OF POINT POSITION FROM PSEUDORANGES 175

where
␴2o  a priori variance
⌺L  covariance matrix of the observations.

The law of covariance propagation gives the covariance matrix of the unknowns, ⌺X:

1
∑ X  ( AT ∑ L A)1 (A4-19)

In the case of pseudoranges, the observations are independent and have equal
variance ␴2o. For uncorrelated measurements, ⌺L is a diagonal matrix, and there-
fore Eq. A4-18 becomes:

P  ␴2o I (A4-20)

Assuming that the weight matrix is I, Eq. A4-17 can be simplified to:

(A4-21)

Having solved for ⌬xr, ⌬yr, ⌬zr, the antenna coordinates [xr, yr, zr] are obtained
using Eq. A4-4.
The associated variance-covariance matrix of the unknowns ⌺X is:

⎡ ␴2x ␴ xy ␴ xz ␴ xt ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ␴ yx ␴2y ␴ yz ␴ yt ⎥
∑X T 1
 ( A A)  ⎢ ⎥ (A4-22)
⎢ ␴ zx ␴ zy ␴2z ␴ zt ⎥
⎢␴ ␴ ty ␴ tz ␴2t ⎥⎦
⎣ tx

We can transform ⌺X from an ECEF frame to a local topocentric frame using the
law of variance propagation (disregarding the time-correlated components of ⌺X):

⎡ ␴2n ␴ ne ␴ nu ⎤
⎢ ⎥
∑ T  R⌺ x R  ⎢ ␴ en
T
␴2e ␴ eu ⎥ (A4-23)
⎢␴ ␴ ue ␴2u ⎥⎦
⎣ un

where R is the rotation matrix:

⎡sin ␸ cos ␭ sin ␸ sin ␭ cos ␸ ⎤

⎢ ⎥
R  ⎢ sin ␭ cos ␭ 0 ⎥ (A4-24)
⎢ cos ␸ cos ␭ cos ␸ sin ␭ sin ␸ ⎥⎦
⎣
176 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

where ␸  geodetic latitude of the GPS antenna, and ␭  geodetic longitude of

the GPS antenna.
The DOP factors (dilution of precision) are given by:

VDOP  ␴ u

HDOP  ␴2n  ␴2e

PDOP  ␴2n  ␴2e  ␴2u  ␴2x  ␴2y  ␴2z (A4-25)

TDOP  ␴ t

GDOP  ␴2n  ␴2e  ␴2u  ␴2t

APPENDIX 5

GPS Data Differencing Equations

The GPS satellite-to-receiver range measurements are characterized as:

1. Pseudorange measurements (refer to Eq. 2-6, Chapter 2)

i. Geometric range  clock offset  biases  noise
ii. Low accuracy but absolute measurements
2. Phase measurements (refer to Eq. 2-7, Chapter 2)
i. Geometric range  clock offset  initial ambiguity  biases  noise
ii. Very accurate measurements but ambiguous

These are the basic GPS observables (ranging equations). To improve accu-
racy, new equations are formed by differencing these basic ranging equations.
Differencing is the most effective strategy for eliminating or significantly reduc-
ing the biases in GPS observations (refer to Table 3-1 in Chapter 3). It can be
done for pseudorange as well as carrier phase measurements, although it is most
commonly applied in carrier phase measurements. A unique mathematical oper-
ator is used for each strategy as shown in Table A5-1.
The following differenced observables are obtained using the observation
equation for carrier phase measurements (Eq. 2-7):

Between-Satellite Differences

Given two simultaneous phase observations from two satellites (s1 and s2) to one
receiver (r), the between-satellite difference is obtained as:

ⵜ⌽  ⌽ s1
r  ⌽r
s2
(A5-1)
ⵜ⌽  ⵜ␳  cⵜdt  ⵜdion  ⵜdtrop  ␭ⵜN

where

⌽ s1
r  ␳ r  c(dt  dTr)  d ion  d trop  ␭N r  (Residual Biases  Noise)
s1 s1 s1 s1 s1
(A5-2)
⌽ r  ␳ r  c(dt  dTr)  d ion  d trop  ␭N s2
s2 s2 s2 s2 s2
r  (Residual Biases  Noise)

177
178 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Table A5-1. GPS Data Differencing Methods

Mathematical
Differencing Method Strategy Operator

Single differencing Between-satellite ⵜ

Between-receiver ⌬
Between-epoch ␦
Double differencing Between-satellite difference followed by ⌬ⵜ
between-receiver, or vice versa
Triple differencing Difference two double differences between epochs ␦⌬ⵜ

Between-Receiver Differences

Given two simultaneous phase observations from one satellite (s) to two receivers
(r1 and r2), the between-receiver difference is obtained as:

⌬⌽  ⌽r1
s
 ⌽r2
s
(A5-3)
⌬⌽  ⌬␳  c⌬dT  ⌬dion  ⌬dtrop  ␭⌬N

where

⌬dion ⬇ 0 and ⌬dtrop ⬇ 0 (if baseline is short)

⌽sr1  ␳sr1  c(dt s  dTr1)  dion
s
 dtrop
s
 ␭Nr1
s

(Residual Biases  Noise) (A5-4)
⌽r2
s
 ␳sr2
 c(dt  dTr2) 
s
 s
dion s
dtrop  ␭Nr2
s

(Residual Biases  Noise)

Between-Epoch Differences

Given phase observations from one satellite (s) to one receiver (r) at two different
epochs (t1 and t2), the between-epoch difference is obtained as:

␦⌽  ⌽sr (t2)  ⌽sr (t1)

(A5-5)
␦⌽  ␦␳  c(␦dt s  ␦dTr)  ␦dion  ␦dtrop

where

⌬dion ⬇ 0 and ␦dtrop ⬇ 0 (if epoch separation is short)

⌽sr(t1)  ␳ sr(t1)  c(dt s(t1)  dTr(t1))  d sion(t1)  d strop(t1)  ␭N sr(t1)  ... (A5-6)
⌽sr(t2)  ␳ sr(t2)  c(dt s(t2)  dTr(t2))  d sion(t2)  d strop(t2)  ␭Nrs(t2)  ...
APPENDIX 5: GPS DATA DIFFERENCING EQUATIONS 179

Receiver–Satellite Double Differences

Double differences are obtained by the between-satellite difference followed by

the between-receiver difference, or vice versa:

⌬ⵜ⌽  (⌽s1
r1  ⌽ r1)  (⌽r2  ⌽ r2)
s2 s1 s2
(A5-7)
⌬ⵜ⌽  ⌬ⵜ␳  ⌬ⵜdion  ⌬ⵜdtrop  ␭⌬ⵜN

where

⌬ⵜdion ⬇ 0 and ⌬ⵜdtrop ⬇ 0 (if baseline is short)

Triple Difference Observable

Triple differencing is useful for preliminary baseline computations using carrier

phase data and for cycle slip detection or repair. Triple differences are obtained
by differencing two double differences between epochs:

␦⌬ⵜ⌽  ␦⌬ⵜ␳  ␦⌬ⵜdion  ␦⌬ⵜdtrop (A5-8)

where

␦⌬ⵜdion ⬇ 0 and ␦⌬ⵜdtrop ⬇ 0 (if baseline is short)

This page intentionally left blank
APPENDIX 6

Datum Transformations and

Map Projections

Horizontal Datums

There are many different datums in use to express coordinates (Table A6-1). A
horizontal datum is defined when points are positioned with reference to a particu-
lar ellipsoid the shape and size of which are known, and also its position and ori-
entation relative to the Earth’s surface. The simplest datum is an Earth-centered,
Earth-fixed (ECEF) Cartesian datum, the origin of which is the center of mass of
the Earth. The position and orientation of an ellipsoid are defined in the datum
point, a physical point located on the Earth’s surface.
Using an incorrect datum to express coordinates can result in position errors
of hundreds of meters. Different countries, agencies, and applications use differ-
ent datums. Great care must be taken to ensure that coordinates are associated
with the correct datum.

