learner independence, and language-learning resources and positioning, the knowledge age prioritizes

strategies are key in this process. ideas, creativity, intelligence, and participation.

CLIL Today, learning includes both individual and social

experiences, helping students develop knowledge in
Key concepts such as integration, convergence, and
participative learning define this new educational
both language and other subjects. approach.
CHAPTER 1  Defining Content and Language Integrated
Learning The CLIL triangle integrates education, where learners
1.1. What is CLIL? actively acquire knowledge and skills; research, which
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is a The term was adopted in 1994 in Europe to describe engages cognitive processes; and innovation, which
dual-focused educational approach in which an and promote good practices. applies problem-solving methodologies.
additional language is used for teaching and learning
To achieve this goal, a special teaching approach is
both content and language. Unlike other approaches such as content-based language
needed, where the subject is not just taught in a
An additional language is often a learner’s foreign foreign language but with and through it. Neither learning or bilingual education, CLIL uniquely integrates
content, cognition, communication, and culture into
language, but it may also be a second language or a subject language nor language learning.
teaching practices
heritage or community language. CLIL vehicular
 CLIL as a form of convergence
language refers to the language(s) used in CLIL settings.
CLIL emerged as a response to growing concerns about 1.3. Driving forces behind CLIL
It is not a new approach. For example, bilingual CLIL is driven by both reactive and proactive responses
climate change and globalization. It focuses on
education, immersion programs, and content-based to educational challenges. Reactive responses address
developing professional interconnectedness and using
language learning have been used for many years. existing linguistic shortcomings and unequal access to
appropriate methodologies to achieve better
education, while proactive responses create solutions
CLIL is flexible and can be adapted to different educational outcomes.
to enhance language learning and personal
contexts. It is also inclusive because it can be applied in
Several key factors influence CLIL, including diverse development.
various ways with different models suited to diverse
learning styles, the impact of globalization, and the
types of learners. In some contexts, an official language is adopted as the
need for better language and communication skills.
medium of instruction to promote national unity.
1.2. The development of CLIL Sustainable approaches to language teaching are
 Links of the past and demands of the present Teachers play a crucial role in language development
essential, and integrating language learning while
through a dual focus on subject content and linguistic
The study of languages has been important throughout teaching other subjects increases exposure. Higher
competence. It is important to stress that CLIL is not
history. Globalization and economic and social linguistic competence and authentic learning
synonymous with English language learning; rather, it
changes have influenced language learning. experiences enhance student motivation.
applies to various languages within diverse cultural
New educational ideas, like socio-cultural and  CLL in the Knowledge Age contexts.
constructivist approaches, have also changed the way
people learn. Concepts such as multiple intelligences, In an era of rapid globalization, CLIL provides a structured
response to the educational challenges of the modern
world. While the industrial age emphasized physical
1.4. CLIL’s relevance to Contemporary Education
The forces of globalization, converging technologies,
CHAPTER 2 A language teacher plays a crucial role in introducing
vocabulary and grammatical concepts while
and the transition to the knowledge age present 2.1. Operating factors integrating them into the content area. The curriculum
challenges for education. There is no fixed model for implementing CLIL. Instead, is purpose-designed with clear objectives to align both
CLIL is not exclusively about promoting English as a certain operating factors must be considered before language learning and subject matter education. The
global language, but it is deeply embedded in the developing a specific model: content taught through CLIL can come from any
socio-economic, political, and cultural traditions of subject area, depending on the school context and
 Teacher availability is crucial as it forms the
different nations. educational needs.
starting point for designing a model, whether
Generations Y and Z have grown up with different teachers work individually or collaboratively. - Partial Instruction Through the Vehicular
learning conventions, emphasizing learning through Language
 CLIL language fluency determines the
use rather than passive study. Integration has become teacher's input and role in the classroom. In models involving partial instruction, only specific
a key concept in modern education. Globalization is content from one or more subjects is taught through
 The amount of time required for setting
not an incidental factor but a fundamental shift in how CLIL in limited periods—sometimes making up less
objectives.
we live and learn, requiring adaptive educational than five percent of the overall curriculum. A project-
strategies.  The ways in which content and language are based modular approach is often used, and both
integrated influence decision-making. content teachers and language teachers share
1.5. CLIL’s relevance to teaching
 Linking the CLIL course to an extracurricular responsibility for instruction. Similar to extensive CLIL
