REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS Tre ces ete) Describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the Penne a Comer ery TO ee es OE Understand how the developing embryo is protected by Ce eu Ea poe TOR Ee Se Understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in Po SOUT the development of secondary sexual characteristics PROS Renee aad Understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in POOR nce a ced POE a Ly Dea ay Bo UT Sai Te etsy In any method of reproduction, the end result is the production of more organisms of the same species. Humans produce more humans, pea plants produce more pea plants and salmonella bacteria produce more salmonella bacteria. However, the way in which they reproduce differs. There are two types of reproduction: sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, specialised sex cells called gametes are produced. There are usually two types, a mobile male gamete called a sperm and a ~ stationary female gamete called an egg cell or ovum (plural ova). The sperm must move to the egg and fuse (join) with it, This is called fertilisation (Figure 9.1). The single cell formed by fertilisation is called a zygote. This cell will divide many times by mitosis to form all the cells of the new animal, In asexual reproduction, there are no specialised gametes and there is no fertilisation. Instead, cells in one part of the body divide by mitosis to form a structure that breaks away from the parent body and grows into a new organism, Not ‘many animals reproduce in this way. Figure 9.2 Figure 91 A sperm fertising an 299 shows Hycia (a small animal similar to jellyfish) reproducing by budding. Cells in the body wall divide to form a small version ofthe adult. This eventually breaks off and becomes a free-living individuals preduced asexually tom the Hydra. One animal may produce several ‘buds’ ‘same adult organism are called clones. ina short space of time. Figure 9.2 Hyara reproducing asexally by buddingDera Ges 105 Al the offspring produced from Hydra buds are genetically identical - they have exactly the same genes. Ths is because all the cells of the new series aratcoarcherecteristc individual are produced by mitosis from just one cell in the body of the aduit. Scteatltal Greene Cinclbiiis! When cells divide by mitosis, the new cells that are producad are exact copies Fucleus of acell on the chromosomes _of the original cell (see Chapter 17 for a description of mitosis). As a result, (0 Chapter 18). all the cells of an organism that are produced asexually have the same genes as the cell that produced them ~ the original adult cell. So all asexually produced offspring from one adult will have the same genes as the cells of the adult. They will all be genetic copies of that adult and so will be identical to each other. Asexual reproduction is useful to a species when the environment in which ives is relatively stable. If an organism is well adapted to this stable environment, asexual reproduction will produce offspring that are also well adapted. However, if the environment changes significant, then all the individuals will be affected equally by the change. It may be such a dramatic cchange that none of the individuals are adapted well enough to survive. The species will die out in that area. ] SexuaLRePRooucTiON ba There are four stages in any method of sexual reproduction. '= Gametes (sperm and egg cells) are produced. = The male gamete (sperm) is transferred to the female gamete (egg cel. ‘= Fertilisation must occur ~ the sperm fuses with the egg. 1m The zygote formed develops into a new individual. The offspring produced by sexual reproduction show a great deal of genetic variation as a result of both gamete production and fertilisation. J ProoUcTION OF GAMETES ASB ‘Sperm are produced in the male sex organs - the testes. Eggs are produced in the female sex organs ~ the ovaries. Both are produced when cells inside these organs divide. These cells do not divide by mitosis but by meiosis (see Chapter 17). Meiosis produces cells that are not genetically identical and have only half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. Col that fv the rer of dromosomes ere cal plot cfs Co thet Se es aeuan ap ‘Sperm are specialised for swimming. They have a tal-ike flagellum that moves them through a fluid. Figure 9.3 shows the structure of a sperm. ‘Some male animals, such as those of most fish, release their sperm into the water in which they live. The female animals release their eggs into the water and the sperm then swim through the water to fertilise the eggs. This is called externa fertilisation as it takes place outside the body. Before the release takes place, there is usually some mating behaviour to ensure that male and female are in the same place at the same time. This gives the best chance of fertilisation occurring before water currents sweep the sex cells away.Red blood cells are exceptions. SSR Sia eae ued 2c of enzymes to ead penetrate membrane around egg mmic-piece nucleus mitochondria to release energy for movernent tail (fagotur) for propulsion ‘A. Figure 9.3 The structure of a sperm Other male animals, such as those of birds and mammals, ejaculate their ‘sperm in a special fluid into the bodies of the females. Interna! fertilisation then takes place inside the female's body. Fertilisation is much more likely as there are no external factors to prevent the sperm from reaching the eggs. Some form of sexual intercourse precedes ejaculation. ‘Once the sperm has reached the egg, its