Datum Transformation

With the common use of GPS nowadays, there are instances when converting coordi-
nates from one datum to another is necessary. Datum transformations vary from the
straightforward three-parameter transformation to a complicated, multiple-step,
seven-parameter transformation with 14-term adjustment. Seven-parameter
transformations are most commonly used.

Three-Parameter Transformation
Three-parameter conversion translates latitude, longitude, and height on one
datum to ECEF X-Y-Z coordinates, followed by an origin shift and reconversion
into latitude, longitude, and height on the other datum. This method is crude and
applies to small areas. The three shift parameters represent a shift between the
centers of two ellipsoid datums.

181
182 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Table A6-1. Some of the Datums Used Worldwide

Semi-Major Axis (a)

Reference Ellipsoid Associated Datum (in meters) Flattening ( f )

Airy OSGB36, OSGB(SN)70 6,377,563.396 1/299.3249646

International ED50 6,378,388.000 1/297
GRS 80 WGS-84 6,378,137.000 1/298.257223563
GRS 80 NAD 83 6,378,137.000 1/298.257222101
Clarke 1866 NAD 27 6,378,206.400 1/294.978698214
Clarke 1880 LIBERIA, 1964 6,378,249.145 1/293.465

Seven-Parameter Transformation
A seven-parameter transformation uses the same principle—an ECEF origin
shift—but adds rotation along all three axes and a scale correction.
When two datums share the same origin and orientation of axes but different
ellipsoid parameters, such as NAD 83 and WGS-84, the transformation of coordi-
nates from one datum to the other may be accomplished using the form:

⎡␾ ⎤ ⎡X⎤ ⎡␾ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢␭ ⎥ ↔ ⎢Y ⎥ ↔ ⎢␭ ⎥ (A6-1)
⎢h⎥ ⎢Z⎥ ⎢h⎥
⎣ ⎦ D1 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ D2

Where the origin, orientation, and ellipsoids differ, the following general
form is used:

⎡␾ ⎤ ⎡X⎤ ⎡X⎤ ⎡␾ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢␭ ⎥ ↔ ⎢Y ⎥ ← Seven-Parameter Transformation → ⎢ Y ⎥ ↔ ⎢␭ ⎥ (A6-2)
⎢h⎥ ⎢Z⎥ ⎢Z⎥ ⎢h⎥
⎣ ⎦ D1 ⎣ ⎦ D2 ⎣ ⎦ D2 ⎣ ⎦ D2

With the rotation angles in radians and translation in meters, the formula for the
transformation becomes:

⎡X⎤ ⎡ dX ⎤ ⎡ 1 Rz Ry ⎤ ⎡ X ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢Y ⎥  ⎢ dY ⎥  (1  S) ⎢ Rz 1 Rx ⎥ ⎢ Y ⎥
⎢Z⎥ ⎢ dZ ⎥ ⎢Ry Rx 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ D2 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ D1 (A6-3)

where S is the scale correction, and Rx, Ry, and Rz are the differential rotation
angles about the first, second, and third axes, respectively (if applied in reversed
order, the signs of the parameters change). The typical effect of a datum shift (dX,
dY, dZ) is that a best fit is achieved for a limited area only.
APPENDIX 6: DATUM TRANSFORMATIONS AND MAP PROJECTIONS 183

Map Projection

Geodetic coordinates (latitude and longitude on an ellipsoidal model of the Earth)

are three-dimensional, but maps and GIS software necessitate that mapped infor-
mation be displayed in two dimensions. A map projection is used to transform
mapped information from three to two dimensions, by “projecting” it from an
ellipsoid to a flat surface (Fig. A6-1). Projections can be carried out in a variety of
ways. Whatever the method, projecting from the ellipsoid to a flat surface cannot
be done without introducing some distortion in the resultant map coordinates.
Because of this effect, there is the concept of grid scale factor in map projections
(Fig. A6-2). Map projections are commonly categorized into three types based
upon the idea of the projection surface used: planar (or azimuthal), conical, and
cylindrical.

Calculating Map Grid Coordinates

In map projections such as Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and State
Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), distances and geodetic azimuths between
points on the ground surface are reduced to the ellipsoid surface and then to
the map projection surface. The projection grid coordinates of a new point rel-
ative to another point with known projection grid coordinates can be computed
as follows:

N2(grid)  N1(grid)  Dgrid cos ␣grid (A6-4)

E2(grid)  E1(grid)  Dgrid sin ␣grid

Figure A6-1. Map projections make it possible to map the three-

dimensional world in two dimensions.
184 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Figure A6-2. Terminology in the map projection process.

where Dgrid and ␣grid are the grid distance and grid azimuth, respectively. If the
following information is also available,

D  measured horizontal distance at ground level

h  ellipsoidal height (mean of values at the two points)
R  mean Earth radius
k  grid scale factor (mean of values at the two points)
␣  geodetic azimuth
␥  mapping angle,

then Dgrid and ␣grid in Eq. A6-4 can be computed as follows:

S  D[R/(R  h)]  geodetic distance (i.e., distance on the ellipsoid)

Dgrid  S (geodetic distance)  k (grid scale factor)
␣grid  ␣ (geodetic azimuth)  ␥ (mapping angle)

The convention of the sign of the mapping angle is from grid to geodetic.
 Glossary

