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Finite Element Method
Finite Element Method
Physics and Solution Methods

Sinan Müftü
Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Northeastern University, Boston, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

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Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research
and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
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methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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This book is dedicated to my family

Lynne, Serra, and Emre

Yunus, Gülgün, and Ali
Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgment xix

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Modeling and simulation 1
1.1.1 Boundary and initial value problems 1
1.1.2 Boundary value problems 3
1.2 Solution methods 5

2. Mathematical modeling of physical systems 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Governing equations of structural mechanics 9
2.2.1 External forces, internal forces, and stress 9
2.2.2 Stress transformations 12
2.2.3 Deformation and strain 17
2.2.4 Strain compatibility conditions 21
2.2.5 Generalized Hooke’s law 22
2.2.6 Two-dimensional problems 27
2.2.7 Balance laws 30
2.2.8 Boundary conditions 32
2.2.9 Total potential energy of conservative systems 36
2.3 Mechanics of a flexible beam 41
2.3.1 Equation of motion of a beam 43
2.3.2 Kinematics of the Euler–Bernoulli beam 45
2.3.3 Stresses in an Euler-Bernoulli beam 46
2.3.4 Kinematics of the Timoshenko beam 47
2.3.5 Stresses in a Timoshenko Beam 48
2.3.6 Governing equations of the Euler–Bernoulli beam
theory 48
2.3.7 Governing equations of the Timoshenko beam theory 49
2.4 Heat transfer 50
2.4.1 Conduction heat transfer 50
2.4.2 Convection heat transfer 51
2.4.3 Radiation heat transfer 51
2.4.4 Heat transfer equation in a one-dimensional solid 53
2.4.5 Heat transfer in a three-dimensional solid 56

vii
viii Contents

2.5 Problems 58
References 59

3. Integral formulations and variational methods 61

3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Mathematical background 63
3.2.1 Divergence theorem 63
3.2.2 Green-Gauss theorem 63
3.2.3 Integration by parts 64
3.2.4 Fundamental lemma of calculus of variations 64
3.2.5 Adjoint and self-adjoint operators 64
3.3 Calculus of variations 65
3.3.1 Variation of a functional 66
3.3.2 Functional derivative 67
3.3.3 Properties of functionals 68
3.3.4 Properties of the variational derivative 69
3.3.5 Euler–Lagrange equations and boundary conditions 69
3.4 Weighted residual integral and the weak form of the
boundary value problems 74
3.4.1 Weighted residual integral 74
3.4.2 Boundary conditions 75
3.4.3 The weak form 76
3.4.4 Relationship between the weak form and functionals 77
3.5 Method of weighted residuals 85
3.5.1 Rayleigh–Ritz method 86
3.5.2 Galerkin method 87
3.5.3 Polynomials as basis functions for Rayleigh–Ritz
and Galerkin methods 87
3.6 Problems 104
References 109

4. Finite element formulation of one-dimensional

boundary value problems 111
4.1 Introduction 111
4.1.1 Boundary value problem 111
4.1.2 Spatial discretization 112
4.2 A second order, nonconstant coefficient ordinary
differential equation over an element 113
4.2.1 Deflection of a one-dimensional bar 113
4.2.2 Heat transfer in a one-dimensional domain 114
4.3 One-dimensional interpolation for finite element method
and shape functions 114
4.3.1 C0 continuous, linear shape functions 115
4.3.2 C0 continuous, quadratic shape functions 117
 Contents ix

4.3.3 General form of C0 shape functions 118

4.3.4 One-dimensional, Lagrange interpolation functions 119
4.4 Equilibrium equations in finite element form 120
4.4.1 Element stiffness matrix for constant problem
parameters 123
4.4.2 Element stiffness matrix for linearly varying problem
parameters a, p, and q 124
4.5 Recovering specific physics from the general finite
element form 124
4.6 Element assembly 125
4.7 Boundary conditions 128
4.7.1 Natural boundary conditions 128
4.7.2 Essential boundary conditions 129
4.8 Computer implementation 130
4.8.1 Main-code 130
4.8.2 Element connectivity table 130
4.8.3 Element assembly 130
4.8.4 Boundary conditions 131
4.9 Example problem 131
4.10 Problems 133