Thinking in multiple languages has a positive impact
dimension, enabling task-based models, there is a triple focus on content, language,
on content learning. Modernizing content teaching to
communication with learners in other schools and cognition.
align with cognitive research is essential for meeting
contemporary educational needs. and networking opportunities. Partial CLIL instruction often includes bilingual
 Assessment processes must be well-defined blended learning, involving code-switching between
Motivation is also a crucial factor in language
to evaluate both language and subject languages. This structured language alternation,
acquisition, as successful learning occurs when
knowledge acquisition. known as translanguaging, creates a dynamic bilingual
students have opportunities to engage in real-life
environment. For example, one language might be
communication while receiving structured instruction.
2.2. Scale used for summarizing key points, while the other is
There is a distinction between intentional language - Extensive Instruction Through Vehicular Language used for detailed explanations. Additionally, different
learning, which takes place in the classroom, and languages may be designated for specific activities.
It is important to remember that the vehicular
incidental language acquisition, which happens in The systematic shift between languages is designed to
language is the primary medium of instruction in CLIL.
real-world contexts. One of CLIL’s greatest strengths is support content comprehension, build confidence,
In this model, the vehicular language is used to
its natural integration of language and subject and enhance cognitive flexibility.
introduce, summarize, and review topics. Only in rare
learning, making education more effective and
cases is the first language used to explain a specific Some teachers worry that learning through an
engaging for students.
concept. The content is taught through structured additional language might result in students not fully
methodologies to ensure both subject understanding grasping key terms in their first language.
and language acquisition.
However, translanguaging strategies, such as first- The goal of CLIL is to build on potential synergos,
language materials and bilingual vocabulary
CHAPTER 3 meaning the collaborative and reinforcing
checklists, help mitigate these concerns while ensuring CLIL AS A THEORETICAL CONCEPT
relationship between different elements of the
effective subject learning through CLIL CLIL is not about translating first language teaching and learning process.
2.3. Examples of curricular models in Primary learning into another language. Neither is an attempt to
Education “disguise” traditional language learning by embedding In this context, synergos refers to the way in which
systematic grammatical progression of the target content learning and language learning support and
CLIL in Primary Education (Ages 5-12) language in a different type of subject content. enhance each other. To achieve effective learning, it
At the primary level, CLIL can be used as an 3.1. Connecting content learning and language is essential to consider how these elements interact
introduction to language learning, fostering learning and contribute to students’ overall understanding.
motivation and confidence. Several models exist:
This means that when designing CLIL approaches,
 Model A1: Short-term theme-based modules, The content of learning
such as climate change, integrating CLIL educators must take into account the dynamic
A CLIL context is much more flexible than selecting interplay between subject knowledge, language
materials and international collaboration.
discipline from a traditional school curriculum. acquisition, cognitive development, and
Initial instructions are in the first language,
while communication and outcomes occur in Contextual variables such as teacher availability, engagement strategies to maximize learning
the CLIL language. language support, age of learners and the social outcomes.
demands of learning environment may mean that a
 Model A2: Subject-based learning, such as
different choice of content is more appropriate. The ZDP and Scaffolding
home economics, using bilingual materials
and translanguaging strategies. Both content CLIL offers opportunities to develop and acquire skills.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), proposed
and language teachers collaborate. These opportunities will depend on the extent to which
by Vygotsky, refers to the gap between what a learner
the CLIL context demands an approach which is more
 Model A3: Long-term interdisciplinary CLIL, can do independently and what they can achieve with
content-led, more language-led, or both.
integrating subjects like natural sciences. guidance.
Emphasizes academic vocabulary, thinking The learning of content: synergies, scaffolding and
skills, and parallel assessments in both CLIL social interaction Scaffolding is the support provided to help students
and first languages. progress within this zone, gradually reducing assistance
What is meant by content learning? It might be useful
as they gain competence.
These models differ in objectives and implementation to start by considering some issues to do with content
time but all aim to develop confidence, metalinguistic learning in general, before identifying specific
In CLIL, both concepts are essential for balancing
awareness, and content comprehension through CLIL challenges presented through using a second or
language and content learning, ensuring students are
methodologies. additional language as the medium for that learning.
challenged yet supported effectively.
The learning of content: Cognitive engagement, Lower-order Higher-order
problem solving and higher-order thinking processing: processing:

 To be effective learning, students must be Meaning-making from • Checking

Understanding
cognitively engaged. Learners need to be experiences and resources, e.g.
• Critiquing
aware of their own learning trough developing
• Interpreting
metacognitiva skills such as “learning to Putting together pieces to construct
learn”. • Exemplifying Creating something new or recognizing
 Interactive classes are typified by group work, components of a new structure, e.g.
• Classifying
student questioning and problem solving.
• Generating
 Learners have to be intellectually challenged • Summarizing
in order to transform information and ideas, • Planning
solve problems, to gain understanding and to • Inferring
discover new meanings. • Producing
• Comparing
 They need to know how to think, to reason, to The Knowledge Dimension
make informed choices and to respond • Explaining
creatively to challenges and opportunities. Type of
Applying Such as using a procedure, e.g. Description Examples
knowledge
Towards a thinking curriculum: Dimensions and • Executing Factual Basic
processes • Terminology
• Implementing knowledge information.

Bloom’s Taxonomy outlying six different thinking • Specific details

Higher-order
processes. and elements
processing:
The Cognitive Process Dimension Relationships
Breaking down a concept into its parts
amongst pieces of • Knowledge of
Lower-order Analysing and explaining how the parts relate to Conceptual
a larger structure classifications and
processing: the whole, e.g. knowledge
that make them categories
Such as producing appropriate • Differentiating part of the whole.
Remembering
information from memory, e.g. • Organizing • Knowledge of
principles and
• Recognizing • Attributing generalizations
• Recalling Evaluating Making critical judgements, e.g.
Type of Key Challenges in CLIL
Description Examples
knowledge 3.2. Language learning and language using  Language learning should go beyond grammar
• Knowledge of and focus on using language for meaning-
Form vs. Meaning in CLIL
theories, models making.
Traditional language teaching focused on grammar and
and structures  CLIL cannot succeed unless learners are
text reading, but modern approaches emphasize both
supported in both language and content
• Knowledge of meaning and form in language learning.
learning.
Procedural How to do subject-specific Communicative Language Learning Principles in CLIL:
knowledge something. skills and  Effective CLIL requires language in authentic,
algorithms  Language is a communication tool. interactive settings rather than just
 Diversity is part of language development. grammatical drills.
• Knowledge of
subject techniques  Competence varies by genre, style, and Different Approaches to CLIL
and methods correctness.  Language-led CLIL: Focuses on language
 Different language varieties are recognized. development by incorporating subject
• Knowledge of
content.
criteria for  Culture plays a key role.
determining when  Subject-led CLIL: Prioritizes subject learning,
 No single teaching method fits all learners. often excluding explicit language instruction.
to use appropriate
procedures  The goal is using language, not just learning it.  A flexible approach is needed, as CLIL
Knowledge of In formal language learning, communication is often methods vary based on social and educational
thinking in limited to grammatical exercises rather than true contexts.
Metacognitive general and • Strategic meaning-making. CLIL ensures learners use language Integration of Language and Content
knowledge individual knowledge authentically for both content and language learning,
which is essential for success.  Teaching a subject in a foreign language is not
thinking in
enough; real integration requires cooperation
particular. Language Learning in a CLIL Context between language and subject teachers.
• Knowledge about In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL),  CLIL is not the same as task-based language
cognitive tasks students learn both subject content and a foreign learning or traditional subject teaching.
language. However, there is often a gap between
• Self-knowledge theory and practice, where language learning focuses  Pedagogical principles must be adapted to
too much on grammar rather than real ensure both language and content are
(Adapted from Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001: 67–8)
communication. effectively integrated.
In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), learning aligns with content needs, rather than  The Language Triptych (Coyle, 2000, 2002):
effectively balancing language form and meaning is following a predetermined grammatical sequence.
o A framework to integrate complex
crucial. While focusing on content, it's essential not to
Drawing from Canadian immersion programs, Lyster subject content with language
neglect grammatical accuracy.
(1987) advocates for a systematic and graded learning.
Studies have shown that students in immersion language component within content-driven curricula.
o Helps analyze linguistic demands in
programs, though communicatively competent, often This strategy combines communicative activities with
different CLIL contexts.
exhibit persistent grammatical errors due to structured language instruction, enabling students to
insufficient emphasis on form. develop linguistic competence alongside subject o Conceptualizes language as a tool for
matter understanding. constructing knowledge (Dalton-
Therefore, successful CLIL implementation requires
Puffer, 2007).
integrating form-focused instruction within content- In summary, effective CLIL instruction requires:
based learning, ensuring that learners develop both  Three Perspectives of the Triptych:
 Integrating language objectives into content
communicative skills and linguistic accuracy. 1. Language of Learning → Key vocabulary and
lessons.
AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH FOR USING LANGUAGE structures needed for subject content.
 Providing targeted linguistic support relevant
TO LEARN 2. Language for Learning → Func onal language
to the subject matter.
In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) for communication and classroom tasks.
 Encouraging dialogic interactions to enhance
environments, it's essential to balance content 3. Language through Learning → New language
both language and cognitive development.