Almanac—A data file that contains orbit information on all satellites, clock correc-
tions, and atmospheric delay parameters. Each GPS transmits almanac data in
order to facilitate rapid satellite acquisition (tracking) by GPS receivers.
Ambiguity—The unknown number of whole carrier wavelengths (cycles) between
a GPS satellite and the receiver.
Ambiguity Resolution (AR)—The mathematical process for determining the inte-
ger value for the cycle ambiguity of the carrier phase data. It is the key to fast
and high-precision relative GPS positioning. If the initial integer ambiguity
value for each satellite-receiver pair could be determined, then the ambiguous
carrier phase measurement can be corrected to create an unambiguous and
precise (millimeter accuracy) receiver-satellite distance measurement. A solu-
tion for the receiver position using the corrected carrier phase observations is
known as an “ambiguity-fixed” or “bias-fixed” solution. In practice, the AR
process and the ambiguity-fixed solutions are carried out on the double differ-
enced carrier phase observables, not on the one-way satellite-receiver meas-
urements. The process is called “On-the-Fly” AR if it occurs while the receiver
is in motion.
Anti-Spoofing (AS)—A method implemented in GPS technology, by the U.S.
Department of Defense, to deny non-U.S. military users P-code (precise code)
signal, which is modulated on L1 and L2 frequencies. The AS was implemented
on January 31, 1994, by the encryption of the P-code to form the Y-code. By
keeping the P-code encrypted, an enemy of the U.S. could not jam the satellite
signal through ground-based transmitters, nor “spoof” military GPS receivers
by transmitting a false P-code signal from a satellite. The encrypted code needs
a special AS-module for each receiving channel and is only accessible for author-
ized personnel in possession of a special key.
Assisted-GPS (A-GPS)—A system that uses network resources such as cellular
phone networks to aid GPS positioning especially under poor signal condi-
tions. It is used extensively with GPS-capable cellular phones.
Baseline—A baseline consists of a pair of stations for which simultaneous GPS
data have been collected. It is mathematically expressed as a vector of coordi-
nate differences between the two stations, or an expression of the coordinates

185
186 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

of one station with respect to the other (whose coordinates are assumed
known, and is typically referred to as a “base” or “reference” station).
Base Station—A base station (or reference station) is a GPS receiver set up on a
location with a known position specifically to collect data for differentially cor-
recting data files of another receiver (which may be referred to as the “rover”
receiver).
Bluetooth—A proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data
over short distances (using short-wavelength radio transmissions) from fixed
and mobile devices. It was created as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.
C/A-Code—The standard (Coarse Acquisition) GPS pseudo random noise (PRN)
code, modulated on the L1 carrier signal. Used by the GPS receiver to acquire
and decode the L1 satellite signal, and from which the L1 pseudorange meas-
urement is made.
Carrier—A radio wave having at least one characteristic, such as frequency, ampli-
tude, or phase, that may be varied from a known reference value by modulation.
Carrier Phase—GPS measurements based on the L1, L2, or L5 carrier signal.
Carrier Phase Observable—The fractional part of the carrier wavelength (approxi-
mately 19 cm for L1, 24 cm for L2), expressed in units of meters, cycles, or frac-
tions of a wavelength or angle. In carrier phase-based positioning, such as is
employed in GPS surveying techniques, carrier phase observable may also refer
to the accumulated or integrated measurement that consists of the fractional
part plus the whole number of wavelengths (or cycles) since signal lock-on.
Channel—A channel of a GPS receiver consists of the circuitry necessary to receive
a single frequency from a single GPS satellite.
Chip Rate—Number of chips per second. For example, C/A code  1.023 MHz.
Clock Bias—The difference between the clock’s indicated time and the true uni-
versal time.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)—A method of frequency reuse whereby
many radios use the same frequency channel but each one has a unique code.
GPS uses CDMA techniques with PRN codes for cross-correlation.
Code Phase—GPS measurements based on the pseudo random code as opposed
to the carrier of that code.
Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)—A system of GPS base sta-
tions that originated from stations built to support air and marine navigation
with real-time differential GPS correction signals. Networks of permanently
constructed base stations with telemetry link to allow for data access and down-
load for immediate or future use (analysis and/or archiving) have proliferated
worldwide. They are built, operated, and maintained at various levels (regional,
national, or global) by different organizations and government agencies such
as NOAA.
CORS Control—A network of Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)
that provide Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data consisting of car-
rier phase and code range measurements in support of three-dimensional
positioning. Surveyors, engineers, scientists, and the public at large collecting
GPS data can use CORS data to improve the precision of their positions.
GLOSSARY 187

Coordinate System—One of a number of mapping systems used to represent

positions, such as geocentric Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z), geodetic coordi-
nates (geodetic latitude ␾, geodetic longitude ␦, and height above or below
the ellipsoid surface, h), and local geodetic horizon coordinates (east, e, north,
n, and/or up, u).
Datum—A datum is a horizontal or vertical reference system for making survey
measurements and computations. A horizontal datum is defined using a
mathematical figure such as an ellipsoid. A vertical datum is defined relative
to the mean sea level.
Differencing—A mathematical technique of differencing between two GPS
observables.
Differential GPS—A method that improves GPS positioning or navigation accu-
racy using pseudorange corrections (also referred to as differential correc-
tions). Differential corrections measured at a base station with known position
are incorporated (by real time transmission of corrections or by post process-
ing) into the position calculations of other receivers operating in the same
area and simultaneously tracking the same satellites. The term differential GPS
is sometimes used to describe relative positioning (i.e., a measurement to
determine the relative position of two receivers tracking the same satellites,
irrespective of whether it is by code or carrier phase).
Distance Root Mean Square (DRMS)—The root mean square value of the distances
from the true location point of the position fixes in a collection of measure-
ments. As typically used in GPS positioning, 2DRMS is the radius of a circle that
contains at least 95% of all possible fixes that can be obtained with a system.
Dual-Frequency—Term used for GPS receivers that can receive and process two
carrier signals (e.g., both the L1 and L2 frequency signals).
Elevation—The orthometric height above a point of reference. For example,
height above mean sea level or the vertical distance above or below the geoid.
Ellipsoid—A mathematical figure formed by revolving an ellipse about its minor
axis. Two quantities define an ellipsoid, the length of the semi-major axis, a,
and the flattening, f.
Ephemeris—The predictions of current satellite positions transmitted to the user
in the data message; a list of locations of a celestial object as a function of time.
Ephemeris errors are caused when GPS message does not transmit the correct
satellite location (that is, the predicted satellite position is different from the
actual position).
Epoch—Measurement interval or data frequency (for example, making one obser-
vation per second).
Equipotential Surface—A surface having constant gravity potential. Equipoten-
tial surfaces are also known as level surfaces or geopotential surfaces. A still lake
surface is an equipotential surface. The geoid is also an equipotential surface.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)—A channel access method that
gives users an individual allocation of one or several frequency bands, or
channels. GLONASS uses FDMA techniques in which the satellites transmit
using the same codes, but at slightly different frequencies.
188 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