5. Finite element analysis of planar bars and trusses 139

5.1 Introduction 139
5.2 Element equilibrium equation for a planar bar 141
5.2.1 Problem definition 141
5.2.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 141
5.2.3 Total potential energy of the system 142
5.2.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an elastic bar 143
5.3 Finite element equations for torsion of a bar 147
5.4 Coordinate transformations 148
5.4.1 Transformation of unit vectors between orthogonal
coordinate systems 148
5.4.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
one-dimensional bar element 149
5.5 Assembly of elements 151
5.6 Boundary conditions 155
5.6.1 A formal definition 156
5.6.2 Direct assembly of the active degrees of freedom 158
5.6.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 158
5.7 Effects of initial stress or initial strain 165
5.7.1 Thermal stresses 165
5.7.2 Initial stresses 166
5.8 Postprocessing: Computation of stresses and reaction forces 166
5.8.1 Computation of stresses in members 166
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x Contents

5.8.2 Reaction forces 167

5.9 Error and convergence in finite element analysis 172
Problems 177
Reference 185

6. Euler–Bernoulli beam element 187

6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 C1 -Continuous interpolation function 187
6.3 Element equilibrium equation 189
6.3.1 Problem definition 189
6.3.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 189
6.3.3 Total potential energy of a beam element 191
6.3.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 192
6.4 General beam element with membrane and bending
capabilities 195
6.5 Coordinate transformations 196
6.5.1 Vector transformation between orthogonal
coordinate systems in a two-dimensional plane 196
6.5.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
Euler-Bernoulli beam element with axial deformation 197
6.6 Assembly, boundary conditions, and reaction forces 198
6.7 Postprocessing and computation of stresses in members 198
Problems 206
Reference 209

7. Isoparametric elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 211
7.1 Introduction 211
7.2 Solution domain and its boundary 213
7.2.1 Outward unit normal and tangent vectors along
the boundary 213
7.3 Equations of equilibrium for two-dimensional elastic solids 215
7.4 General finite element form of equilibrium equations for
a two-dimensional element 216
7.4.1 Variational form of the equation of equilibrium 217
7.4.2 Finite element form of the equation of equilibrium 218
7.5 Interpolation across a two-dimensional domain 221
7.5.1 Two-dimensional polynomials 221
7.5.2 Two-dimensional shape functions 223
7.6 Mapping between general quadrilateral and rectangular
domains 229
7.6.1 Jacobian matrix and Jacobian determinant 230
7.6.2 Differential area in curvilinear coordinates 233
7.7 Mapped isoparametric elements 239
7.7.1 Strain–displacement operator matrix, [B] 238
 Contents xi

7.7.2 Finite element form of the element equilibrium

equations for a Q4-element 240
7.8 Numerical integration using Gauss quadrature 245
7.8.1 Coordinate transformation 245
7.8.2 Derivation of second-order Gauss quadrature 246
7.8.3 Integration of two-dimensional functions by Gauss
quadrature 248
7.9 Numerical evaluation of the element equilibrium equations 250
7.10 Global equilibrium equations and boundary conditions 252
7.10.1 Assembly of global equilibrium equation 252
7.10.2 General treatment of the boundary conditions 253
7.10.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 254
7.11 Postprocessing of the solution 254
References 255