nucleus must enter the egg ‘and fuse with the egg nucleus. As each gamete has only half the normal number of chromosomes, the zygote formed by fertilisation will have the full number of chromosomes. In humans, the sperm and egg each have only 23, ‘chromosomes. The zygote has 46 chromosomes, lke all other cells in the body. Figure 9.4 shows the main stages in fertilisation. ‘Sperm approach the eg9. ‘An extra membrane (the feriisation membrane) now prevents any more ‘sperm trom entering. ‘This sperm penetrates The sperm nuctous the cell membrane: and ogg nucleus fuse. ‘the sperm nucleus enters. A. Figure 94 The main stages in fertilisation Fertilisation does more than just restore the diploid chromosome number; it provides an additional source of genetic variation. The sperm and eggs are all genetically different because they are formed by meiosis. Therefore, each time fertilisation takes place, it brings together a different combination of genes.Eee rep Each zygote that is formed must divide to produce all the cells that will make up the adult. All these cells must have the full number of chromosomes, 50 the zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis. Figure 9.5 shows the importance of meiosis, mitosis and fertilisation in the human life cycle. ‘adult female Abate ave 20 All cells have 46 ‘chromosomes. paldied ln nucious Gipioi. (Giplod). ‘sperm cell Both have only 23, egg cell re ee ‘chromosomes | inovary in nucleus p (haploid). Zygote has 46 chromosomes in nucleus (@in.0«) All cells in the baby have 46 chromosomes Innuclous plod. ‘A Figure 9.5 The importance of meiosis, mitosis and fertilisation in the human life cycle. Mitosis is not the only process involved in development, otherwise all that ‘would be produced would be a ball of cells. During the process, cells move around and different shaped structures are formed. Also, different cells, specialise to become bone cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, and so on (the process called differentiation). REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS Humans reproduce sexually and fertilisation is internal. Figures 9.6 and 9.7, ‘show the structure of the human female and male reproductive systems. ‘The sperm are produced in the testes by meiosis. During sexual intercourse, they pass along the sperm duct and are mixed with a fluid from the seminal vesicles. This mixture, called semen, is ejaculated through the urethra into the vagina of the female. The sperm then begin to swim towards the oviducts.aT) Side view wom vagina sperm a ct crete tissue urethea penis ——, tests “scrotum ‘A Figure 9:7 The human male reproductive system, umbilical core G placenta (uterus funnel of oviduct blader ovary conic front pebis rectum UCTION IN HUMAN: Front vw Oviduct takes utous (early development 209 rom ovary occurs here) touterus ovary (pcoduces e995) lganion whieh ‘muscular wall hos ovary of womb ‘conv A. Figure 9.6 The human female reproductive system. Each month, an egg is released into an oviduct from one of the ovaries. (The ‘oviduct is also known as the Fallopian tube.) This is called ovulation. if an 99 Is present in the oviduct, then it may be fertilised by sperm introduced during intercourse. The zygote formed will begin to develop into an embryo, ‘which will implant in the lining of the uterus. Here, the embryo will develop a placenta, which will allow the embryo to obtain materials such as oxygen land nutrients from the mother's blood. It also allows the embryo to get rid of waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide, as well as anchoring the ‘embryo in the uterus. The placenta secretes female hormones, in particular progesterone, which maintain the pregnancy and prevent the embryo from aborting (being rejected by the mother's body). Figure 9.8 shows the structure and position of the placenta, umbical vein (carries oxygenated ood containing rtrints from placenta to fetus) membrane seating blood of mother and fetus (baby) ‘A. Figure 9.8 The positon ofthe fetus just before bith, andthe structure of the placenta.nea DID YOU KNOW? Just before birth, the fetus takes up so much room that ‘many of the mother’s organs are ‘moved out of position. The heart is pushed upwards and rotates so that the base points towards the left breast. 1 Baby's head pushes corvix; mucous lug cislodges and waters break A. Figure 9.9 The stages of birth DID YOU KNOW? Sperm production is most efficient at a temperature of about 34°C, just below the core body temperature (37 °C). This is why the testes are outside the body in the scrotum, where the temperature isa little lower. Cen During pregnancy, a membrane called the amnion encloses the developing ‘embryo. The amnion secretes a fluid called amniotic fluid, which protects the developing embryo against sudden movements and bumps. As the embryo develops, it becomes more and more complex. When it becomes recognisably human, we no longer call it an embryo but a fetus. At the end of nine months of development, there just isn’t any room left for the fetus to grow and it sends a hormonal ‘signal’ to the mother to begin the birth process. Figure 9.8 also shows the position of a human fetus just before birth, There are three stages to the birth of a child 1. Dilation of the cervix. The cervix is the ‘neck’ of the uterus. It gets wider to allow the baby to pass through. The muscles of the uterus contract quite strongly and tears the amnion, allowing the amniotic fluid to escape. (In ‘some countries the woman describes this as ‘her waters have broken’) 2. Delivery of the baby. Strong contractions of the muscles of the uterus push the baby’s head through the cervix and then through the vagina to the outside world. 