Gain—The gain, or gain pattern, of a GPS antenna refers to its ability to convert
GPS radio waves into electrical energy. During signal reception, the GPS
antenna gain describes how well the antenna converts radio waves arriving
from a specified direction into electrical power. A plot of the gain as a function
of direction describes the gain pattern. When no direction is specified, gain
refers to the peak value of the gain.
Geoid—The equipotential surface of the earth’s gravity field that best fits, in a
least squares sense, the mean sea level. The geoid surface is everywhere per-
pendicular to the force of gravity.
Georeferenced Control—A project control point or network whose coordinates
are defined in an absolute coordinate system such as World Geodetic System
1984 (WGS-84).
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)—A system of satellites that provide
autonomous positioning with global coverage. The term encompasses all the
major worldwide satellite navigation systems including GPS, the Russian
GLONASS, the European Galileo, and China’s Compass/BeiDou.
Inertial Navigation System (INS)—A navigation aid that uses a computer, motion
sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously
calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction
and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external ref-
erences. It is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided mis-
siles, and spacecraft.
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)—The ITRF is derived from the
combined analysis of GPS, SLR, VLBI, and DORIS data. The ITRF is, by agree-
ment between the United States and the European Union, the international
reference standard for both GPS and the future GALILEO satellite system.
L1 Frequency—The 1,575.42 MHz GPS carrier frequency that contains the
C/A-Code, the encrypted P-Code (or Y-Code), and the navigation message.
L2 Frequency—The 1,227.60 MHz GPS carrier frequency that contains the
encrypted P-Code (or Y-Code) and the navigation message. Military Y-Code-
capable receivers can, in addition to making L1 measurements, make pseudo-
range measurements on the L2 carrier.
L5 Frequency—The 1,176.45 MHz GPS carrier frequency that contains the
safety-of-life civilian signal, to be implemented with the GPS IIF satellites.
L-Band—The group of radio frequencies extending from 390 MHz to 1,550
MHz.
Least-Squares Adjustment—A statistical approach to finding the most probable
result from a number of values. This is the principle underlying the fact that
a receiver needs to observe at least four satellites (i.e., four unknowns) to be
able to estimate its position coordinates and clock bias.
Mean Radial Spherical Error (MRSE)—This is a 3-D statistical measure that cor-
responds to DRMS in 2-D. It is the radius of a sphere centered at the true
position, containing at least 61% of possible position fixes that can be obtained
in 3-D.
Nanosecond—One billionth of a second.
GLOSSARY 189

NMEA 0183 Protocol—A standard for transmitting navigational messages, devel-

oped by the Nautical and Marine Electronics Association (NMEA).
Observables—GPS measurements based on the C/A-code and carrier signals. In
code phase-based positioning, it refers to the measured (“observed”) receiver-
satellite range expressed in terms of the true geometric range and modeled
errors (such as satellite and receiver clock errors, satellite orbit errors, atmos-
pheric errors, multipath, and receiver noise). In carrier phase, it refers to the
fractional part of the carrier wavelength expressed in units of meters, cycles,
or fractions of a wavelength or angle; it is also expressed in terms of the true
geometric range, ambiguity, and modeled errors.
On-the-Fly (OTF)—Method of solving for the carrier phase ambiguity very
quickly, making the technique applicable to moving objects such as vessels
and aircraft.
Orthometric Height—Height from a point to the geoid as determined with, for
example, level instruments.
Outlier—Data considered to be more than a predetermined number of the stan-
dard deviations from the most probable value or mean.
Phase Center/Phase Center Offset—Antenna phase center is the electrical center
of the antenna as opposed to the geometrical or physical center. Phase center
offset is the difference between the antenna physical reference point and its
phase center. The location of an antenna phase center changes slightly with
the satellite’s signal. For example, it is different for L2 than L1. In addition,
as the azimuth, intensity, and elevation of the received signal changes, so does
the phase center offset.
Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP)—In satellite positioning, dilution of preci-
sion (DOP) is an indication of the geometric strength of the configuration of
satellites in a particular constellation at a particular instant, and can be used to
predict the quality of results that can be expected. A high DOP value such as
11 means low quality results expected and a low DOP value such as 3 means
good position results expected. The various categories of DOPs include PDOP
(for three coordinates), GDOP (for three coordinates and clock offset), HDOP
(for two horizontal coordinates), VDOP (for vertical coordinate, or height),
and TDOP (for time only, or clock offset).
Point Positioning—A positioning method using only a single receiver. It is also
commonly referred to as absolute positioning since the receiver position coordi-
nates are defined by an absolute coordinate system such as WGS-84. This
method is common in handheld receivers and navigators for real-time navi-
gation. There is also precise point positioning which is realized by post-pro-
cessing. In the post-processed mode, corrections are applied using precise
clocks and precise orbits.
Pseudolite—Contraction of the term “pseudo-satellite”; a ground-based trans-
mitter that mimics a GPS satellite.
Pseudo Random Noise (PRN)—A sequence of digital zeros and ones that appear
to be randomly distributed like noise but that can be reproduced exactly.
Their most important property is a low autocorrelation value for all delays or
190 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

lags except when they coincide exactly. Each GPS satellite has a unique C/A-
and P-PRN code.
Pseudorange—A distance measurement based on the correlation of a satellite-
transmitted code and the local receiver’s reference code.
P(Y)-Code—The precise or protected code. A very long sequence of PRN binary
biphase modulations on the GPS L1 and L2 carrier at a chip rate of 10.23 MHz,
which repeats about every 267 days. Each 1-week segment of this code is unique
to a GPS satellite and is reset each week. Under the policy of “anti-spoofing,”
the U.S. Department of Defense has encrypted the P-Code (replacing it with a
so-called Y-Code). Only U.S. military and authorized users can overcome anti-
spoofing using special receivers.
Radio Technical Committee for Maritime Services (RTCM)—RTCM Special
Committee 104 has developed standard message types for use by differential
GPS (DGPS) transmitting stations. The message content has been defined
and, hence, when the RTCM-104 standard is implemented within a user
receiver, it is able to decode and apply the DGPS corrections to its raw data in
order to generate a DGPS-corrected coordinate.
Ranging Principle—A procedure or methodology for determination of the dis-
tance or “range” between a satellite and a receiver. This involves the estima-
tion of signal travel time from the time of transmission to the time of recep-
tion. The timing process requires two clocks, one at the satellite and another
at the receiver, since the signal travels only one way. In pseudorange, it is
commonly accomplished by correlation of PRN codes.
Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX)—A set of standard definitions and
formats that permits interchangeable use of GPS data from dissimilar receiver
models or post processing software. The format includes definitions for time,
phase, and range among other parameters.
Real-Time Network (RTN)—Also known as Network RTK, RTN deploys a net-
work of reference stations and, using both carrier phase and pseudorange
observables, models the distance-dependent errors and transmits corrections
for them to the rover, enabling it to compute precise single- and multiple-
baseline solutions. It comprises a regional network of CORS, some kind of
central processing facility, and communications media to transfer data from
the network to the user. The data can be transmitted via cellular phones, ded-
icated ground radio transmitters, communication satellites, or the Internet.
The method provides cm-accuracy in real-time at baseline lengths of up to
300 km (thus extending the range beyond that of typical RTK positioning).
Relative Positioning—The process of determining the relative difference in posi-
tion between two locations by placing a receiver over each site and making
simultaneous measurements observing the same set of satellites at the same
time. This method allows for cancellation of errors that are common to both
receivers, such as satellite clock and ephemeris errors, atmospheric delays,
and so forth.
Root-Mean-Square (RMS)—A measure used to quantify precision. It is the square
root of the mean of the squared errors.
GLOSSARY 191

