TOPICS:

1.MARINE​ ​RESOURCES

2.EQUIPMENT​ ​USED​ ​AT​ ​SEA

3.RESEARCH​ ​SHIP

4.OCEAN​ ​FLOOR​ ​RESEARCH

5.TYPES​ ​OF​ ​OFFSHORE​ ​PRODUCTION​ ​PLATFORMS

6.OFFSHORE​ ​CREW

7.TYPES​ ​OF​ ​OCEAN​ ​HABITATS

1.MARINE​ ​RESOURCES:

The ocean environment holds a wealth of resources that we rely on, from fuel
sources to food supplies. Most of our oil and gas reserves lie beneath the sea
floor, and many are yet to be discovered. In the future more electricity will be
generated from waves, tidal currents, tidal barrages and offshore wind.
Exhausted offshore oil and gas wells will be used to store the carbon dioxide
produced by burning fossil fuels. Around the world more people are relying on
food​ ​from​ ​our​ ​seas​ ​and​ ​oceans

A.​ ​Energy
The extraction of energy from our oceans covers a multitude of scientific
disciplines of interest to the NOC. These range from developing an
understanding of the physical and ecological environment where such activities
take place, including the amount of a particular resource available, to
understanding how energy extraction activities might alter that environment and
even​ ​the​ ​resource​ ​itself.
The development of energy extraction technologies is largely outside our remit,
although the boundaries between the engineering and environmental sciences
needed to progress this exciting field are necessarily blurred at times,
particularly where the development of the specialised ocean measurement and
monitoring​ ​systems​ ​are​ ​concerned.
o Hydocarbons
Natural oil and gas found in rocks beneath the seabed give us the
fuel we need for cooking and heating in our homes, for power
stations,​ ​motor​ ​vehicles​ ​and​ ​aeroplanes
o Methane​ ​hydrates
Gas hydrates are naturally occurring ice-like crystals that form at
high pressure and low temperature in marine sediments. They
occur at water depths greater than 300 metres, wherever there is
sufficient​ ​methane​ ​and​ ​water​ ​in​ ​the​ ​sediments.
o Biofuels​ ​from​ ​marine​ ​algae
One promising source of biofuels has been identified as marine
algae grown in large open ponds. The algae would be harvested
and​ ​turned​ ​into​ ​a​ ​carbon​ ​neutral​ ​fuel​ ​source.
B.​ ​Food
The seas and oceans contain vast natural resources that are increasingly
available to humans as technology and scientific understanding improve.
Humans have long exploited living resources such as fish and shellfish, often
with devastating results as over-exploitation since the advent of industrialisation
has decimated wild populations. Today, almost half the value of the fisheries
industry in some countries is through aquaculture of finfish and shellfish, and as
human population grows worldwide the proportion of ‘farmed’ marine protein
will​ ​increase​ ​greatly.
Living resources include proteins and genes from creatures that are not fished
for​ ​food,​ ​but​ ​which​ ​inhabit​ ​extreme​ ​environments​ ​such​ ​as​ ​hydrothermal​ ​vents.
Fish have historically played highly significant roles in satisfying the protein
requirements of large fractions of humanity since the earliest periods of
recorded history. Originally fisheries were low intensity, low technology
industries that likely exploited fish stocks at a sustainable rate. However mass
fishing, facilitated by technological developments including ship building and
fishing technology, lead to alterations in fish stocks (size and demographic) and
the subsequent closure of some fisheries. In parallel, technological
developments have allowed the associated aquaculture industry to flourish to
the​ ​point​ ​where​ ​it​ ​is​ ​comparable​ ​in​ ​size​ ​to​ ​traditional​ ​open​ ​water​ ​fisheries.

The economic importance of large-scale fisheries meant that most countries

with heavily developed fishing industries developed strategic research programs
in fisheries ecology, the numerical modelling of fish stocks and the prediction of
sustainable​ ​fisheries​ ​yields.

C.​ ​Minerals​ ​and​ ​products

● Metals,​ ​sulphides​ ​and​ ​nodules
The non-living resources of the deep ocean floor are increasingly
attractive for the mineral industry. The major mineral resource potential is
held in iron-manganese nodules, cobalt-rich polymetallic crust, and
polymetallic sulphides that are being turned to as an alternative to
land-based resources when their scarcity will be emerging or offshore
exploitation​ ​will​ ​be​ ​more​ ​feasible​ ​through​ ​technological​ ​advances

D.​ ​Marine​ ​space

As technology advances and human numbers rise, there is increasing
competition for multiple uses of marine space for activities as diverse as
fisheries, mining, defence, energy generation, recreation, commerce and waste
disposal. Set against these human requirements are the needs of the existing
inhabitants of the ocean for space in which to feed, breed and move freely. This
is leading to the emergence of a new discipline of marine spatial planning where
scientific evidence underpins efforts to responsibly manage ocean resources and
access​ ​to​ ​space
● Marine​ ​spatial​ ​planning
The ability to trade relies on access to the ocean, and increasingly our
seas and the associated seabed and underlying geology are used for a
wide range of purposes ranging from aggregate extraction, fisheries and
recreation through to wind farms and oil extraction. In the near future we
may be storing imported gas and excess carbon dioxide in subsea rock
formations. Fishing boats vie for marine space with oil platforms or
military users, recreational boaters may want to use the same waters as an
aquaculturalist. As technology improves and new users turn towards the
oceans,​ ​the​ ​need​ ​for​ ​planning​ ​and​ ​management​ ​has​ ​arisen

E.​ ​Carbon​ ​capture​ ​and​ ​storage

Levels of carbon dioxide (CO​2​) in the Earth’s atmosphere have increased
dramatically since the start of the Industrial Revolution. This is because CO​2 is a
by-product of burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and methane gas, which are
the main source of energy in our modern societies. There is now so much
man-made CO​2 in the atmosphere that it acts like a blanket, raising global
temperatures. Global warming is changing weather patterns and climate. It is
also causing sea level rise, which will greatly affect people’s lives around the
world.

Diagram​ ​showing​ ​the​ ​carbon​ ​capture​ ​and​ ​geological​ ​storage​ ​concept

One way to reduce global warming is to stop CO​2 getting into the atmosphere.
For example, the CO​2 from power stations and other industrial sources could be
collected, piped, and then injected into underground reservoirs, never reaching
the atmosphere. Scientists and engineers think that if enough of these so-called
carbon capture and storage (CCS) schemes are built around the world, then this
will​ ​slow​ ​down​ ​global​ ​warming.
How​ ​does​ ​carbon​ ​capture​ ​and​ ​storage​ ​work?

The exhausts of power stations burning coal, oil and gas can be fitted with
special collectors that capture CO​2​. The CO​2 can then be transported by pipeline
to a geological storage site, which can be either on land or under the sea. The
advantage of geological storage is that it uses the same industrial technologies
as​ ​conventional​ ​hydrocarbon​ ​exploration.

CO​2​​ ​storage​ ​reservoirs​ ​for​ ​enhanced​ ​oil​ ​recovery

The biggest problem is knowing where it is safe to locate the geological CO​2
storage sites. They require geological formations, known as reservoir rocks,
which are both porous and permeable, such as sandstones and limestones. They
also need a cap rock, such as shale, that provides an impermeable barrier to the
upward​ ​migration​ ​of​ ​CO​2​ from​
​ ​the​ ​reservoir.
In fact, these requirements are identical to those for hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Some scientists and engineers have suggested using depleted gas fields in the
North Sea, for example, to store CO​2 as they are known to have the right
properties. An advantage of this approach is that by injecting CO​2 it should be
possible​ ​to​ ​extract​ ​even​ ​more​ ​methane​ ​gas​ ​from​ ​these​ ​reservoirs.
The main disadvantage of using depleted oil and gas fields is that many
hydrocarbon reservoirs are too deep for optimal CO​2 storage. The optimum
storage depth for CO​2 is about 1 km below the seabed because the temperatures
and pressures there are just right for CO​2 to form a dense fluid, known as
'supercritical' CO​2​. Supercritical CO​2 has the density of a liquid but the viscosity
of​ ​a​ ​gas,​ ​and​ ​hence​ ​is​ ​very​ ​efficient​ ​for​ ​pumping​ ​into​ ​geological​ ​reservoir​ ​rocks.

Phase diagram for CO​2 showing it is a supercritical fluid above a temperature of

31.1​ ​°C​ ​and​ ​73​ ​atmospheres​ ​pressure.

CO​2​​ ​storage​ ​in​ ​saline​ ​aquifers

Another approach is to find suitable geological formations where there are no
hydrocarbons, saturated with natural brines. The same geophysical methods as
those used in hydrocarbon exploration can be used to identify suitable reservoir
units,. However, iit may be more difficult to guarantee a cap rock seal over the
reservoir. Unlike oil and gas reservoirs where the very presence of oil and gas
guarantees a seal, the seal can only be tested by injecting CO​2 or other fluids
into a saline aquifer reservoir. Also, injection of CO​2 requires that the brine is
displaced to some other locality. However, reservoir engineers can predict how
the reservoir will behave once CO​2 injection starts and the CO​2 and brine can be
monitored​ ​using​ ​geophysics​ ​and​ ​other​ ​techniques.

Geophysical (seismic) images of the Sleipner sub-seafloor CO2 storage

reservoir,​ ​in​ ​the​ ​North​ ​Sea.

(a) Shows the reservoir prior to injection of CO2. (b-d) show the plume of
injected CO2 imaged as a number of bright horizontal reflections, above and
around the injection point (which is shown by the white arrow). The data show
that the CO2 is securely confined within the storage reservoir. ​Image courtesy
of​ ​the​ ​British​ ​Geological​ ​Survey.

Seabed​ ​CO​2​​ ​seepage

Geophysical​ ​(seismic)​ ​image​ ​of​ ​the​ ​sub-seafloor​ ​off​ ​the​ ​west​ ​coast​ ​of​ ​Svalbard.
 The sharp black and red lines (or ‘reflectors’) rise upwards towards the seafloor
in the Centre of the image because of the upward movement of fluids towards
the​ ​seafloor​ ​at​ ​this​ ​location.

Once the CO​2 has been injected into the sub-seafloor reservoir, it is important to
monitor the site to ensure that there is no seepage of CO​2 into the overlying
seawater, and potentially into the atmosphere. This can be done in a number of
different​ ​ways.

