SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER

Bismah Tayyab
Lecturer
Institute of Psychology (BNU)
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER

➔ Specific learning disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a

biological origin that is the basis for abnormalities at a cognitive level
that are associated with the behavioral signs of the disorder.

➔ The biological origin includes an interaction of genetic, epigenetic,

and environmental factors, which affect the brain’s ability to perceive
or process verbal or nonverbal information efficiently and accurately.

➔ Specific learning disorder may also occur in individuals identified as

intellectually “gifted.”
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER

➔ Learning difficulties are considered “specific” for four reasons:

1. They are not better explained by other disorders.
a. Specific learning disorder affects learning in individuals who otherwise
demonstrate normal levels of intellectual functioning (generally estimated by an
IQ score of greater than about 70 [± 5 points allowing for measurement error]).
b. The phrase “unexpected academic underachievement” is often cited as the
defining characteristic.
2. The learning difficulty cannot be attributed to more general external factors,
such as economic or environmental disadvantage, chronic absenteeism, or lack
of education as typically provided in the individual’s community context.
3. The learning difficulty cannot be attributed to neurological (e.g., pediatric
stroke) or motor disorders or to vision or hearing disorders, which are often
associated with problems learning academic skills but are distinguishable by
presence of neurological signs.
4. The learning difficulty may be restricted to one academic skill or domain (e.g.,
reading single words, retrieving or calculating number facts).
 Prevalence

➔ The prevalence of specific learning disorder across the

academic domains of reading, writing, and mathematics
is 5%–15% among school-age children.

➔ Prevalence in adults is unknown.

➔ Specific learning disorder is more common in males than

in females (ratios range from about 2:1 to 3:1).
 Etiology

Genetic Factors
➔ Specific learning disorder appears to aggregate in families, particularly when affecting
reading, mathematics, and spelling. The relative risk of specific learning disorder in reading
or mathematics is substantially higher (e.g., 4–8 times and 5–10 times higher, respectively)
in first-degree relatives of individuals with these learning difficulties compared with those
without them.
◆ Notably, rates vary depending on method of ascertainment (objective testing or
self-report) of parent diagnostic status.
➔ Family history of reading difficulties (dyslexia) and parental literacy skills predict literacy
problems or specific learning disorder in offspring, indicating the combined role of genetic
and environmental factors.
➔ There is high heritability for both reading ability and reading disability in alphabetic and non
alphabetic languages, including high heritability for most manifestations of learning abilities
and disabilities.
➔ Covariation between various manifestations of learning difficulties is high, suggesting that
genes related to one presentation are highly correlated with genes related to another
manifestation.
➔ Moreover, concordance rates are higher for identical than for fraternal twins.
 Etiology

Environmental Factors

➔ Environmental factors, including socioeconomic conditions (e.g., low

socioeconomic status) and exposure to neurotoxicants, increase the risk for
specific learning disorder or difficulties in reading and mathematics.
➔ Risks for specific learning disorder or difficulties in reading and mathematics
include prenatal or early-life exposure to any of the following: air pollution,
nicotine, polybrominated diphenyl ethers or polychlorinated biphenyls (flame
retardants), lead, or manganese.
 Etiology

Physiological Factors
➔ Preterm delivery or very low birthweight is a risk for specific learning
disorder.
➔ In individuals with neurofibromatosis type 1, risk of specific learning disorder
is high, with up to 75% of individuals demonstrating a learning disorder.
➔ Neurological theories state that specific learning disorder is a reflection of
structural damage or improper development of the nervous system which
could occur during the prenatal or neonatal period, as the nervous system is
developing.
➔ Alternatively, head injury, lack of oxygen, seizures, alterations in blood flow,
exposure to toxins, and nutrition all may contribute to these
structural-neurological problems.
◆ Empirical support comes from studies indicating EEG abnormalities in
some children with specific learning disorder.
◆ Furthermore, brain damage is often associated with reading disability
(Golfand et al., 1988; Sattler, 1990).
 Etiology

Psychological Factors
➔ Psychological theories propose that environmental factors that affect the
behavior, motivation, and thought processes of the child interfere with
learning.
◆ For example, the family may devalue education, or educational success
may not be rewarded (or may be punished out of control issues or
jealousy) in the family.
◆ Alternatively, the child may live in an impoverished environment,
resulting in a delay in cognitive development.
➔ Extreme stress may interfere with attention, memory, and motivation. Sattler
(1990) summarizes research support showing that environmental factors
such as SES, family size, school, parental education, family conflict, and
motivation are related to academic performance.
➔ Furthermore, children with specific learning disorders have more behavioral
problems perhaps contributing to or causing the learning disability.
ASSESSMENT

➔ Cognitive Assessment
● Wechsler IQ tests (WAIS-R, WISC)
● Wechsler Individual Achievement Test

➔ Behavioral Assessment
● Child Behavior Checklist
● Conners’ Rating Scale

➔ Syndrome Specific Test

● Bendor Dyslexia Test
● Learning Disability Diagnostic Inventory
TREATMENT

➔ Special Education Planning

1) Referral to educational psychologist
2) IEP
3) Resource room
4) Access to tutor
5) Educational accommodations and/or modifications

➔ Behavior Therapy

➔ Psychotherapy
 References

American Psychological Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders -

text revision (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Comer, R. J. (2015). Abnormal psychology (9th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Kronenberger, W.G., & Meyer, R.G. (1996). The child clinician’s handbook. Needham Heights, MA:

Allyn & Bacon.

Thank you
Any questions?