RS-232—A standard type of connection to a computer. It is a serial port that

allows communication between a computer and a receiver.
Selective Availability (SA)—A U.S. Department of Defense program that was used
to control the accuracy of pseudorange measurements, degrading the signal
available to nonqualified receivers by dithering the time and ephemeris data
provided in the navigation message. The highest-quality signal was reserved for
military use and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded
by SA. SA was activated on March 25, 1990 and was removed on May 1, 2000.
Single-Frequency—Term used for GPS receivers that can receive and process
only one carrier signal (e.g., the L1 or L2 frequency signal).
Total Station—An electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic dis-
tance meter (EDM) to read slope distances from the instrument to a particu-
lar point.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)—A global map projection coordinate sys-
tem developed by the U.S. military. It uses transverse mercator projection
and divides the entire Earth into 60 zones. Each UTM zone is 60 deg wide
and goes from pole to pole.
Virtual Reference Station (VRS)—A type of RTN method for extending the use
of RTK positioning by using a two-way communication link.
VRS Network Solution—In order to provide a differential positioning service for
a larger area, several reference stations have to be set up. In a VRS, the obser-
vations of a network of stations are pre-processed in order to generate mod-
els of the distance-dependent biases. Based on these modeled biases and the
user’s approximate position, individual corrections of a VRS can be predicted
to enable differential positioning. VRS users send data and their approximate
positions to the control and processing center. The control center returns cor-
rections for an individual VRS, via the RTCM format, and then the baseline
processing software inside the rover calculates its position using the VRS. The
VRS acts as a single nearby reference station.
Wide area RTK (WARTK)—An RTK positioning method using a distributed net-
work of reference stations communicating with a control center to calculate
GPS error corrections over a wide area. Real-time correction data are trans-
mitted by radio or cellular modem to the users within the network area.
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84)—The mathematical ellipsoid used by
GPS since January 1987. It is realized by the geodetic coordinates of a net-
work of the U.S. Air Force and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
(NGA) tracking stations. These coordinates are derived solely from GPS sig-
nals. Utilizing GPS data from a large number of independent, globally dis-
tributed International GNSS Service (IGS) tracking stations whose Interna-
tional Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) coordinates are known and
constrained, the NGA solves for the GPS station coordinates. This, along with
the adoption of common standards for physical constants and models, forces
the alignment of WGS-84 with the ITRF. The NGA periodically recomputes
the station coordinates to maintain centimeter-level alignment of the WGS-84
reference frame with the ITRF.
192 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

The absolute positions obtained directly from GPS pseudorange measure-

ments are based on the 3-D WGS-84 ellipsoid. Cartesian coordinate outputs
are on a rectangular coordinate system having the same origin as the WGS-84
ellipsoid, that is, geocentric. This geocentric X-Y-Z coordinate should not be
confused with the X-Y (Easting-Northing) plane coordinates established on
local grids (refer to Appendix 6). WGS-84 geocentric Cartesian coordinates
can be easily converted into WGS-84 ellipsoidal coordinates (latitude, longi-
tude, and ellipsoidal height). It is critical to note that the WGS-84 ellipsoidal
height (h) is not the orthometric elevation used in most civil works and engi-
neering projects.
 Acronyms and Abbreviations

␮s Microsecond
1-D One-dimensional
2-D Two-dimensional
3-D Three-dimensional
ABET Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology
A-GPS Assisted-GPS
AMG Automated machine guidance
APPS Automatic Precise Positioning Service
AR Ambiguity resolution
ARP Antenna reference point
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
AUSPOS Australian Online GPS Processing Service
C/A Coarse acquisition
CEP Circular error probability
CIO Celestial International Origin
CORS Continuously operating reference stations
CSRS Canadian Spatial Reference System
CTS Conventional Terrestrial System
CWAAS Canadian Wide Area Augmentation System
dBW Decibel-Watt
DGPS Differential GPS
DOD U.S. Department of Defense
DORIS Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite
ECEF Earth-centered, Earth-fixed
EDM Electronic distance measurement
EGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FOS Fiberoptic sensor
GAGAN GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation
GBAS Ground-based augmentation system
GDA Geocentric Datum of Australia

193
194 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

GDGPS Global Differential GPS

GEONET GPS Earth Observation Network
GHz Gigahertz
GIS Geographic information system
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems
GPS Global positioning system
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
HPGPS High-precision GPS
IGS International GNSS Service
IMU Inertial measurement unit
INS Inertial navigation system
ITRF International Terrestrial Reference Frame
ITRS International Terrestrial Reference System
km Kilometer
LAAS Local area augmentation system
LADGPS Local area differential GPS
LEO Low Earth orbit
LLH Latitude longitude height
LOS Line-of-sight
LVDT Linear variable differential transformer
MCS Master Control Station
MEMS Microelectromechanical system
MEO Medium Earth orbit
MHz Megahertz
mi. Mile
MSAS Japanese MTSAT Satellite-Based Augmentation System
NAD North American Datum
NDGPS Nationwide Differential GPS
NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
NGS National Geodetic Survey
NMEA National Marine Electronics Association
nmi/h Nautical mile per hour
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
OPUS Online Positioning User Service
OTF On-the-fly
PCO Phase center offset
PCV Phase center variation
PDOP Position dilution of precision
PND Personal navigation device
ppm Part per million
PPP Precise point positioning
PRN Pseudo random noise
RF Radio frequency
RHCP Right-hand circular polarized
RINEX Receiver INdependent EXchange
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 195

RMS Root mean square

RS-232 Recommended Standard-232
RTCM Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services
RTK Real-time kinematic
RTN Real-time network
SBAS Satellite-based augmentation system
SCIGN Southern California Integrated GPS Network
SCOUT Scripps Coordinate Update Tool
SEP Spherical error probability
SLR Satellite laser ranging
SPCS State Plane Coordinate System
TDOA Time difference of arrival
TOA Time of arrival
TOD Time of departure
UHF Ultra high frequency
USCG United States Coast Guard
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
VHF Very high frequency
VLBI Very long baseline interferometry
VRS Virtual reference station
WAAS Wide area augmentation system
WADGPS Wide area differential GPS
WARTK Wide area RTK
WGS World Geodetic System
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 Index

abbreviations, 193–195 assisted-GPS (A-GPS)

accelerometers, 103, 133 explanation of, 114, 185
Accreditation Board for Engineering and for tracking purposes, 127
Technology (ABET), 15 atmospheric errors, 43
accuracy atomic clocks, 45
carrier phase differential GPS and, 53–57 AT&T Wireless, 142
determining needs for, 110–111 AUSPOS, 98
differential GPS and, 52–53 automated machine guidance (AMG), 120–123
network reference systems and, 57–59 automatic identification systems (AIS), 124
positioning and, 49–52, 105 automatic systems, 120
precision vs., 77, 111 autosteer, 160
acronyms, 193–195
aircraft GPS systems, 71 Bardeen, J., 135
almanac, 9, 30, 42, 185 baseline, 81, 185–186
ambiguity baseline lengths, 106
carrier phase-based range determination base station, 47, 186
and, 30–40 batteries, 70–71, 126
explanation of, 185 BeiDou-1 system, 154–155
integer, 53 BeiDou-2 system, 154
ambiguity-fixed solution, 78–80 Bennett, Timothy, 123
ambiguity-free solution, 78–80 between-epoch differences, 178
ambiguity resolution (AR), 78, 81, 185 between-receiver differences, 178
American Engineers’ Council for Professional between-satellite differences, 177–178
Development (ECPD), 15 binary codes, 37–38
ancillary terrestrial components (ATCs), 115 Block IIA satellites, 4
antenna phase center Block IIF satellites, 4, 5, 146
GPS receiver, 40–42 Block III satellites, 4, 5, 115
of satellite and receiver antenna, 40 Block IIR-M satellites, 4–5, 34
antennas Block IIR satellites, 4, 5
for differential GPS, 69–70 Block II satellites, 4
line-of-sight requirement between satellites Block I satellites, 4
and, 114 Bluetooth, 186
for navigational GPS, 63 Brattain, W. H., 135
selection of, 107 broadband seismometers, 132, 133
anti-spoofing (AS), 185 broadcase clock error model, 47
applications. see global positioning system broadcase radio waves, 165–166
(GPS) applications
approximate georeferenced control, 129–130 C/A-code
APPS (Automatic Precise Positioning Service), code phase DGPS and, 53
98 explanation of, 5, 33, 186
Architecture Evolution Plan (AEP), 146 pseudorange multipath error and, 44