Firstly, geophysical techniques can be used to image the structure of the

seafloor and shallow sub-seafloor, in order to identify potential seepage
pathways​ ​to​ ​the​ ​seafloor.​ ​These​ ​pathways​ ​can​ ​then​ ​be​ ​closely​ ​monitored.
Geophysical techniques can also be used to image pockets of gas within the
sub-seafloor sediments, as well as bubbles seeping from the seafloor in the
overlying​ ​seawater.
Secondly, potential seepage of CO​2 could be monitored using chemical
techniques. During the injection procedure, fluids and gases already within the
sub-seafloor storage reservoir may be displaced, and their detection within the
sub-seafloor sediments would enable a leak to be stopped at the earliest
opportunity, before any CO​2 seepage. Mapping the distribution of chemical
constituents that are tracers of CO​2 seepage is an important part of any
monitoring​ ​strategy.
Finally, many of the tiny animals that inhabit the shallow sub-seafloor, or live
on the seafloor itself, have different tolerances to levels of CO​2​. Experiments
can be done to assess how different organisms respond to different levels of
CO​2​, in terms of changes in their mortality, physiology, behavior and gene
expression. This information can be used to interpret the results of biological
surveys above the sub-seafloor storage sites in terms of potential CO​2 seepage.
Importantly, biological measurements are vital for the detection and monitoring
very low levels of seepage, that are not easily detectable by chemical and
physical​ ​sensors
F.​ ​Technology​ ​used
There is a vast offshore industry that uses technology for discovering and
exploiting ocean resources. A subset of this technology is used for scientific
research, but research also requires its own specialist technology not used by
industry.
Towed​ ​Ocean​ ​Bottom​ ​Instrument​ ​-​ ​TOBI

Long-range sonar has many uses in connection with ocean resources, from
mapping the shape to classifying the composition of the seabed. Low frequency
sonar can also penetrate the seabed, and provide information from structures
beneath. Its use spans the exploitation cycle from site assessment to final clean
up. Instruments such as the Towed Ocean Bottom Instrument (TOBI - pictured
right) can provide valuable information about the texture and composition of the
seafloor.

With increasing emphasis on ​carbon capture and storage as a measure to reduce

release of carbon dioxide (CO​2 )​ into the atmosphere, disposal beneath the
seabed may be an option. For this to be acceptable, we will need technologies to
monitor for seeps or other forms of release from storage. Acoustic and chemical
sensor technologies will need to be developed further for long-term verification
of​ ​sub-seabed​ ​CO​2​​ ​stores.

EQUIPMENT​ ​USED​ ​AT​ ​SEA

Research​ ​equipment
Research vessels come with a range of in-built equipment that the scientists will
use on a cruise. These systems are vital to enabling measurements to be taken
and samples to be collected, and without them conducting research would be a
lot​ ​more​ ​difficult.
A.​ ​Acoustic​ ​Doppler​ ​Current​ ​Profilers
A​coustic ​D​oppler ​C​urrent ​P​rofilers (ADCPs) are type of sonar (Sound
Navigation And Ranging) device. They measure the velocity (speed and
direction) of the water by sending out a 'ping' sound wave, then measuring the
time​ ​it​ ​takes​ ​to​ ​return​ ​and​ ​its​ ​frequency.
How​ ​ADCPs​ ​work
ADCPs combine several sonar transmitters and receivers, along with amplifiers
and signal processing electronics or software. This calculates the speed and
direction that the water is moving at over a range of depths, giving a two
dimensional​ ​profile.​ ​They​ ​are​ ​able​ ​do​ ​to​ ​do​ ​this​ ​by​ ​using​ ​the​ ​Doppler​ ​Effect.

The frequency of sound shifts as it moves, measuring the rate of change gives
the​ ​speed.

● The Doppler Effect is the change in frequency and wavelength of a wave

that​ ​is​ ​experienced​ ​as​ ​an​ ​object​ ​moves​ ​closer​ ​or​ ​further​ ​away.
● You can experience the Doppler Effect when a vehicle using a siren is
near. A sound has a higher frequency as it approaches and lowers when it
has​ ​passed​ ​by.
o Towards​ ​–​ ​Increased​ ​frequency,​ ​or​ ​pitch,​ ​and​ ​a​ ​short​ ​wave​ ​length.
o Away​ ​–​ ​Less​ ​frequent​ ​(lower​ ​pitch)​ ​and​ ​longer​ ​wave​ ​lengths.
● By measuring how quickly the sound wave changes pitch, its speed can
be​ ​calculated.
Where​ ​ADCPs​ ​are​ ​used
This technique requires having something for the sound to bounce off, such as
particles in the water, so in very clear water it will not work so well. Assuming
the water is turbid, or murky, enough to have the sound bounce back, ADCPs
can​ ​be​ ​fitted​ ​either​ ​to:
Three​ ​different​ ​ADCPs

● The​ ​hull​ ​of​ ​a​ ​vessel​ ​and​ ​look​ ​down​ ​through​ ​the​ ​water​ ​column;​ ​or​ ​on
● CTDs or other sensors that look ahead as they are lowered down through
the​ ​water​ ​column;​ ​or​ ​on
● Landers​ ​or​ ​moorings​ ​that​ ​sit​ ​on​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​bed​ ​and​ ​look​ ​upwards.
When attached to a ship power and data storage are easy, but when on a
mooring that is untouched for a long time they become issues. Too many pings
and the battery and memory get used up, too few and there is not enough data,
so scientists and technicians have to work together to make sure the balance is
right.
Both NOC ships are fitted with 75kHz and 150kHz ADCPs. The 75kHz ADCP
can typically measures currents down to a depth of 560-700m, while the
150kHz​ ​will​ ​typically​ ​operate​ ​to​ ​a​ ​maximum​ ​range​ ​of​ ​375-400m.
B.​ ​Air​ ​and​ ​water​ ​sampling
One of the systems that run almost constantly on the ship is the air and water
sampling equipment. Information about surface temperatures and sea
conditions can be used by scientists to build models of how the climate works.
The data about the current conditions may be used by the scientists on-board but
it is also kept, along with other data collected, so that others wishing to study
the​ ​area​ ​can​ ​do​ ​so. ​ ​To​ ​collect​ ​this​ ​data​ ​our​ ​ships​ ​use​ ​a​ ​system​ ​called​ ​Surfmet
Surfmet
Surfmet's​ ​water​ ​sampling​ ​equipment

Surfmet is the Surface Water and Meteorological monitoring system that

consists of two parts. One takes seawater from a few metres below the surface,
known as non-toxic water, and passes this water through a series of instruments
that measure the different characteristics of the water at that near the surface.
The second part consists of meteorological instruments located high up the
forward​ ​mast.

Surface​ ​Water​ ​Instruments

A Thermosalinograph is used to calculate the salinity (or saltiness) of the
seawater​ ​by​ ​measuring​ ​its​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​the​ ​conductivity.
A Fluormeter is used to measure the amount of chlorophyll in the water, which
indicates​ ​how​ ​much​ ​plant​ ​matter​ ​there​ ​is​ ​in​ ​the​ ​seawater,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​algae.
A Transmissometer is used to measure what other particles there are in the
water​ ​that​ ​block​ ​light,​ ​or​ ​how​ ​clear​ ​the​ ​water​ ​is.
Meteorological​ ​Instruments
The Meteorological instruments located high up on the ship at the standard
height of 10m above sea level, and are used by scientists onboard to determine
local weather patterns far out at sea where there are no other weather monitoring
stations.
A Temperature/Humidity sensor is used to measure the ambient air temperature
and its relative humidity. Humidity is the measure of how much water vapour
there​ ​is​ ​in​ ​the​ ​air.
An Anemometer is used to measure the wind speed and the direction of the
wind in relation to the ship. This is important to scientists that wish to take air
measurements and want to know where the air is coming from, and to avoid
sampling​ ​the​ ​engine​ ​exhaust​ ​from​ ​the​ ​ship.
A Barometric Pressure sensor is used to measure the air pressure which can be
used​ ​to​ ​make​ ​short​ ​term​ ​local​ ​weather​ ​forecasts.
The​ ​light​ ​sensor​ ​is​ ​mounted​ ​on​ ​the​ ​meteorology​ ​platform

In addition to these meteorological sensors there are two pairs of light sensors
fitted​ ​to​ ​the​ ​port​ ​and​ ​starboard​ ​sides​ ​of​ ​the​ ​mast.

A Pyranometer is used to measure the total solar energy in sunlight reaching the
sensor​ ​for​ ​all​ ​wavelengths​ ​of​ ​light.
A Photosynthetically Active Radiation or PAR sensor is used to measure the
amount of solar energy in sunlight reaching the sensor within the wavelengths
of light that photosynthetic organisms are able to use in the process of
photosynthesis. This is of particular interest to scientists as it can be linked to
the​ ​photosynthetic​ ​productivity​ ​of​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​surface​ ​waters.
All these instruments are displayed on and recorded onboard ship to allow
analysis of the air and water as the ship travels around the world. Similar
weather instruments onboard ship are used by ship's staff to send weather
reports​ ​back​ ​to​ ​the​ ​UK​ ​Met​ ​Office,​ ​further​ ​improving​ ​their​ ​forecasting​ ​ability.
C.​ ​Data​ ​Logging
Each research ship has many instruments logging data simultaneously. These
instruments could be GPSs generating positions, meteorological instruments
measuring temperature, humidity and air pressure, or sonars measuring the
depth of the water. It is no use knowing how deep the water was if you don’t
know where the ship was when that measurement was taken. The research ship
is also very expensive to run and so these measurements must be recorded
reliably​ ​so​ ​that​ ​the​ ​valuable​ ​data​ ​is​ ​not​ ​lost.
Each ship therefore has a data logging system. The data logger records the data
generated by each instrument. It also records the time that each data item was
generated at. The data logger synchronises its time with GPS satellites, which
gives a time accurate to a couple of milliseconds. Current data loggers are PCs
running​ ​reliable​ ​industrial​ ​grade​ ​operating​ ​systems​ ​with​ ​RAID​ ​storage​ ​disks.
D.​ ​Echo-sounders
The term echo-sounder describes a way of using sound to measure distances
underwater. Echo-sounders are a type of sonar (SOund Navigation And
Ranging) device that can be used on ships or as part of an instrument placed
underwater.
What​ ​are​ ​echo-sounders​ ​used​ ​for?

One day of data from the Gulf of Oman. The strong echoes (red) show the
movement of zooplankton and small fish from the depths during the evening to
feed nearer the surface at night, and then descending around dawn to avoid
predators.