learning with language development. Students often that emerges naturally during content learning.
possess cognitive abilities that surpass their proficiency By adopting these practices, educators can create a
more inclusive and effective learning environment that  Main Purpose:
in the instructional language, creating a gap between
understanding complex concepts and expressing them addresses the dual goals of content mastery and o Enhances grammatical progression
linguistically. language proficiency. rather than replacing it.
Dialogic learning, as emphasized by Freire (1972), plays  Types of Language in CLIL: o Ensures students acquire both subject
a pivotal role in bridging this gap. Engaging students in o Content-obligatory language → knowledge and linguistic competence
meaningful dialogues fosters deeper comprehension Essential for understanding subject simultaneously.
and language acquisition. However, in CLIL settings, content.  Language of Learning:
students may struggle to participate fully in such
o Content-compatible language → o Refers to the specific language
interactions due to limited language skills.
Supports both lesson content and needed to access subject content and
To address this, educators must provide context- broader linguistic/cultural goals. concepts.
specific language support. For instance, if a science o Emphasizes genre analysis (Halliday,
 Strategic Planning for CLIL:
lesson requires the use of the past tense to describe an 2004) to understand subject-specific
experiment, and students haven't formally learned this o Teachers must explicitly link content discourse (e.g., scientific language).
tense, the teacher should integrate its instruction and language objectives to guide
within the lesson. This approach ensures that language instruction effectively.
 o Moves away from strict grammatical o New content leads to new meanings, developing intercultural
progression to functional and which require new language. understanding (Vygotsky, Bakhtin).
notional difficulty levels. o Teachers should capture, recycle, and
 Beyond Cultural Facts:
o Example: Instead of memorizing past develop emerging language
tense verb conjugations, learners strategically. o Intercultural competence requires
focus on understanding pastness and  Overall Goal: engaging in dialogues and
using key past tense markers in o Ensure language and content grow collaborative meaning-making, not
context. together, supporting learners in both just learning facts about other
o Requires subject teachers to be aware understanding and expressing new cultures.
of language demands and incorporate knowledge.  Teacher’s Role:
literacy/oracy strategies in the CLIL
o Teachers should promote
language.
intercultural interaction and use
 Language for Learning:
3.3. From cultural awareness to intercultural technology and partnerships to
o Focuses on functional language
understanding enhance cultural understanding.
needed for communication in a CLIL
classroom.  Policy Support:
o Learners need strategies for pair  Culture in CLIL:
o Initiatives like the European Agenda
work, group discussions, debating, o CLIL connects language, cognition, for Culture encourage diversity,
questioning, memorizing, etc. and culture, enhancing learning dialogue, and intercultural
(Mohan, 1986; Snow et al., 1989). experiences. competence (Barroso, 2007).
o Developing speech acts like
 Expression of Culture:
describing, evaluating, and concluding 3.4. Integrating content and language learning. A
is essential. o Language expresses cultural holistic view
o Teachers must explicitly plan how worldviews and shapes how people Integrating Content and Language Learning: A Holistic
students will engage in interactive interpret the world (Brown, 1980; View
learning and use the CLIL language Halliday, 1978).  Language and Content Interdependence:
independently.
 Intercultural Learning: o Students need access to academic
 Language through Learning:
o CLIL creates intercultural language to develop subject
o Based on the principle that learning
experiences, fostering a deeper knowledge (Crandall, 1994).
and thinking require active language
use. understanding of global citizenship. o Effective learning requires both
o Encourages dialogic interaction,  Role of Interaction: content and language development
which differs from traditional in an integrated manner.
o Meaningful interaction with peers,
language/content classrooms (Mohan
teachers, and resources is key to  The 4Cs Framework (Coyle, 1999):
& van Naerssen, 1997).
 o Content: Progress in subject language development develop a theory of practice, enhancing their teaching
knowledge, skills, and understanding. (Smith & Paterson, 1998). methods.
o Communication: Learning and using o Strategic planning is needed to
language effectively. ensure students move from basic
language use to more complex,
o Cognition: Engaging in thinking and
cognitively challenging tasks.
learning processes.
o The CLIL Matrix (adapted from
o Culture: Developing intercultural
Cummins, 1984) helps in balancing
awareness and global citizenship.
linguistic and cognitive demands at
 Principles of CLIL: different learning stages.
o Learners construct knowledge and  Inquiry-Based Approach:
develop skills, not just acquire
o CLIL requires an inquiry-based
information.
methodology to ensure both
o Content and cognition require language and content are effectively
linguistic support to ensure addressed (Dalton-Puffer, 2007).
comprehension.
o Teachers must continuously analyze
o Interaction in a foreign language and adapt their strategies based on
environment is crucial for meaningful classroom evidence (van Lier, 1996).
learning.
o Student-centered curriculum design
o Intercultural awareness is integral to is essential for meaningful language
CLIL. learning (Wong, 2006).
 Challenges in Integration:  Key Takeaway:
o Balancing language and cognitive o CLIL success depends on careful
demands: planning, balancing cognitive and
 Mismatches can occur linguistic challenges, and fostering
between students' cognitive intercultural awareness through
abilities and language authentic learning experiences.
proficiency (Otten, 1993). Engaging in professional learning communities fosters
 Low cognitive challenge leads collaboration between content and language
to rote learning and limited educators, aiming for a cohesive teaching approach. As
educators articulate their implicit knowledge, they