201
202 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

calibration, 122 explanation of, 77, 95, 186

Canadian Spatial Reference System (CSRS), in site control applications, 128–129
97–98 use of, 95–96
Canadian WAAS, 75–76 user services and, 97–98
car navigation GPS systems, 64–65 control and display unit (CDU), 64
carrier, 186 control segment, of GPS system, 7–9
carrier phase, 29, 186 coordinate system, 187
carrier phase-based differential GPS correcting clock bias, 12–14
explanation of, 50, 52–54 correction signals, 74–76, 86
static and rapid static, 55–56 CORS. see continuously operating reference
carrier phase-based point positioning, 49 stations (CORS)
carrier phase-based range determination, CORS control, 186
39–40 costs
carrier-phase measurement decisions related to, 111
applications of, 80–81 receiver hardware and software, 107
explanation of, 29–30 of using GPS system, 102
precision and, 78 CSRS, 97–98
carrier phase observable, 186
carrier phase techniques data collection methods, 111
explanation of, 54–55 data collectors, 72–73
kinematic, 56 data exchange formats, 107–108
real-time kinematic, 56 data logging, 106
static and rapid static, 55–56 data -logging rate, 111
Cartesian coordinates datums
conversions between geodetic coordinates explanation of, 187
and, 26–28 horizontal, 181
geocentric, 24–25 local, 28
satellite positions and, 30–32 types of, 182
cell phones, 91, 143 datum transformation, 181–182
cellular communications, 126 dedicated RTK systems, 91–92
cellular triangulation, 141, 142 Department of Defense, U.S., 3, 15, 146
centimeter-level positioning, 82–83 differencing
channel, 186 double, 78–80
chip rate, 36–37, 186 explanation of, 47, 78, 187
circular error probability (CEP), 84 differential correction antenna, 70
civilian GPS receiver classification, 163 differential GPS (DGPS) network reference
civil-moderate length code (CM), 35 systems, 57–58
clock bias differential GPS (DGPS) networks, 74–76,
correcting, 12–14 157
explanation of, 30, 186 differential GPS (DGPS) systems
pseudorange and, 38 carrier phase, 53–56
receiver, 44–45 classes of, 50, 52
satellite, 43 code phase, 50, 52–53, 67
CNAV, 35 controllers and data collectors, 72–73
code division multiple access (CDMA), data collectors and, 72–73
149–150, 186 data processing methods to improve
code phase, 38, 186 accuracy with, 50, 51
code phase-based range determination, 38 explanation of, 49–50, 52, 67, 187, 190
code phase differential GPS (DGPS), 50, features of, 62, 69–71
52–53, 67 maritime and aircraft, 71
communication ports, 69 receivers and, 107
COMPASS Navigation Satellite System (CNSS) reception and range for, 68–69
(BeiDou-2), 154 dilution of precision, position, 46–47
computed minus observed, 52 distance-dependent bias, 94–95
confidence region, 84 distance root mean square (DRMS), 84, 187
construction-site theft, 127 double differencing, 78–80
container tracking, 125–127 dual-frequency, 187
continuously operating reference stations dual-frequency antenna, 70
(CORS) dual-frequency RTK technology, 160
INDEX 203

Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF) Cartesian geodetic coordinates

datum, 181 conversions between Cartesian coordinates
earthquake monitoring, 130–133 and, 26–28
earthquake simulators, 133–134 explanation of, 25, 183
EarthScope, 96 geodetic-grade receivers, 22
ECEF system. see geocentric Cartesian Geographical Survey Institute (GSI), 96
coordinates geohazards monitoring, 130–134
electronic distance meters (EDMs), 32 geoid, 188
elevation, 187 geoid height, 112
ellipsoid, 112, 187 georeferenced control
ellipsoidal coordinates, 25 approximate, 129–130
ellipsoidal height, 112 explanation of, 129, 188
emitted radio waves, 165–167 precise, 130
engineering, 15–16 GIOVE-A, 151–152
engineering design process, 15 GIOVE-B, 152
ephemeris global differential GPS (GDGPS), 96
calculating satellite coordinates from GPS, global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). see
170 also specific systems
explanation of, 9, 10, 30, 187 classification of, 149
representation of GPS broadcast, 169 COMPASS/BeiDou, 154
ephemeris errors, 42 components of, 148
epochs economic impact of, 158–159
explanation of, 83, 187 explanation of, 113, 115, 188
observing multiple, 83–85 GALILEO, 150–153
equipotential surface, 112, 187 GLONASS, 149–150
error sources as growth sector, 157–158
correction methods for, 47–48 high-precision, 159–161
position dilution of precision as, 46–47 global positioning system (GPS) applications
receiver-related biases as, 44–46 geohazards monitoring, 130–134
satellite-related biases as, 42–43 integrations and wireless communications,
signal propagation biases as, 43–44 139–142
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay maritime operations, 124–127
Service (EGNOS), 75–76, 156–157 miniaturized GPS systems, 134–139
opportunities and challenges of, 142–143
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 146 receiver or system selection for, 104–105
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), robotics and machine control, 120–123
90, 115, 141 site control and design, 127–130
fiber optics, 139 structural health monitoring, 117–120
fiber optic sensors (FOS), 140–141 global positioning system (GPS) components
free services, 95 control, 7–9
frequency division multiple access (FDMA), explanation of, 5, 6
149, 187 illustration of, 7
full-scale projects, GPS measurement system space segment, 5, 7
for, 19–21 user, 9–10
global positioning system (GPS) measurement
gain, 188 system
gain pattern, of GPS antenna, 40 for full-scale projects, 19–21
Galileo Galilei, 150 for medium-scale projects, 18, 19
GALILEO satellite system procedure to plan and install, 108–110
economic impact of, 158 global positioning system (GPS) positioning.
explanation of, 104, 124, 148, 150–151 see also positioning
GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B, 151–152 antenna phase center and, 40–42
levels of services, 153 error sources and, 42–48
navigation signals for, 152–153 explanation of, 23
GDGPS (Global Differential GPS Service), interference and jamming and, 114–115
98 point, 49, 189
geocentric Cartesian coordinates, 24–25, ranging methods and, 32–40
30 receiver position measurement principle
geodetic azimuth, 26 and, 28–32
204 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