Echo-sounders,​ ​or​ ​sonars,​ ​on​ ​research​ ​ships​ ​have​ ​two​ ​main​ ​uses:

● looking for objects such as fish or bubbles from deep sea vents in the
water​ ​column;​ ​and
● finding​ ​where​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​bed​ ​is.
Knowing how deep the water is important for several different reasons. Most
importantly is so that the ship does not run aground. There are accurate charts
for all of the world’s major ports but our research ships sometimes visit poorly
charted regions such as Antarctica and so they need to be able to measure how
deep​ ​the​ ​water​ ​is​ ​so​ ​that​ ​they​ ​don’t​ ​hit​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​bed.
In the middle of the oceans where our ships often work the depths on the chart
are very infrequent and so we use echo-sounders to measure exactly how deep
the sea is. We often deploy remotely operated vehicles and sensors in the water
and so we need to know how deep the water under the ship is. We also need to
know the depth so that we can characterise the area of ocean that we are
working in, or so that we can hunt for features such as hydrothermal vents or
wrecks.
How​ ​do​ ​they​ ​work?
An echo-sounder transmits a pulse of sound directly downwards from the
bottom of the ship. The pulse of sound travels down through the water, bounces
off the sea bed and then travels upwards until the reflection is heard by the
echo-sounder. The echo-sounder times how long the pulse of sound takes to
travel to the sea bed and back up to the ship. The depth of the water can be
calculated​ ​using​ ​the​ ​formula:

distance​ ​=​ ​time/2​ ​x​ ​speed​ ​of​ ​sound​ ​in​ ​water

The speed of sound in water is sometimes assumed to be 1500 ms​-1​, or a more
accurate value is obtained from the Hydrographic Office’s Carter Tables or it
can​ ​be​ ​measured​ ​using​ ​a​ ​sound​ ​velocity​ ​probe​ ​or​ ​from​ ​CTD​​ ​data.
Multi-beam echo-sounders allow us to map large areas of the sea bed from the
ship. Multi-beam systems use an array of echo-sounder transducers and signal
processing electronics to steer the echo-sounder beam across the sea bed,
covering​ ​a​ ​large​ ​area​ ​of​ ​sea​ ​bed​ ​in​ ​each​ ​sweep.
What​ ​does​ ​their​ ​data​ ​look​ ​like?

A single beam echo-sounder can be used for

bathmetry; measuring the depth to the ocean floor directly underneath the ship.
As the vessel travels forwards a profile of the sea bed that has been traveled
over is built up. While this gives scientists the depth of an area it is a narrow
view, and it does not provide details about how ocean floor measurements relate
to each other. To gain a more detailed picture multi-beam or swath-bathmytery
is​ ​used.
The multi-beam echo-sounder is used to build up an image of a large area of the
sea bed. Here different colours represent different depths. Blue is deep water
and red is shallower water. The exact depth of each point is known and so a
very​ ​accurate​ ​chart​ ​can​ ​be​ ​built​ ​from​ ​this​ ​data.
As well as looking at the sea bed a sonar’s sound pulses will reflect off items in
the water column. Fishermen use this to look for fish and navies use it to look
for submarines. Our research ships have fish finding sonars fitted so that we can
find fish shoals and estimate the number of fish in them. They can also be used
to detect bubbles coming out of the ground, which indicates there may be
hydro-thermal​ ​vents​ ​in​ ​the​ ​area.

E.​ ​Ultra​ ​Short​ ​Base​ ​Line

U​ltra ​S​hort ​B​ase ​L​ine (USBL) is a technique that uses sound waves to measure
the position of an object relative to the ship underwater. It is often used to
measure​ ​the​ ​position​ ​of​ ​remotely​ ​operated​ ​vehicles,​ ​towed​ ​vehicles,​ ​and​ ​drills.
A USBL beacon is fitted to the ROV and there is a USBL transceiver fitted to
the research ship’s hull. The transceiver sends out a pulse of sound. When the
beacon detects this pulse it replies with its own pulse. The transceiver measures
the bearing that the return pulse arrives on to give the direction from the ship to
the beacon and ROV. The transceiver also times how long after sending its own
pulse the return pulse takes to arrive; this gives the range from the ship to the
beacon.
Because the ship’s position has been calculated very accurately using GPS the
position of the beacon and ROV can also be calculated very accurately. USBL
has been used to place sensors on the sea bed and then have an ROV return to
the​ ​same​ ​location​ ​on​ ​later​ ​dives.

F.​ ​Winches
Scientific winches are central to the ability of a research vessel to conduct
science at sea. They are used to lower and raise instruments, attached by wire,
from the ship. Research ships are fitted with both portable winch systems and
permanently​ ​fitted​ ​systems.
What​ ​is​ ​a​ ​winch?
The​ ​compact​ ​layout​ ​of​ ​RRS​ ​James​ ​Cook's​ ​winch​ ​room

Winches generally consist of a frame, a drum that the wire wraps around and a
motor to turn the drum. The drums can hold wire as long as 15 kilometres and
some can lift up to 30 tons, so motors need a lot of torque or turning power.
Winding the wire back on the drum is known as spooling; it is very important
that​ ​the​ ​wire​ ​winds​ ​around​ ​the​ ​drum​ ​properly​ ​otherwise​ ​it​ ​won’t​ ​fit​ ​back​ ​on.

How​ ​winches​ ​operate

Each winch is designed for the type of wire or cable they are carrying.
Conventional direct pull winches have the basic drum that is turned by a motor,
and are used when pull-out loads are not extreme. Traction winches have two
extra, smaller, drums that the cable wraps around, as the drums turn they create
friction and this gives the cable traction to stop it from slipping. This means the
wire on the main drum has less strain put on it and therefore helps it last longer.
This type of winch can be used along with a plasma rope for collecting heavy
coring​ ​samples,​ ​as​ ​the​ ​buoyant​ ​rope​ ​doesn’t​ ​add​ ​to​ ​the​ ​weight​ ​of​ ​the​ ​load.

What​ ​are​ ​scientific​ ​winches​ ​used​ ​for?

Scientific​ ​winches​ ​are​ ​used​ ​to:
● Lower sensor packages such as Conductivity, Temperature & Depth
(CTD)​ ​sensors​ ​through​ ​the​ ​water​ ​column;
● Lower coring systems to the seabed to obtain samples from the seabed
and​ ​sub-seabed;
● Tow platforms such as the Towed Ocean Bottom Instrument (TOBI) for
seabed​ ​mapping;
 ● Tow undulating sensor platform to measure water properties while
underway;
● Tow​ ​deep-sea​ ​trawling​ ​and​ ​net​ ​systems.
The permanently fitted winches live in the bottom of the ship, where the wire is
fed up to the gantries on deck. The table below shows the types and properties
of​ ​the​ ​permanently​ ​fitted​ ​winches​ ​found​ ​on​ ​our​ ​ships.

RESEARCH​ ​SHIP
The modern research ship has its origins in the early voyages of exploration.
HMS ​Endeavour​, used on Cook’s first expedition (1769-81), and HMS
Challenger​, used for the first true oceanographic cruise to circumnavigate the
globe (1872-6), was typical of research vessels up until the latter part of the 20​th
century. Both ships were conversions; ​Endeavour had been a Whitby collier,
whilst ​Challenger used to be a steam corvette. Both vessels were chosen for
conversion to a research ship due to their ability to operate in extreme
environments. They were also fitted with a range of research facilities, covering
a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​disciplines.
This trend of converting other vessels continued up until the latter part of the
20​th Century, when oceanographic research disciplines (physical, biological, and
chemical oceanography; marine geology and geophysics; ocean engineering;
and atmospheric science) became much more demanding and specific in their
requirements​ ​of​ ​a​ ​vessel.
Some of these needs are unique to certain disciplines, while others such as the
need to collect seawater samples throughout the water column are more
universal. On modern research ships, these varied disciplines are now often
pursued on the same research cruise. Consequently the design of these vessels
is a complex exercise in balancing conflicting discipline-specific functions
within economic constraints. It is now potentially a much more costly and
complex solution to convert an existing vessel designed for another purpose
than​ ​to​ ​build​ ​a​ ​new​ ​ship​ ​from​ ​scratch.
Features​ ​of​ ​a​ ​research​ ​vessel
Science is likely to be conducted in increasingly remote and environmentally
challenging areas, including the polar seas, so the ability to operate with
minimal interruptions from the natural elements remains unchanged from the
days of the Challenger Expedition. However, the following areas of
functionality are becoming increasingly important in modern research ship
design:
Handling​ ​Equipment
The safe handling of increasingly large and more complex platforms and
instruments over the side in high sea states (up to sea state 6) means that
handling arrangements are critical. In the case of the RRS James Cook​, the
handling gantries have been designed with a safe working load of 30T. Both this
ship and the new RRS Discovery have a complex suite of electrically driven
winches permanently installed, handling 5 cables ranging from 8,000m of steel
wire to 10,000m of synthetic coring rope, as well as 10,000m fibre-optic tow
cable. The installation of heave compensation, to isolate deployed packages
from ship motion, is also becoming increasingly common; the CTD winches on
the NOCs ships have this functionality. In addition, gliders, autonomous
underwater and unmanned aerial vehicles (AUVs and UAVs) and remotely
operated vehicles (ROVs) require specific deployment and recovery procedures
and​ ​equipment.
Acoustic​ ​Quieting
Many of the sensors on a modern research ship employ acoustic energy,
including multibeam echo sounders, Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers
(ADCP) and underwater positioning and telemetry systems. Such systems
operate at an optimum level when acoustic interference is minimized. A
specific requirement in some ships, aimed at avoiding disturbance of fish (to
ensure accurate biomass measurements can be made) is detailed by the
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) report Underwater
Noise of Research Vessels, and is commonly referred to as ICES 209. The
RRS James Cook is built to the ICES 209 (with a slight modification at very
low frequencies), while the new RRS Discovery ​is being built to a NERC
defined standard, which is optimized for control of frequencies that interfere
with acoustic sensors, including seismic measurements. Much of a ship’s noise
comes from its machinery, so double raft mounting and/or resilient mounting of
this machinery is employed, while the design of the ship’s propellers also has a
major effect. These ships operate 24-hrs a day, so more and more, ambient
internal noise around cabins has to be controlled using design approaches which
have their origins on cruise liners. These measures commonly increase the cost
of the vessel, so careful definition of operational acoustic requirements is
required.
Dynamic​ ​Positioning
Dynamic positioning describes the ability of a ship to automatically maintain a
stable position through a combination of propellers and thrusters. This is
conducive to the safe handling of over-the-side packages, but also critical for
accurate navigation of remotely operated vehicles which may be maintaining
position on fixed points on the seabed, or else following specific tracklines. The
RRS James Cook and new RRS Discovery have both been designed to maintain
position beam-on in at least sea state 6/7, 30 knot winds gusting to 40 knots, and
a 0.5 knot surface current. In considering the propulsion configuration to be
used, there is also the need to balance this requirement against that of acoustic
quieting as quieter configurations tend to be less efficient in terms of Dynamic
Positioning. The configurations used on the two NOC ships are quite different,
mainly​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​difference​ ​in​ ​acoustic​ ​requirements.
Hydrodynamic​ ​Performance
Although related to acoustic quieting, hydrodynamic performance is somewhat
different. Acoustic quieting relates to internally generated sound, whereas the
hydrodynamic performance is concerned with design features aimed at reducing
hull-induced flow noise. Both the RRS James Cook ​and new RRS Discovery
have two drop keels which are designed to be lowered ca. 2.5m below the keel
and lower than any bubbles being swept along the bottom of the ship. Due to
their size, these are only suitable for mounting smaller instruments such as
ADCPs and small echosounders. Much more problematic are the large, low
frequency (usually 12 kHz), multibeam arrays which may be several metres in
both width and length and which need to be fitted to the bottom of the ship.
Some research vessels have these fitted in a gondola, which is again designed to
lower them below hull bubbles, but which suffer from increased draft and drag,
leading to increased fuel costs (an increase of 15-20% is not uncommon). In
attempt to compromise on these issues, the new RRS Discovery is designed with
a​ ​‘blister’​ ​on​ ​the​ ​ship’s​ ​bottom​ ​which​ ​houses​ ​an​ ​array​ ​that​ ​is​ ​ca.​ ​8m​ ​x​ ​8m.