8. Delivery of the afterbirth. After the baby has been born, the uterus continues to contract and pushes the placenta out, together with the membranes that surrounded the baby. These are known as the afterbirth. Figure 9.9 shows the stages of birth. 2 Uterus contracts to push baby fut through the vagina. '3 Tho placenta becomes dotachod from the wall of the uterus and is expelied through the vagina asthe ater, SS eal ena Most animals are unable to reproduce when they are young. We say that they are sexually immature. When a baby is born, it is recognisable as a boy or girl by its sex organs. ‘The presence of male or female sex organs is known as the primary sex characteristics. During their teens, changes happen to boys and girls that ead to sexual maturity. These changes are controlled by hormones, and. the time when they happen is called puberty. Puberty involves two developments. The first is that the gametes (eggs and sperm) start to mature land be released. The second is that the bodies of both sexes adapt to allow reproduction to take place. These events are started by hormones released by the pituitary gland, In boys, these pituitary hormones stimulate sperm production and instruct the testes to secrete the male sex hormone, testosterone. Testosterone controls the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics. These include growth of the penis and testes, growth of facial and body hair, muscle 109Oa ag CES) development and breaking of the voice (Table 9.1) In girls, the pituitary hormones control the release of a female sex hormone called oestrogen, from the ovaries. Oestrogen produces the female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and the beginning of menstruation (‘periods’) Table 91 Changes at puberty sperm production starts the menstrual cycle begins, and eggs ae released bythe ovaries every month ‘growth and development of male sexual organs ‘fowth and development of female sexual organs ‘growth of armpit and pubic hal, and chest and facial har (beard) growth of armpit and pubic hair Increase in body mass; row of musces, e.g. chest Ierease in body mass; development of rounded” shape to hips woice braks voice doopens without sudden ‘breaking’ senual ‘dive! develops sexual ‘drive’ develops breasts develop “The age when puberty takes place can vary a lot, but itis usually between about 11 and 14 years in girs and 13 and 16 years in boys. It takes several years for puberty to be completed. Some of the most complex changes take place in girls, with the start of menstruation. eae ig fenstrua’ means ‘monthly’ and in most women the me cycle takes about a month, although itcan vary from as litle as two weeks to as long as six weeks (Figures 9.10 and 9.11). Inthe middle of the cycle is an event called ‘ovulation, which is the release of a mature egg cell, or egg. sss — Src Serra oe Se as ee tng ~ saat = | Fine ‘owlation: 699 shed trom ovary ‘A Figure 9.10 The menstrual eycleTe ‘oestrogen | progesterone seen = a ee Sa eo voce a) oe @Go ° growth of ing coe “4 Figure 9.11 Changes taking piace during the menstrual cycle ‘One function of the cycle is to control the development of the lining of the Uterus (womb), so that if the egg is fertilised, the lining will be ready to receive the fertilised egg. If the egg is not fertilised, the lining of the uterus is lost from the woman's body as the flow of menstrual blood and cells of the lining, called period. ‘Acycle is a continuous process, so it doesn't really have a beginning, but the first day of menstruation is usually called day 1 Inside a woman's ovaries are hundreds of thousands of cells that could ‘develop into mature eggs. Every month, one of these grows inside a ball of cals called a follicle (Figure 9.12), At the middle of the cycle (about day 14) the follicle moves towards the edge of the ovary and the egg is released as the follicle bursts open. This is the moment of ovulation DID YOU KNOW? small percentage of women are able to sense the exact moment that ovulation happens, as the egg bursts out of an ovary. A. Figure 9.12 Eggs developing inside the folicles ofan ovary The large follicle contains a fully ‘developed egg ready for ovulation.Lisi) ES While this is going on, the lining of the uterus has been repaired after menstruation, and has thickened. This change is brought about by the hormone oestrogen, which is secreted by the ovaries. After the egg has been released, it travels down the oviduct to the uterus. It is here in the oviduct that fertilisation may happen, if sexual intercourse has taken place. What's left of the follicle now forms a structure in the ovary called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum makes another hormone called progesterone. Progesterone completes the development of the uterus lining, by thickening and maintaining it, ready for the fertilised egg to sink into it and develop into an embryo. If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down and stops making progesterone. The lining of the uterus then passes out through the woman’s vagina during menstruation. If, however, the egg is fertilised, the corpus luteum carries on making progesterone, the lining is not shed, and menstruation doesn’t happen. The first sign that tells a woman she is pregnant is when her monthly periods stop. Later on in pregnancy, the placenta secretes progesterone, taking over the role of the corpus luteum.