relative, 49–52, 190 repeated observations and, 83–86

satellite coordinate system and, 23–28 RTK systems and, 85–92
global positioning systems (GPS) high-rate GPS, 130, 133
carrier frequency of, 165 horizontal datums, 181
compared to other methods to locate horizontal dilution of precision (HDOP), 46
points, 17–18
considerations for selecting, 101–104 Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System
data differencing equations for, 177–179 (IRNSS), 155
economic impact of, 158–159 indicate machines, 120
elements of, 18–21 inertial navigation system (INS)
function of, 16–17 explanation of, 114, 115, 188
high-precision, 77–98 (see also high- GPS integrated with, 139–140
precision GPS systems) inertial sensors, 139
high-rate, 130, 133 integer ambiguity, 53
historical background of, 4, 5 integrated circuits (ICs), 137
integrity of, 113–114 interference, 114–115
limitations of, 112–115 internal data storage, 69
line-of sight requirement and, 114 International Civil Aviation Organization
method of operation of, 11 (ICAO), 157
miniaturized, 134–139 International GNSS Service (IGS), 42, 49, 96
modernization of, 145–148 international terrestrial reference frame
overview of, 3 (ITRF), 188
project development, 110–112 international terrestrial reference system
as projected growth sector, 157–158 (ITRS), 96
relativistic effects of, 14–15 ionospheric delay, 43, 48
signals in, 165–167
timing and, 11–13 jamming, 114–115
vertical component and, 112–113 Japanese MTSAT Satellite-based
global positioning systems (GPS) constellation, Augmentation System (MSAS), 75–76
145–146 Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA), 49
GLONASS (GLObal’naya NAvigatsionnaya
Sputnikowaya Sistema), 104, 145, 148, Keplerian elements, 9, 30
149–150, 157, 159 Kilby, Jack, 137
GLONASS-K satellites, 153 kinematic positioning
GPS antenna, 70 explanation of, 50, 56
GPS Block IIF satellites, 146 precision and, 80–81
GPS Earth Observation Network (GEONET),
96 L-band, 34, 165, 188
GPS L1 C/A code, 115 L-band signals, 165–167
GPSnet, 96 LCD display, 69, 106
GPS receiver antenna phase center, 40–42 L1C signal, 37, 115
GPS satellite orbits, 7, 8 L2C signal
GPS World, 104 benefits of, 35–37
ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS), explanation of, 34–35
10, 52, 149, 157 least-squares adjustment, 30, 188
L1 frequency, 5, 188
handheld navigational GPS systems, 7, 64 L2 frequency, 188
high-precision GNSS LightSquared, 115
explanation of, 159–160 line-of-sight (LOS) requirement, 114, 126
market research reports on, 160 local area augmentation system (LAAS), 146,
network services for, 160–161 157
products of, 160 local area differential GPS (LADGPS), 50, 52
high-precision GPS systems local geodetic horizon coordinates, 25–26
centimeter-level positioning and, 82–83 local topocentric coordinates, 25–26
concept of precision in, 77 locking onto the signal, 38
CORS and, 95–98 logging rate, for mapping-grade receivers, 21
instrument precision and, 78–80 logistics, 112
network RTK systems and, 92–95 long-range real-time kinematic (RTK), 56,
real-time vs. postprocessed data and, 80–81 57
INDEX 205

low-cost GPS systems. see differential GPS observables, 189

(DGPS); navigational GPS systems observation sessions, 83–85
low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, 126 onboard processing, at rover, 59
L5 signal, 37 one antenna, three dimensions method, 17
on-the-fly (OTF)
map grid coordinates, 183–184 explanation of, 94, 189
mapping-grade receivers, 21 real-time kinematic, 80, 81
map projection, 183–184 operational control segment (OCS) software,
maritime applications 146–148
container tracking, 125–127 operational environment, 105–106
GPS systems for, 71 OPUS, 97
material tracking in construction sites, orbital errors, 42
127 orthometric height, 112, 189
ship navigation at ports and harbors, oscillator, 166
124–125 outier, 189
mark-to-mark slant range, 26
Master Control Station (MCS), 7–9, 42, 47 P-code, 37–38
material tracking, 127 phase center, 40
M-code phase center offset (PCO), 40, 45, 189
benefits of, 35–37 phase center variation (PCV), 40
explanation of, 34 plase shift EDM, 32
mean radial spherical error (MRSE), 85, 188 POB (Point of Beginning), 104
measurement sessions, 85 point averaging, 47
measurement update rate, 111 point position
medium-scale projects, 18, 19 accuracy of, 105
MEMS, 137 calculated from pseudoranges, 171–176
Micromodular receivers, 65–66 explanation of, 49, 172, 189
microseisms, 131, 132 pseudorange-based, 49, 171–176
microtremors, 131 points, 23
miniaturization portable integrated GPS measurement systems,
advantages of, 143 18
explanation of, 134–135 position dilution of precision (PDOP), 46–47,
MEMs and microsystems and, 137 104, 114, 189
miniaturized GPS systems positioning. see also global positioning system
background of, 137–139 (GPS) positioning
enabling technologies and, 135–137 centimeter-level, 82–83
monitoring systems, 7–9 kinematic, 50, 56, 80–81
multipath errors point, 49, 105, 189
correction for, 48 relative, 49–52, 190
explanation of, 43–44, 52 static, 80–81
postprocessing, 54
nanosecond, 188 postprocessing correction, 47
National Geodetic Survey (NGS), 45, 96 power supply
nationwide differential GPS (NDGPS), 74–75, for differential GPS systems, 70–71
146 for navigational GPS, 63
NAV, 35 requirements for, 105
navigational GPS systems precise georeferenced control, 130
features of, 61–64 precise point positioning (PPP), 49
handheld, 7, 64 precision. see also high-precision GPS systems
in-car, 64–65 accuracy vs., 77, 111
micromodular, 65–67 explanation of, 77
navigational receivers, 21 instrument, 78–80
NAVSTAR GPS, 4 repeat observations and, 83–85
network reference systems, 57–59 Professional Surveyor, 104
network RTK systems, 92–95 pseudolites, 139, 189
NMEA 0183 protocol, 69, 189 pseudo random noise (PRN), 37–38, 165,
nongeoreferenced control, 129 189–190
North American Datum 1983 (NAD 83), pseudorange-based differential positioning. see
28 code phase differential GPS (DGPS)
206 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