Laboratories
The wide variety of science activities conducted concurrently means that
modern research vessels are built with plentiful laboratory spaces, often
sub-divided into ultraclean, clean, normal, and temperature-controlled areas,
with sufficient flexibility to be used for multiple needs. Specialist laboratory
needs are often provided through the use of containerised laboratories, while
there is also a requirement for a substantial scientific stores area, including areas
for frozen and refrigerated sample storage. The RRS James Cook and new RRS
Discovery have 278m​2 ​and 389m​2 ​of laboratories respectively, as well as
positions for up to 7 x 20’ container laboratories on deck - although it would be
unusual​ ​to​ ​use​ ​more​ ​than​ ​3​ ​of​ ​these​ ​on​ ​board​ ​at​ ​any​ ​one​ ​time.
Working​ ​Decks
Research vessel working decks are designed with flexibility in mind, with deck
areas uncluttered by fittings and as open as possible for fitting of a wide variety
of equipment. Ships such as those operated by NOC facilitate the fitting of
equipment and storage and laboratory containers on deck by means of a matrix
of deck sockets. Ideally, research vessels would be designed with low freeboard
to facilitate deployment and recovery of over-the-side equipment, but in rough
sea this leads to these decks becoming submerged regularly, limiting working
conditions, while modern damage stability requirements are leading to higher
freeboards. Once again, the design has to be a compromise. RRS James Cook
has a total of 446 m​2 of open working decks, while the new RRS Discovery will
have 432 m​2​. Both ships have slots for 18 x 20’ containers (including 4 in the aft
hold​ ​in​ ​the​ ​case​ ​of​ ​RRS​​ ​James​ ​Cook​).
How​ ​to​ ​keep​ ​a​ ​ship​ ​running
Our vessels are equipped with an adequate engineering plant to keep them
self-sufficient at sea for up to 55 days. This includes providing all crew and
scientific staff with all necessary requirements for them to complete essential
research at sea. This ranges from powering the vessel through the water from A
to B, right through to ensuring comfortable living conditions on board whilst
operating​ ​in​ ​extreme​ ​conditions.
The ship’s engineering departments are responsible for generating the electricity
and propulsion needed to be able to sail and work on the vessel. They also
provide the vessel with all the other amenities needed for a successful and
comfortable​ ​scientific​ ​cruise.​ ​These​ ​items​ ​include:
● Hot​ ​/​ ​cold​ ​drinking​ ​water
● Hydraulic​ ​power​ ​for​ ​the​ ​overside​ ​handling​ ​systems
● Waste​ ​water​ ​disposal​ ​and​ ​treatment
● Heating,​ ​ventilation​ ​and​ ​air-conditioning
● Refrigeration​ ​for​ ​cold​ ​and​ ​frozen​ ​provision​ ​stores
● Garbage​ ​compaction,​ ​storage​ ​and​ ​incineration
Power
The ships have a Diesel-Electric Propulsion system, which means a number of
diesel-generators create electricity to supply large electric motors which power
the ship’s propellers and thrusters. Below an overview of the system as found
on board RRS James Cook. The power plant on this vessel includes four diesel
generator sets of approximately 2860HP each, which feed a main 690V
switchboard. Further is the power distributed to 440V switchboards, 230V
switchboards and 110V switchboards through several transformers, for use on
deck,​ ​labs,​ ​accommodation,​ ​and​ ​lighting​ ​etcetera.
The vessels also carry ample supplies of fuel and numerous types of lubrication
oil to keep all engines and other machinery equipment well looked after for the
duration of the trip. The vessel can carry up to about 900,000 litres (797,972
gallons) of fuel and about 11,300 litres (2,485 gallons) of engine lubrication oil
and not least sufficient tools and spare parts to maintain the large number of
equipment​ ​on​ ​board.
Propulsion
Apart from the two main propellers moving the vessel through the water, there
are also 4 Thrusters which are used for manoeuvring in port and to keep the
vessel at a position during scientific operations. This system is called Dynamic
Positioning (DP) and is able to maintain an exact position in the water under
challenging weather and sea conditions, using satellite navigation systems for
positional reference. Here you can see one of the RRS James Cook’s main
propellers​ ​and​ ​the​ ​Azimuth​ ​Thruster​ ​during​ ​her​ ​last​ ​dry​ ​docking:
Water
As one can imagine, fresh running water is an essential commodity on board a
ship out at sea for over 50 days. The vessel can store up to 210 m​3 (46,194
gallons) of fresh water in tanks which are normally filled in port prior to sailing.
However, this quantity of water is only sufficient for about 2/3 weeks’
consumption. To make sure the vessel does not run out of water, she is fitted
with vacuum evaporators. These evaporators boil water inside a vacuumed
space, using engine cooling water as a heat source. By boiling the water under
vacuum inside the evaporator body, the boiling point comes down enabling the
engine cooling water to heat the seawater sufficiently to bring it to the boil. The
evaporated steam is then condensed and drained off and pumped away as fresh
water. Once the water has been pumped through a mineraliser filter and treated
with a disinfectant, it is pumped to the on board storage tanks for distribution
and use throughout the ship. Below an overview drawing, showing the principle
of​ ​our​ ​on​ ​board​ ​evaporators,​ ​using​ ​engine​ ​cooling​ ​water​ ​as​ ​a​ ​heating​ ​medium

OCEAN​ ​FLOOR​ ​RESEARCH

The bottom of a body of water is known as the benthic zone, regardless of how
deep it occurs. In coastal waters the sea floor sits upon the continental shelf and
is generally less than 200m deep. The majority of the ocean floor lies upon the
ocean crust and is between 4000m to 6000m deep. Working at such depths
requires​ ​specialist​ ​tools​ ​and​ ​skills​ ​to​ ​obtain​ ​the​ ​data​ ​needed.
The​ ​ocean​ ​floor​ ​was​ ​mapped​ ​using​ ​an​ ​EM120​ ​echo-sounder

Scientists who study the benthic zone can come from many disciplines and each
will be interested in different aspects. The reasons for study are just as varied
but​ ​can​ ​include:

● Understanding – Exploration of areas, learning about ecosystems and

habitats.
● Resources – Locations and quantities of minerals, oil, gases, and food
supplies.
● Geohazards – Landslides such as the one that caused the 2004 Tsunami,
turbidity​ ​currents,​ ​is​ ​it​ ​safe​ ​to​ ​dump​ ​waste​ ​at​ ​sea?
Ocean
Floor
Measurem
ents

Method
Property​ ​discovered How​ ​it’s​ ​done
used

Bathymetry – the measurement of depth to the

Measured using the time
Single-beam bottom. Can also be used to gain information
it takes for the sound to
echo​ ​sounder about the sub-surface i.e. deep or shallow
be​ ​sent​ ​and​ ​returned.
sediment.

Swath bathymetry – by taking lots of depth Measured using the time

Multi-beam
measurements from a single place the shape it takes for the sound to
echo​ ​sounder
of​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​bed​ ​is​ ​revealed. be​ s​ ent​ ​and​ ​returned.
 Measures the reflectivity of the floor, this will The change to the
Backscatter show what the floor is made of e.g. rocks, strength of the returned
sand,​ ​mud. sound​ ​wave.

Measures the speed sound moves through the Measures the

Sound water, as it varies depending on the water temperature, and
Velocity properties at different depths. Important to sometimes the salinity, of
Profilers know otherwise depth calculations will be the water to determine the
wrong. speed.

​ ​A.​ ​Mapping
Some Geo-scientists are interested in the terrain of an area, is it flat or rocky?
Are there any canyons, mountains or volcanoes? To find out scientists need to
map the area. On dry land satellites can be used to measure vast areas, but in
water satellite signals (microwaves) can be absorbed. The further a signal
travels through water the less likely it is to bounce back, so another method is
needed​ ​to​ ​map​ ​the​ ​ocean​ ​floor.
Sound waves use pressure to move through gases, liquids and solids. In air
sound moves at around 340 meters per second but in seawater it zooms along at
around 1500 meters per second! Light cannot be used as it is absorbed by water
very quickly; usually lighting no further than 30 meters. So by using sound
scientists​ ​can​ ​find​ ​out​ ​different​ ​properties​ ​about​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​floor.
Towed​ ​Ocean​ ​Bottom​ ​Instrument
T​owed ​O​cean ​B​ottom I​nstrument (TOBI) is an instrumented vehicle which is
towed close to the bottom of the deep ocean from a ship, and uses sound to form
detailed images of the sea floor. TOBI was developed by NOC and has been in
service since 1990, it is has become one of world’s best tools for underwater
geological​ ​surveys​ ​using​ ​side​ ​scan​ ​sonar.
What​ ​is​ ​TOBI​ ​used​ ​for?
TOBI​ ​has​ ​side​ ​scanners​ ​and​ ​a​ ​bottom​ ​scanner​ ​for​ ​mapping​ ​the​ ​floor

Nearly three quarters of the earth’s surface is covered by water with an average
depth of 4000 m. If the floor of these gigantic water filled basins could be
observed from space there would be spectacular views of the volcanic mountain
ranges, more rugged than anything seen on land, which form the mid-ocean
ridges. These mountains are surrounded by vast plains, created by millions of
years of sedimentation, whose gently sloping boundaries are marked by
sediment ‘rivers’ and debris flows. The steep slopes near the continental shelves
are​ ​scarred​ ​by​ ​canyons,​ ​eroded​ ​away​ ​by​ ​rivers​ ​flowing​ ​off​ ​the​ ​land.
However, beyond the first few metres water forms an impenetrable barrier to the
electromagnetic radiation used by remote-sensing instruments. Learning about
the nature of our oceans and of the ground that lies beneath them must be
accomplished by lowering instrumented packages through the ocean and onto
the sea-floor below. Often, sound is used instead of rapidly attenuated
electromagnetic​ ​waves​ ​for​ ​communication​ ​and​ ​investigation.
TOBI is designed to be towed behind a ship at depths as great as 6000m,
intended primarily to use sound to form detailed images of the deep ocean floor,
it​ ​also​ ​acts​ ​as​ ​a​ ​stable​ ​platform​ ​for​ ​a​ ​wide​ ​range​ ​of​ ​oceanographic​ ​instruments.
Why​ ​TOBI​ ​is​ ​good​ ​for​ ​seafloor​ ​mapping?
Geologists use TOBI for mapping the seafloor to gather information about what
it is made of and its shape (topography). The image is a bit like a photograph
taken from space – you can tell mountain ranges from flat plains, you can tell
which areas have bare rock outcropping at the seafloor and which are covered
with mud and you can even see features such as sand dunes, seabed channels
and,​ ​may​ ​be​ ​the​ ​most​ ​exciting​ ​of​ ​all,​ ​underwater​ ​volcanoes.
TOBI​ ​image​ ​shows​ ​a​ ​submarine​ ​channel​ ​with​ ​steep​ ​walls​ ​and​ ​a​ ​flat​ ​valley​ ​floor

TOBI is towed near the seabed on a long cable (sometimes up to 9 km long)

because this gives a more detailed picture of the seabed that you can get with
instruments operating at the sea surface. So TOBI can ‘see’ something about the
size of one side of a tennis court, even when the water is 5km deep (from the sea
surface,​ ​you​ ​would​ ​be​ ​lucky​ ​to​ ​recognise​ ​anything​ ​smaller​ ​than​ ​a​ ​football​ ​pitch).
Above is an example of a TOBI image of the seafloor showing a meandering
submarine channel cut by underwater flow into the flat floor of a broad valley.
Although the image looks like something you might see on land, remember, this
meandering river with a wide flood plain cutting through a range of hills is all
taking​ ​place​ ​under​ ​2​ ​miles​ ​of​ ​water!

Autosubs
A​utonomous ​U​nderwater ​V​ehicles (AUVs) are robot submarines, which are
used to explore the world’s oceans without a pilot, or any tether. Before launch
from the research ship, the AUV’s computers are programmed with instructions
of where to go, what to measure, and what depths to go to. With no link to the
mother ship, all communications with the AUV are limited to using acoustics
(sound) when the AUV is underwater (this typically has a range of a few km) or
satellite communications (such as Iridium) can be used when the AUV is
floating​ ​on​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​surface.
Energy supply for the propulsion system and sensors is a challenge for AUVs.
Without the supply of oxygen from the atmosphere, internal combustion engines
are not practical. Rather, the AUV must rely on batteries. As the amount of
energy available from 1kg of the best batteries is about ten times less than that
available from the same quantity of diesel fuel, currently AUVs are limited in
range and speed compared to surface vessels. As the required propulsive power
increases very rapidly with operating speed (approximately proportional to the
speed cubed), to achieve acceptable range, the solution is usually to go rather
slowly. The current Autosub AUVs run at about 1.7 ms​-1 (surface ships typically
run​ ​at​ ​5​ ​to​ ​10​ ​ms​-1​).
Accurate navigation is also a challenge for an AUV. At the sea surface there is
no problem: AUVs can be positioned using the satellite based Global
Positioning Systems (GPS). However, satellite signals don’t penetrate even
millimetres of sea water, and hence other means are needed to navigate the
AUVs once they have dived. The Autosub AUVs rely mostly on an approach
known as dead reckoning. The AUVs bounce sound off the seabed, and by
measuring the Doppler shift of the echoes, they are able to measure their speed
relative to the sea bed. For dead reckoning the AUV must also accurately sense
its heading. On the Autosub AUV a fibre optic gyro based sensor is used, giving
heading accuracy of better than 0.1 degrees. Overall, accuracies of about 1m
error for each 1km travelled are achievable. Navigation accuracy is critical to
many survey missions and hence we are researching and developing techniques
to​ ​further​ ​improve​ ​upon​ ​this​ ​performance.​ ​
Autosub3

Autosub3 is ready to launch in front of the Pine Island Glacier in the Western
Antarctic. In a mission lasting 36 hours it ran 60km under the ice shelf, into a
cave,​ ​topped​ ​with​ ​ice​ ​up​ ​to​ ​1000​ ​m​ ​thick.

AUVs are particularly effective where they carry out missions which cannot be
done any other way. Excellent examples of this are the Autosub missions
carried in the Arctic and Antarctic from 1999 until the present, with long
missions, beyond 24 hours, operating under sea ice and under the floating
ice-tongues of glaciers. Perhaps the most striking example was the campaign of
2009 in the Western Antarctic, where Autosub3 operated beneath the 500m to
1000m thick floating ice tongue of the Pine Island Glacier, penetrating into the
ice cave by up to 60km. Using upwards and downwards looking mapping sonar,
it was able to map out, for the first time, both the ice above and sea bed depths
below the AUV track. These missions were potentially very dangerous for the
AUV: unlike open water missions, were the AUV can return to the surface if a
fault is detected, for an AUV, with up to 1km of ice above it, there is no such
easy​ ​option.
Autosub3 has a total displacement 3.6 tonnes and can travel up to 400 km on a
set​ ​of​ ​batteries.​ ​It​ ​can​ ​dive​ ​to​ ​a​ ​depth​ ​of​ ​1600​ ​metres.
Autosub​ ​LR

Transparent​ ​view​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Autosub​ ​Long​ ​Range​ ​AUV.

The forged aluminium spheres (upper hemispheres are not shown), hold the
batteries (front sphere) and the control computer (rear sphere). The propulsion
motor, which is housed in a dry pressure vessel, is coupled to the propeller via
magnetic couplings, eliminating the need for (energy sapping and potentially
unreliable)​ ​rotating​ ​seals.

The Autosub Long Range AUV (or Autosub LR) is a new type of AUV.
Although a third the weight of the Autosub3 and the Autosub6000 AUVs , it
will be able to travel for more than ten times the distance, and be deployed for
over a hundred times greater duration. All this, and with a depth rating of
6000m.​ ​How​ ​does​ ​it​ ​do​ ​this?
The key to achieving this performance is efficient propulsion at slow speed (at
0.4 ms​-1​), and by keeping tight control of the power used by the AUV sensors
and control systems. One area in which recent advances in technology has
helped make this possible has been in the development of microprocessors for
devices such as mobile phones which have ample processing power, but which
use​ ​very​ ​little​ ​energy.
With a 6000km range, an endurance of six months and a depth rating of 6000m,
this AUV will be very useful to oceanographers in providing measurements of
ocean and seabed properties over ocean scales, and without the need for a
research ship. But the scientists won’t need to wait for six months to get access
to the data. The AUV will periodically surface and transmit the data back to the
scientist​ ​via​ ​an​ ​Iridium​ ​satellite​ ​data​ ​link.

The Autosub Long Range being lowered into the fresh water test tank at NOC
Southampton. The AUV runs with only 2kg buoyancy out a total displacement
of 650kg, hence the buoyancy measurement must be carried out meticulously.
Even the small amount of dissolved solids in the Southampton “fresh” water in
the​ ​test​ ​tank​ ​affects​ ​the​ ​buoyancy​ ​and​ ​must​ ​be​ ​accounted​ ​for.

B.​ ​Seismic​ ​Exploration

While seismic surveys are often used by the oil and gas industries to find
reserves, scientists can use the same techniques to look for air bubbles, which
can signify the presence of hydrothermal vents. Surveys are a complex
operation​ ​that​ ​require​ ​skilled​ ​specialists​ ​to​ ​operate​ ​the​ ​equipment.
Seismic surveys work by having a sound source generate energy, commonly in
the form of air waves, which travel towards the sea bed and through different
layers. Eventually this energy is reflected back up towards a listening device
where the waves are recorded over a predetermined time period using
hydrophones. ​ ​Seismic​ ​surveys​ ​performed​ ​at​ ​NOC​ ​are​ ​2D​ ​and​ ​consist​ ​of:
Hydrophones​ ​detect​ ​the​ ​sound​ ​waves​ ​reflected​ ​from​ ​beneath​ ​the​ ​ocean​ ​floor

● a​ ​research​ ​vessel;
● an​ ​array​ ​of​ ​guns​ ​(sound​ ​source)​ ​;​ ​and
● a​ ​towed​ ​streamer​ ​(listening​ ​device)​ ​ending​ ​in​ ​a​ ​tail​ ​buoy.
How​ ​seismic​ ​surveys​ ​work
Before a survey can even begin the operators must perform a ​marine mammal
observation​.​ ​If​ ​the​ ​observation​ ​period​ ​passes​ ​the​ ​tests​ ​work​ ​can​ ​begin.
Positioning of the vessel, the source, the streamer and the tail buoy is extremely
important. The greater the accuracy of the equipment the greater the accuracy
of the data. Vessels use differential GPS (DGPS), which uses base stations with
a known position to calculate what the travel time of the GPS signal should be
to what it actually is. It then sends this correction to the vessel to be applied to
the GPS signal sent to it, this ensures greater positional accuracy of the at-sea
equipment.
The gun source(s) and tail buoy can also accommodate GPS modules to help
improve the accuracy. Commonly these would be used as referential GPS
(RGPS) where the range and bearing of the units are applied to the overall
positioning​ ​geometry​ ​of​ ​the​ ​streamer.
The data that is produced is a time slice of the ocean floor at the point of
reflection for a given time period. The point of reflection is called Common
Mid Point (CMP), or layback value, and is calculated as the distance from the
vessel reference point to the centre of source plus half the distance from the
centre of source to the first receiver group on the streamer. This data is then
processed to produce a time slice per CMP showing the ocean floor and the
layers​ ​beneath.
Conducting​ ​a​ ​survey
To run a seismic survey there is a lot of hardware and software systems required
to capture the real time data and to ensure its quality. There should be at least 1
person to oversee the sound source software and data; 1 person for the compass
data and positional data of all the systems; 1 person for streamer data
acquisition and 1 for quality control of the real time data including networking
and​ ​data​ ​transfers.