pseudorange-based point positioning, 49 navigational/recreational, 21, 61, 63

pseudorange/pseudoranging noise measurement and, 46
application of, 29–31 position measurement principle and, 28–32
calculation of point position from, 171–176 ranging principle and, 32–40
carrier phase-based range determination requirements for, 17–18
and, 39–40 selection considerations for, 104–108
code phase-based range determination and, single differencing, 50
38 size and weight of, 63–64, 106–107, 137
explanation of, 38, 190 technological advances in, 142–143
P(Y)-code, 33, 190 receiver-satellite double differences, 179
recreational receivers, 21
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), 155–156 regional satellite-based augmentation systems
(SBAS), 149
radio astronomy, 167 regional satellite navigation systems (RNSS)
radio equipment, RTK, 89–90 explanation of, 149, 154–156
Radio Navigation Satellite Service (RNSS), 153 as growth sector, 157
Radio Technical Committee for Maritime relative positioning. see differential GPS
Services (RTCM), 107, 190 (DGPS)
radio waves, broadcast vs. emitted, 165–167 relativistic effects, 14–15
ranging principle repeater radios, single-base RTK systems
explanation of, 11, 32–33, 190 with, 90
for navigational receivers, 21 right-hand circular polarized (RHCP)
rapid static carrier phase DGPS, 55–56 antenna, 70
real time, 54 right-hand circular polarized (RHCP)
real-time correction, 47 signals, 152
real-time differential correction signals, 74–76 robotics, 120–123
real-time kinematic on-the-fly (RTK OTF) root mean square (RMS)
method, 80, 81 explanation of, 84, 190
real-time kinematic (RTK) true error at, 52
for construction projects, 129 rovers
dual-frequency, 160 explanation of, 47, 50, 122
explanation of, 52, 56, 148 onboard processing at, 59
vertical component and, 112 RS-232, 191
real-time kinematic (RTK) system
with cell phones, 91 SAASM-based UE (selective availability anti-
communication link and, 88–89 spoofing module user equipment), 146
dedicated, 91–92 satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS),
initialization and reinitialization of, 87 10, 52, 75, 76, 156–157
network, 92–95 satellite-based differential correction systems,
radio license and, 89–90 75–76
single-base, 85–86 satellite-based differential GPS (DGPS)
single-base with repeater radios, 90 service, 72
real-time network (RTN), 92, 94, 190 satellite-based real-time kinematic (RTK), 56
receiver clock bias, 44–45 satellite-based subscription services, 75
receiver independent exchange (RINEX), 96, satellite clock bias, 43, 47
107, 190 satellite clocks
receiver noise, 46 function of, 11–13
receiver-related biases, 44–46 relativistic effects on, 14–15
receivers satellite communication, 126
calculating position of, 30–32 satellite coordinate system
channels and frequencies of, 68 coordinate conversions and, 26–28
classification of, 163 geocentric Cartesian coordinates and,
considerations for selecting, 104–108 24–25
geodetic-grade, 22 geodetic coordinates and, 25
handheld, 64 local datums and, 28
mapping-grade, 21 local geodetic horizon coordinates and,
for maritime and aircraft GPS systems, 71 25–26
micromodular, 65–66 use of, 23
INDEX 207

World Geodetic System 1984 and, 23–24, State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), 122,
28 183
satellite ephemeris errors, 42 static carrier phase DGPS, 55–56
satellite-related biases, 42–43 static positioning, precision and, 80–81
satellites storage capacity, 111
background of GPS, 4–5 strong-motion accelerometers, 132–133
global coverage of, 145–146 structural health monitoring (SHM)
position calculated from ephemeris data, function of, 117–118
169–170 sensor selection for, 102, 103
single differencing between, 50 utilizing GPS in, 101–104, 118–120
tracking of, 106 subscription services, 95
scatter plot, 84
SCOUT (Scripps Coordinate Update Tool), telemetry
98 bidirectional, 58
seismic measurements, 130, 134, 135 explanation of, 52
seismometers, 130–134 in RTK systems, 88, 89
selective availability (SA), 113, 191 three-parameter transformation, 181
sensors time difference of arrival (TDOA), 142
for container tracking and monitoring, timing, 11–13
125–126 total electron content (TEC), 43
fiber optic, 140–141 total station, 191
selection of, 102, 103 transistors, 135
for structural health monitoring, 117–118 trilateration
seven-parameter transformation, 182 explanation of, 10, 11
ship navigation, 124–125 GPS ranging and, 32–33
Shockley, W., 135 triple differencing, 179
signal chip rate, 36–37 troposphere, 43
signal propagation biases, 43–44 tropospheric delay, 43, 48
signals, L-band, 165–167 TV-enabled GPS, 141–142
signal structure
explanation of, 33–34 ultrawideband, 142
L5, 37 United States Coast Guard (USCG) beacon
L1C, 37 service, 72, 74
L2C signal, 34–37 United States Naval Observatory (USNO), 5
M-code, 34–37 universal transverse Mercator (UTM), 122,
pseudo random noise code, 37–38 183, 191
single-base RTK system Uragan-K (GLONASS-K), 150
explanation of, 85–86 Uragan-M (GLONASS-M), 150, 151
with repeater radios, 90 U.S. Air Force, 4
single differencing between receivers, 50 user interface, 69
single differencing between satellites, 50 user segment, 7, 9–10
single frequency, 191
single-frequency antenna, 70 vertical angle, 26
single point positioning, 49 vertical component, 112–113
site control/design applications vertical dilution of precision (VDOP), 46
approximately georeferenced control, virtual reference station (VRS)
129–130 centralized processing networks and, 57–59
CORS for, 128–129 explanation of, 57, 92, 93, 191
explanation of, 127–128 use of, 95
nongeoreferenced control, 129 VRS network solution, 191
precisely georeferenced control, 130
small-scale projects, 18 Wang, Guoquan, 134
solar batteries, 126 weather conditions, 18
Southern California Integrated GPS Network wide area augmentation system (WAAS)
(SCIGN), 96 background of, 156–157
space segment, of GPS system, 5, 7 explanation of, 10, 50, 52, 71, 75
spectrum allocation, 115 funding for, 146
spoofing, 115 wide area differential GPS (WADGPS), 50, 94
208 APPLIED GPS FOR ENGINEERS AND PROJECT MANAGERS

wide area RTK (WARTK), 94, 191 local datums and, 28

Wi-Fi, 142, 143 site control applications and, 128
wireless assisted-GPS (A-GPS), 141, 142
wireless communications, 139–142 X-Y-Z coordinate format, 9
wireless trilateration technologies, 141–142
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84) Y-code, 37–38
explanation of, 18, 23–24, 191–192
geometric range and, 28 zenith angle, 26
 About the Author

Clement A. Ogaja, Ph.D., L.S., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil

and Geomatics Engineering, California State University–Fresno, where he teaches
GPS theory and project design. His research focuses on the civilian applications
of GPS/GNSS and satellite geodesy. A native of Kenya, he did his undergraduate
work in surveying at the University of Nairobi, earning his Bachelor of Science
with First Class Honors in 1997. He worked as a land surveyor at Aerophoto Sys-
tems Engineering Company from 1997 to 1998. In 1999, he joined the Satellite
Navigation and Positioning Group at the University of New South Wales (UNSW)
in Sydney, Australia, where he subsequently earned his Ph.D. in Geomatics Engi-
neering, with a research focus on GPS applications. After graduating from UNSW
in 2002, he joined the Geoscience Australia Space Geodesy Group, where he worked
for four years. In 2007 he joined the faculty at California State University–Fresno
as Assistant Professor.