Seimic output shows many layers detected with the seabed and sub-layers
highlighted

One of the major problems with seismic is the synchronization of all the
systems operating at real time. One way to overcome this is to route all the data
and networking through a central system that monitors and controls all the IO
for the streamer the guns and the vessel. Allowing one central system, referred
to as a Navigation system, to be in control of synchronization ensures the
triggering and time stamping for each shot is all done centrally and not by
different GPS systems that may vary slightly in time and position causing undue
errors​ ​and​ ​deviations.
As seismic software and hardware progresses so will the manner in which data
is captured. There are new developments and alternatives to traditional seismic
such as magnetic and gravity seismic surveys. The seismic industry is fast
paced and ever changing and with over 70% of the ocean still unexplored what
will​ ​be​ ​discovered​ ​next?
What​ ​equipment​ ​is​ ​used?
The streamer NOC uses is a Solid Sentinel Active Section, which has a
polyurethane outer skin surrounding a foam filled inner with data wires and
strain members to take the tension running through the middle. Each section is
150m in length; containing 8 hydrophones in 12.5m compartments; with 2
communication coils per section. Sections are connected end to end with a
maximum of 5 sections before requiring a module to boost and transmit the
data.
2D​ ​surveys​ ​commonly​ ​run​ ​12km​ ​streamers​ ​and​ ​3D​ ​commonly​ ​8​ ​x​ ​6km.
Digicourse birds are connected to a communication coil every 300m to help
maintain streamer depth and transmit compass data down the streamer to the
acquisition system. This data can be used in processing to define the streamer
shape, drift angle and streamer depth all to help locate the position of the
reflection​ ​on​ ​the​ ​sea​ ​floor.
The tail buoy is used as an identifying mark for the end of the streamer- helps
other​ ​vessels​ ​avoid​ ​the​ ​underwater​ ​obstruction,​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​for​ ​positional​ ​data.
C.​ ​Dredges
Dredges gather loose rocks sitting on the ocean floor using a technique that has
changed little in hundreds of years. They have a chain-link bag with large
metal-jawed opening that scoops the contents into the bag. They are lowered to
the seabed on a cable and dragged along the bottom for some distance before
being brought to the surface. Although rough and ready, dredging is still a
useful way of mapping the broad-scale distribution of rock types on the
sea-floor.
Performing​ ​a​ ​Dredge

Dredge​ ​frame​ ​and​ ​steel​ ​net​ ​with​ ​weight​ ​ready​ ​to​ ​be​ ​deployed
The rock dredge package is lowered to the sea floor using a steel wire cable.
This means that there is no data transmission, such as video, to show what is
happening below. Dependant on the ocean depth the amount of cable deployed
to undertake the transit can be up to 2.5 times the ocean depth. So how do
operators​ ​know​ ​when​ ​the​ ​dredging​ ​can​ ​begin?
When the rock dredge package and anchor weight chain reach the sea floor
initially a reduction in the cable loading, of approximately 1 tonne, will be
observed on the winch monitoring system. The cable loading will then be
witnessed to an increase as the dredge is dragged over the sea floor. The cable
monitoring system will show “spike” loadings as the rock dredge picks up
samples or snags in the topography. This will continue until the transit line is
completed​ ​and​ ​the​ ​rock​ ​dredge​ ​is​ ​recovered​ ​to​ ​the​ ​vessel.
During the dredging transit line the vessels speed is kept between .5 to 1.5 knots
over the ground. The speed of the vessel is adjusted as necessary dependant on
the loadings experienced on the winch monitoring system of the vessel. This
means it takes many hours to perform and many more before the crew and
scientists​ ​find​ ​out​ ​if​ ​it​ ​has​ ​been​ ​successful.
How​ ​the​ ​Dredge​ ​works
The rock dredging equipment comprises of a mild steel frame approx 1m wide
x 0.5m x 0.25m. Attached to the back of the frame, and secured by wire and
shackles, is a steel net approx 1.5m long. Secured to the net, by chain and
shackles, is a .3m diameter by .8m long pipe "bucket" used as a weight. The
Dredge is deployed connected to the vessel's main trawl warp (steel cable),
nominally​ ​14,700​ ​metres​ ​in​ ​length,​ ​by​ ​an​ ​anchor​ ​chain​ ​and​ ​weak​ ​link.
The anchor chain acts as weight to keep the rock dredge on the sea floor during
the dredge line transit. The rough terrian causes the frame to bounce around, so
the​ ​anchor​ ​at​ ​the​ ​front​ ​and​ ​"bucket"​ ​weight​ ​at​ ​the​ ​back​ ​keep​ ​it​ ​grounded.
The weak links are a system safety device used to separate the main warp from
a​ ​trapped​ ​rock​ ​dredge​ ​package.
A strangle wire, wrapped through the chain mail and also connected via a weak
link to the main warp enables the dredge to be recovered in the event of
snagging. The strangle wire works by closing the "neck" of the rock dredge net
and pulling the dredge net over the steel frame. This tumbling action hopefully
frees​ ​the​ ​rock​ ​dredge​ ​from​ ​its​ ​trapped​ ​position​ ​without​ ​spilling​ ​the​ ​contents.
During transit lines (dredging) where the sea floor topography is known, or
expected to be, extremely broken or rough a sacrificial pennent wire is
attached. It runs, approximately 500 metres, between the rock dredge package
and the vessels main trawling warp to prevent damage to the vessels trawling
warp. An acoustic pinger can be secured to the trawling warp/pennent wire 100
- 300 metres from the rock dredge package. The acoustic pinger can help to
indicate that the rock dredge package is on the sea floor by the separation
distance of the pinger and the sea floor being less than the length of cable
between​ ​the​ ​pinger​ ​and​ ​dredge​ ​net.
D.​ ​Marine​ ​Life
The oceans contain an amazing variety of life, from the tiniest - Femtoplankton,
to the largest - Blue Whale. Marine life can be found in some extreme
environments; in water temperatures higher than a 100ºC and lower than 0ºC.
In the deepest parts life still exists; living under pressure that is as great as 1.1
tonnes per square centimetre (8 tons per square inch or 1079 bar), that’s over
thousand​ ​times​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​it​ ​is​ ​at​ ​the​ ​surface.

This​ ​Stalked​ ​Crinoid​ ​is​ ​an​ ​animal​ ​and​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​Starfish

The marine environment contains 28 biological divisions (Phyla) of life, land

only has 11, and around 230,000 species are known. Astonishingly some
scientists believe that there could be up to 1 million species! That means three
quarters have yet to be discovered and named, so there is a lot of work still to be
done.

An important fact to remember is that plants cannot grow without sunlight. It

means that all marine life found below around 200m are actually animals, even
though​ ​some​ ​look​ ​very​ ​similar​ ​to​ ​plants.
Observing
Investigating marine life can be done in a variety of ways. Observation is a
useful method of gaining general information about species and environments.
It seems a simple technique as a person only needs eyes to look, but if the life
being studied spends most or all of its time underwater then the task become
more​ ​difficult.
Observing​ ​techniques
To start with the scientist needs to know where their subject is, if this is a plant
or a slow moving creature then finding it should be easier. If however it can
travel across entire oceans, observers are going to need a way of looking over
large distances. Distribution spotting can be done in an aeroplane or from boats
but only works for life forms near or above the surface. To find underwater
subjects acoustic devices such as ​ADCPs may be used for detection. By
collecting data about where and when species are found a picture can be built to
aid​ ​further​ ​study.
A​ ​shark​ ​with​ ​a​ ​tag​ ​attached

If a scientist is studying the behaviour of groups or individuals then it is

important to be able to identify them. This can be done indirectly by
photographing distinctive markings or recording unique sounds, or directly by
tagging​ ​an​ ​individual.
Tagging can be in the form of a simple ring with an identification number, such
as those placed around a bird’s leg, a more high-tech tag may have a transmitter
to disclose location or record information such as the condition of the individual
or the environment it is in. These high-tech tags are generally temporary
because​ ​they​ ​require​ ​power​ ​to​ ​transmit​ ​or​ ​record.

● Marine​ ​Mammal​ ​Observer

E. A Marine Mammal Observer (MMO) is a representative from the
county where a ​seismic survey is being performed, they are there to
observe and identify sensitive wildlife species and ensure
adherence to the guidelines set out by international bodies in
conjunction​ ​with​ ​their​ ​country’s​ ​legislation.
E.​SHRIMP
S​ea floor ​H​igh ​R​esolution ​I​maging ​P​latform (SHRIMP) is NOC’S high
resolution deep-towed camera platform. It carries still photograph camera
as well as downward looking video cameras, which send live images to
the ship along a single mode fibre optic link, from depths of up to
5000m.
F.​ ​Remotely​ ​Operated​ ​Vehicles​ ​(ROVs)
A ​R​emotely ​O​perated ​V​ehicle (ROV) is a tethered underwater robot,
distinguishing it from remote control vehicles that operate on land or in the air.
ROVs are unmanned, highly manoeuvrable and controlled by an operator(s)
aboard a vessel. They are linked to the ship by a cable known as the umbilical, a
group of cables that carry electrical power, video and data signals back and forth
between​ ​the​ ​operator​ ​and​ ​the​ ​vehicle.
The​ ​ROV​ ​Isis
ROVs vary in shape, size and capability depending on their task. Together with
their monitoring and control equipment, launch and recovery systems, umbilical
controls and winches they are a complex array of electrical, electronic,
hydraulic​ ​and​ ​mechanical​ ​systems.
Many ROVs operated in the oil and gas industry are designed to dive to 3,000m,
whereas specialised science ROVs can operate in the deepest of oceans, 6,500m
and beyond. Some marine trenches extend to around 11,000m. Most ROVs are
equipped with at least a video camera and lights. Additional equipment is
commonly added to expand the vehicle’s capabilities. A science ROV’s
instrumentation suite may include sonars, magnetometers, a still camera,
manipulators, water samplers, and instruments that measure water clarity, light
penetration​ ​and​ ​temperature.
Why​ ​do​ ​we​ ​use​ ​ROVs?
ROVs enable intricate survey of the seabed. They also allow us to take precision
samples and to conduct experiments at water depths unreachable by human
divers due to the water pressure. Although manned submersibles exist that can
transport humans to these depths, ROVs are a more compact, portable and
practical alternative without the human risk element. An ROV can be
maneuvered precisely with its thrusters (propellers). Through its eyes (cameras),
the manipulators (hands) can be used to select and recover small, delicate
objects more precisely than any other sampling system. Scientists can see the
undisturbed area from where samples are selectively taken, providing them with
a better understanding of habitats and structures. Complex ​in situ ​experiments
can be achieved maintaining the environmental conditions and minimising
sample​ ​damage​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​recovery​ ​to​ ​the​ ​surface.
The​ ​NOC​ ​ROV​ ​facility
The science ROV named ​Isis is a work-class vehicle capable of descending to a
depth of 6500m. The vehicle is supported with containerised control room,
workshop and spares storage, with a Launch and Recovery System (LARS).
Suitably sized and dynamically positioned (DP) ships of opportunity allow the
system​ ​to​ ​be​ ​freighted​ ​and​ ​operated​ ​around​ ​the​ ​world.

TYPES​ ​OF​ ​OFFSHORE​ ​PRODUCTION​ ​PLATFORMS

An oil platform is a large structure used to drill and produce oil and/or natural
gas from the seas or oceans. Depending on the circumstances, the platform may
be floating or an artificial island or attached to the ocean floor. A typical
platform may have around thirty well heads located on the platform and
directional drilling allows reservoirs to be accessed at both different depths and
at​ ​remote​ ​positions​ ​up​ ​to​ ​8​ ​kilometres​ ​from​ ​the​ ​platform.

The world’s largest oil platform is called ​Hibernia​. Many platforms also have
remote well heads attached by umbilical connections, these may be single wells
or​ ​a​ ​manifold​ ​centre​ ​for​ ​multiple​ ​wells.

Larger lake- and sea-based offshore platforms and ​drilling rigs are some of the
largest moveable man-made structures in the world. There are several types of
oil​ ​platforms​ ​and​ ​rigs:

1, 2) conventional fixed platforms; 3) compliant tower; 4, 5) vertically moored

tension leg and mini-tension leg platform; 6) Spar ; 7,8) Semi-submersibles ; 9)
Floating production, storage, and offloading facility; 10) sub-sea completion
and​ ​tie-back​ ​to​ ​host​ ​facility
A.Fixed​ ​platforms

A​ ​fixed​ ​platform​ ​base​ ​under​ ​construction​ ​on​ ​a​ ​Louisiana​ ​river

These platforms are built on ​concrete or ​steel legs, or both, anchored directly
onto the seabed, supporting a deck with space for drilling rigs, production
facilities and crew quarters. Such platforms are, by virtue of their immobility,
designed for very long term use (for instance the ​Hibernia platform​). Various
types of structure are used, steel jacket, concrete ​caisson​, floating steel and even
floating concrete​. Steel jackets are vertical sections made of tubular steel
members, and are usually piled into the seabed. To see more details regarding
Design,​ ​construction​ ​and​ ​installation​ ​of​ ​such​ ​platforms​ ​refer​ ​to:​[5]​​ ​and.​[6]
Concrete caisson structures​, pioneered by the ​Condeep concept, often have
in-built oil storage in tanks below the sea surface and these tanks were often
used as a flotation capability, allowing them to be built close to shore
(​Norwegian ​fjords and ​Scottish ​firths are popular because they are sheltered and
deep enough) and then floated to their final position where they are sunk to the
seabed. Fixed platforms are economically feasible for installation in water
depths​ ​up​ ​to​ ​about​ ​520 m​ ​(1,710 ft).
B​ ​.Compliant​ ​towers
These platforms consist of slender flexible towers and a pile foundation
supporting a conventional deck for drilling and production operations.
Compliant towers are designed to sustain significant lateral deflections and
forces, and are typically used in water depths ranging from 370 to 910 metres
(1,210​ ​to​ ​2,990 ft).
C.​ ​Semi-submersible​ ​platform
These platforms have hulls (columns and pontoons) of sufficient ​buoyancy to
cause the structure to float, but of weight sufficient to keep the structure upright.
Semi-submersible platforms can be moved from place to place; can be ballasted
up or down by altering the amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks; they are
generally anchored by combinations of chain, wire rope or polyester rope, or
both, during drilling or production operations, or both, though they can also be
kept in place by the use of ​dynamic positioning​. Semi-submersibles can be used
in​ ​water​ ​depths​ ​from​ ​60​ ​to​ ​3,000​ ​metres​ ​(200 to 10,000 ft).
D.​ ​Jack-up​ ​drilling​ ​rigs

400 feet (120 m) tall jackup rig being towed by tugboats, ​Kachemak Bay,
Alaska
Jack-up Mobile Drilling Units (or jack-ups), as the name suggests, are rigs that
can be jacked up above the sea using legs that can be lowered, much like ​jacks​.
These MODUs (Mobile Offshore Drilling Units) are typically used in water
depths up to 120 metres (390 ft), although some designs can go to 170 m
(560 ft) depth. They are designed to move from place to place, and then anchor
themselves by deploying the legs to the ocean bottom using a ​rack and pinion
gear​ ​system​ ​on​ ​each​ ​leg.
E.​ ​Drillships
A drillship is a maritime vessel that has been fitted with drilling apparatus. It is
most often used for exploratory drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep water
but can also be used for scientific drilling. Early versions were built on a
modified tanker hull, but purpose-built designs are used today. Most drillships
are outfitted with a ​dynamic positioning system to maintain position over the
well.​ ​They​ ​can​ ​drill​ ​in​ ​water​ ​depths​ ​up​ ​to​ ​3,700 m​ ​(12,100 ft).​[7]
F.Floating​ ​production​ ​systems
The main types of floating production systems are ​FPSO (floating production,
storage, and offloading system)​. FPSOs consist of large monohull structures,
generally (but not always) shipshaped, equipped with processing facilities.
These platforms are moored to a location for extended periods, and do not
actually drill for oil or gas. Some variants of these applications, called ​FSO
(floating storage and offloading system) or FSU (floating storage unit), are used
exclusively for storage purposes, and host very little process equipment. This is
one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​best​ ​sources​ ​for​ ​having​ ​floating​ ​production.

G.Tension-leg​ ​platform
TLPs are floating platforms tethered to the seabed in a manner that eliminates
most vertical movement of the structure. TLPs are used in water depths up to
about 2,000 meters (6,000 ft). The "conventional" TLP is a 4-column design
which looks similar to a semisubmersible. Proprietary versions include the
Seastar and MOSES mini TLPs; they are relatively low cost, used in water
depths between 180 and 1,300 metres (590 and 4,300 ft). Mini TLPs can also be
used as utility, satellite or early production platforms for larger deepwater
discoveries.
H.​ ​Gravity-based​ ​structure
A GBS can either be steel or concrete and is usually anchored directly onto the
seabed. Steel GBS are predominantly used when there is no or limited
availability of crane barges to install a conventional fixed offshore platform, for
example in the Caspian Sea. There are several steel GBS in the world today
(e.g. offshore Turkmenistan Waters (Caspian Sea) and offshore New Zealand).
Steel GBS do not usually provide ​hydrocarbon storage capability. It is mainly
installed by pulling it off the yard, by either wet-tow or/and dry-tow, and
self-installing by controlled ballasting of the compartments with sea water. To
position the GBS during installation, the GBS may be connected to either a
transportation barge or any other barge (provided it is large enough to support
the GBS) using strand jacks. The jacks shall be released gradually whilst the
GBS is ballasted to ensure that the GBS does not sway too much from target
location.
I.Spar​ ​platforms

Devil's​ ​Tower​ ​Spar​ ​Platform

Spars are moored to the seabed like TLPs, but whereas a TLP has vertical
tension tethers, a spar has more conventional mooring lines. Spars have to-date
been designed in three configurations: the "conventional" one-piece cylindrical
hull, the "truss spar" where the midsection is composed of truss elements
connecting the upper buoyant hull (called a hard tank) with the bottom soft tank
containing permanent ballast, and the "cell spar" which is built from multiple
vertical cylinders. The spar has more inherent stability than a TLP since it has a
large counterweight at the bottom and does not depend on the mooring to hold it
upright. It also has the ability, by adjusting the mooring line tensions (using
chain-jacks attached to the mooring lines), to move horizontally and to position
itself over wells at some distance from the main platform location. The first
production spar was ​Kerr-McGee's Neptune, anchored in 590 m (1,940 ft) in the
Gulf of Mexico; however, spars (such as ​Brent Spar​) were previously used as
FSOs.
Eni​'s ​Devil's Tower located in 1,710 m (5,610 ft) of water, in the Gulf of
Mexico, was the world's deepest spar until 2010. The world's deepest platform
is currently the ​Perdido spar in the Gulf of Mexico, floating in 2,438 meters of
water. It is operated by ​Royal Dutch Shell and was built at a cost of $3
billion.​[8]​[9]
The first truss spars were Kerr-McGee's Boomvang and Nansen.​[​citation needed​] The
first​ ​(and​ ​only)​ ​cell​ ​spar​ ​is​ ​Kerr-McGee's​ ​Red​ ​Hawk.​[10]
OFFSHORE​ ​CREW
Essential​ ​personnel
Not all of the following personnel are present on every platform. On smaller
platforms, one worker can perform a number of different jobs. The following
also​ ​are​ ​not​ ​names​ ​officially​ ​recognized​ ​in​ ​the​ ​industry:
● OIM (offshore installation manager) who is the ultimate authority during
his/her shift and makes the essential decisions regarding the operation of
the​ ​platform;
● operations​ ​team​ ​leader​ ​(OTL);
● offshore operations engineer (OOE) who is the senior technical authority
on​ ​the​ ​platform;
● PSTL​ ​or​ ​operations​ ​coordinator​ ​for​ ​managing​ ​crew​ ​changes;
● dynamic positioning operator, navigation, ship or vessel maneuvering
(MODU), station keeping, fire and gas systems operations in the event of
incident;
● automation systems specialist, to configure, maintain and troubleshoot the
process control systems (DCS), process safety systems, emergency
support​ ​systems​ ​and​ ​vessel​ ​management​ ​systems;
● second mate to meet manning requirements of flag state, operates fast
rescue​ ​craft,​ ​cargo​ ​operations,​ ​fire​ ​team​ ​leader;
● third mate to meet manning requirements of flag state, operate fast rescue
 craft,​ ​cargo​ ​operations,​ ​fire​ ​team​ ​leader;
● ballast​ ​control​ ​operator​ ​to​ ​operate​ ​fire​ ​and​ ​gas​ ​systems;
● crane operators to operate the cranes for lifting cargo around the platform
and​ ​between​ ​boats;
● scaffolders to rig up scaffolding for when it is required for workers to
work​ ​at​ ​height;
● coxswains​ ​to​ ​maintain​ ​the​ ​lifeboats​ ​and​ ​manning​ ​them​ ​if​ ​necessary;
● control​ ​room​ ​operators,​ ​especially​ ​FPSO​ ​or​ ​production​ ​platforms;
● catering crew, including people tasked with performing essential
functions​ ​such​ ​as​ ​cooking,​ ​laundry​ ​and​ ​cleaning​ ​the​ ​accommodation;
● production​ ​techs​ ​to​ ​run​ ​the​ ​production​ ​plant;
● helicopter ​pilot​(s) living on some platforms that have a helicopter based
offshore and transporting workers to other platforms or to shore on crew
changes;
● Maintenance​ ​technicians​ ​(instrument,​ ​electrical​ ​or​ ​mechanical).
Incidental​ ​personnel
Drill crew will be on board if the installation is performing drilling operations.
A​ ​drill​ ​crew​ ​will​ ​normally​ ​comprise:
● Toolpusher
● Driller
● Roughnecks
● Roustabouts
● Company​ ​man
● Mud​ ​engineer
● Derrickhand
● Geologist
● Welders​​ ​and​ ​Welder​ ​Helpers
Well services crew will be on board for ​well work​. The crew will normally
comprise:
● Well​ ​services​ ​supervisor
● Wireline​ ​or​ ​coiled​ ​tubing​ ​operators
● Pump​ ​operator
TYPES​ ​OF​ ​OCEAN​ ​HABITATS
Marine​ ​Habitats
About 70% of our planet is covered with water. Earth has been nicknamed “the
blue planet” because it looks blue from space. About 96% of this water is
marine or salt water, made up of the oceans covering the Earth. Within these
oceans, there are many different types of habitat, or environments in which
plants and animals live, ranging from freezing polar ice to tropical coral reefs.
These habitats all come with their unique challenges and are inhabited by a wide
variety of organisms. You can find more information about the major marine
habitats​ ​below.
Coral
There are hundreds of ​cora​l species found in the world’s oceans. There are two
types​ ​of​ ​corals​ ​–​ ​hard​ ​corals,​ ​and​ ​soft​ ​corals.​ ​Only​ ​hard​ ​corals​ ​build​ ​reefs.
While the majority of ​coral reefs are found in tropical and sub-tropical water
within the latitudes of 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south, there are also
deep water corals in colder regions. A flourishing tropical reef is made up of
many different plant and animal communities. It is estimated that 800 different
coral​ ​species​ ​are​ ​involved​ ​in​ ​building​ ​tropical​ ​reefs.
Coral reefs are complex ecosystems supporting a wide array of marine species.
The largest and most well-known example of a tropical reef is the Great Barrier
Reef​ ​in​ ​Australia.
Deep​ ​Ocean
The deep sea includes the deepest, darkest, coldest parts of the ocean. Eighty
percent of the ocean consists of waters greater than 1,000 meters in depth. Parts
of the deep sea described here are also included in the pelagic zone, but these
areas in the deepest reaches of the ocean have their own special characteristics.
Most areas are cold, dark, and inhospitable to us humans, but support a
surprising​ ​number​ ​of​ ​species​ ​that​ ​thrive​ ​in​ ​this​ ​environment.
Estuary
An ​estuary is the thin zone along a coastline (such as bays, lagoons, sounds or
sloughs) where freshwater systems and rivers meet, and mix with a salty ocean,
becoming brackish. Sometimes, freshwater from rivers mixes with large
freshwater bodies creating a "freshwater estuary" that functions like a typical
brackish estuaries.
The five major types of estuaries are coastal plain, bar-built, delta system,
tectonic,​ ​and​ ​fjords.
Hydrothermal​ ​Vents
Hydrothermal vents​, also in the deep sea, were unknown until about 30 years
ago, when they were discovered in the submersible ​Alvin​. Hydrothermal vents
are found at an average depth of about 7,000 feet and are essentially underwater
geysers created by tectonic plates. These huge plates in the Earth’s crust move
and create cracks in the ocean floor. Ocean water enters these cracks, is heated
up by the Earth’s magma, and then released through the hydrothermal vents,
along with minerals such as hydrogen sulfide. The water coming out of the
vents can reach incredible temperatures of up to 750 degrees F. Despite their
intimidating​ ​description,​ ​hundreds​ ​of​ ​species​ ​of​ ​marine​ ​life​​ ​thrive​ ​in​ ​this​ ​habitat.
Intertidal​ ​Zone
The ​intertidal zone is the area where land and sea meet. This zone is covered
with water at high tide, and exposed to air at low tide. The land in this zone can
be rocky, sandy or covered in mudflats. Within the intertidal, there are several
zones, starting near dry land with the splash zone, an area that is usually dry,
and moving down to the littoral zone, which is usually underwater. Within the
intertidal zone, you’ll find tide pools, puddles left in the rocks as water recedes
when​ ​the​ ​tide​ ​goes​ ​out.
The intertidal is home to a wide variety of organisms. Organisms in this zone
have many adaptations that allow them to survive in this challenging,
ever-changing​ ​environment.
Kelp​ ​Forests
Kelp forests occur in cold, nutrient-rich water and are among the most beautiful
and biologically productive habitats in the marine environment. They are found
throughout the world in shallow open coastal waters, and the larger forests are
restricted to temperatures less than 20ºC, extending to both the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles. A dependence upon light for photosynthesis restricts them to
clear shallow water and they are rarely much deeper than 15-40m. The kelps
have in common a capacity for some of the most remarkable growth rates in the
plant​ ​kingdom.
Mangroves
The term “​mangrove​” refers to a habitat comprised of a number of halophytic
(salt-tolerant) plant species, of which there are more than 12 families and 50
species worldwide. Mangroves grow in intertidal or estuarine areas. Mangrove
plants have a tangle of roots which are often exposed above water, leading to
the nickname “walking trees.” The roots of mangrove plants are adapted to filter
salt water, and their leaves can excrete salt, allowing them to survive where
other​ ​land​ ​plants​ ​cannot.
Mangroves are an important habitat, providing food, shelter and nursery areas
for​ ​fish,​ ​birds,​ ​crustaceans​ ​and​ ​other​ ​marine​ ​life.
Open​ ​Ocean
The open ocean, or pelagic zone, is the area of the ocean outside of coastal
areas, and where you’ll find some of the biggest marine life species. The pelagic
zone is separated into several subzones depending on water depth, and each
provide habitat for a variety of marine life. Marine life you’ll find in the pelagic
zone includes wide-ranging animals such as cetaceans, large fish such as bluefin
tuna​ ​and​ ​invertebrates​ ​such​ ​as​ ​jellyfish.
Rock​ ​Pools​ ​and​ ​Tide​ ​Pools
Tide pools are a unique and brutal habitat where the ocean meets the land. This
tidal zone is continually shaped by the actions of sun, wind, water, and rock.
The sun bears down, heating exposed surfaces and organisms. Winds blow and
contribute to the wave action, erosion, and drying of exposed plants and
animals.
Water in the form of waves endlessly pound at the rocks, constantly reshaping
the coastline. Rocks are pounded by the waves and loose stones and sand grind
into​ ​the​ ​shoreline.
Life is tough for plants and animals that live in tide pools. Here portions of the
shoreline are regularly covered and uncovered by the advance and retreat of the
tides. In order to survive, tide pool life forms must avoid being washed away by
the tidal waves, keep from drying out in the sunlight of low tide, and avoid
being​ ​eaten.
Tide pools are subdivided in four zones. They are the ​splash zone and ​high tide​,
mid-tide​,​ ​low​ ​tide​ ​areas.
Rocky​ ​Shore
Rocky shores are found all over the world. Marine plants and animals that live
along these rocky shores have adapted to a habitat that change every day. In the
intertidal zone​, water levels along rocky shore may drop 12 feet or more
between ​high and low tide. This means that organisms living on the rocks may
be exposed to the air for 10 hours or more between ​high tides (​spray zone​). And
when the tides roll in, these same organisms must be able to withstand the
waves​ ​which​ ​often​ ​hit​ ​them​ ​with​ ​incredible​ ​force.
Saltmarsh
Saltmarsh is found on the upper part of the mud, which the sea reaches only
when the tide is high. It is covered in plants that can cope with salt and with
being​ ​regularly ​ ​underwater.

Salt marshes start life as mudflats. In areas of sheltered water, like a harbour,
the sediment held in the water settles out and builds up. As plants arrive and
grow their roots help to stick the mud particles together and trap even more
sediment so​ ​the​ ​mudflats​ ​become​ ​more​ ​stable.​ ​As​ ​the​ ​mudflats​ ​build​ ​up,
different types of plants can grow and live there creating a salt marsh habitat
made up of blocks of flat low growing vegetation with narrow channels
between.
Sandy​ ​Beaches​ ​&​ ​Mud​ ​Flats
The sandy beach is a harsh, constantly changing environment. Waves and
currents build up and wash away sand. Plants and animals that live on the open
beaches must be adapted to living in a hot, exposed and fluctuating habitat.
Over a day their home has changes in salinity, water pressure, moisture, light,
oxygen and food availability. Not only is the change daily but months, seasons
and​ ​years​ ​shape​ ​and​ ​remake​ ​the​ ​open​ ​beach​ ​environment.
The most obvious things on the open beaches are the flotsam and jetsam, ie
dead material and rubbish. But there are many creatures living in the sand. What
lives on and under beaches depends on how the beaches are composed. Sand
particles vary in size, structure and mineral content. This in turn affects the
shape,​ ​colour​ ​and​ ​inhabitants,​ ​of​ ​the​ ​beach.
Mudflats are a very important habitat for all sorts of wildlife as well, especially
wading birds and wildfowl. The mud flat environment is full of nutrients and
also has a wonderful store of invertebrates, shellfish and other amazing
creatures (plankton) that are so small they must be looked at through a
microscope.
Seagrass
Seagrass is an angiosperm (flowering plant) that lives in a marine or brackish
environment. There are about 50 species of true seagrasses worldwide.
Seagrasses are found in protected coastal waters such as bays, lagoons, and
estuaries and in both temperate and tropical regions. Seagrasses attach to the
ocean bottom by thick roots and rhizomes, horizontal stems with shoots
pointing upward and roots pointing downward. Their roots help stabilize the
ocean​ ​bottom.
Seagrasses provide an important habitat to a number of organisms. Some use
seagrass beds as nursery areas, others seek shelter there their whole lives. Larger
animals such as manatees and sea turtles feed on animals that live in the
seagrass​ ​beds.
Seamounts
Seamounts are undersea mountains (usually of volcanic origin) rising from the
seafloor and peaking below sea level. A seamount tall enough to break the sea
surface is called an oceanic island, e.g., the islands of Hawaii, the Azores and
Bermuda​ ​were​ ​all​ ​underwater​ ​seamounts​ ​at​ ​some​ ​point​ ​in​ ​the​ ​past.
Sponge​ ​Gardens
These habitats flourish in shaded or deeper water as they are not dependent on
sunlight as algae and seagrasses. Not only do sponge gardens provide important
habitat for other animals, they are an important part of nutrient cycles in the
marine​ ​systems​ ​-​ ​filtering​ ​out​ ​particles​ ​and​ ​nutrients​ ​from​ ​the​ ​water​ ​as​ ​they​ ​feed.