8. Rectangular and triangular elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 257
8.1 Introduction 257
8.1.1 Total potential energy of an element for a
two-dimensional elasticity problem 259
8.1.2 High-level derivation of the element equilibrium
equations 260
8.2 Two-dimensional interpolation functions 262
8.2.1 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
quadrilateral elements 262
8.2.2 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
triangular elements 263
8.3 Bilinear rectangular element (Q4) 264
8.3.1 Element stiffness matrix 264
8.3.2 Consistent nodal force vector 267
8.4 Constant strain triangle (CST) element 273
8.5 Element defects 275
8.5.1 Constant strain triangle element 275
8.5.2 Bilinear rectangle (Q4) 277
8.6 Higher order elements 277
8.6.1 Quadratic triangle (linear strain triangle) 277
8.6.2 Q8 quadratic rectangle 278
8.6.3 Q9 quadratic rectangle 279
8.6.4 Q6 quadratic rectangle 280
8.7 Assembly, boundary conditions, solution, and postprocessing 282
References 290

9. Finite element analysis of one-dimensional heat

transfer problems 291
9.1 Introduction 291
9.2 One-dimensional heat transfer 291
xii Contents

9.2.1 Boundary conditions for one-dimensional heat

transfer 292
9.3 Finite element formulation of the one-dimensional,
steady state, heat transfer problem 293
9.3.1 Element equilibrium equations for a generic
one-dimensional element 294
9.3.2 Finite element form with linear interpolation 299
9.4 Element equilibrium equations: general ordinary
differential equation 300
9.5 Element assembly 302
9.6 Boundary conditions 305
9.6.1 Natural boundary conditions 305
9.6.2 Essential boundary conditions 306
9.7 Computer implementation 307
Problems 309

10. Heat transfer problems in two-dimensions 313

10.1 Introduction 313
10.2 Solution domain and its boundary 313
10.3 The heat equation and its boundary conditions 315
10.3.1 Boundary conditions for heat transfer in
two-dimensional domain 315
10.4 The weak form of heat transfer equation in two dimensions 316
10.5 The finite element form of the two-dimensional heat transfer
problem 318
10.5.1 Finite element form with linear, quadrilateral
(Q4) element 320
10.6 Natural boundary conditions 323
10.6.1 Internal edges 324
10.6.2 External edges subjected to prescribed heat flux 324
10.6.3 External edges subjected to convection 326
10.6.4 External edges subjected to radiation 327
10.7 Summary of finite element form of the heat equation and
natural boundary conditions 328
10.8 Numerical integration of element equilibrium equations 329
10.9 Element assembly 331
10.10 Imposing the essential boundary conditions 332
10.10.1 Symbolic representation of essential boundary
conditions 333
10.10.2 Numerical implementation of essential boundary
conditions 333
Problems 340
Reference 341

11. Transient thermal analysis 343

11.1 Introduction 343
11.2 Transient heat transfer equation 344
 Contents xiii

11.2.1 Boundary/initial value problem 344

11.2.2 Element equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 345
11.2.3 Global equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 348
11.2.4 Global boundary conditions 348
11.3 Finite difference approximations to derivatives 348
11.3.1 Temporal discretization of a continuous function 348
11.3.2 Taylor series expansion 349
11.3.3 Approximations to the first derivative of a function 349
11.4 Direct time integration of the heat transfer equation 351
11.4.1 Forward difference or Euler method 351
11.4.2 Backward difference method 352
11.4.3 Central difference or Crank–Nicholson method 353
11.4.4 Generalized trapezoidal method 353
11.5 Solution algorithm 355
11.5.1 Explicit and implicit time integration methods 356
11.6 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 358
11.6.1 Modal expansion of the semidiscrete first-order
equation 359
11.6.2 Stability of the semidiscretized first-order equation 360
11.6.3 Modal expansion of the generalized trapezoidal
algorithm 361
11.6.4 Stability of the generalized trapezoidal algorithm 361
11.6.5 Fourier–von Neumann stability analysis of the
generalized trapezoidal method 362
11.6.6 Consistency and rate of convergence 366
References 376

12. Transient analysis of solids and structures 377

12.1 Introduction 377
12.2 Vibration of single degree of freedom systems 378
12.2.1 Free vibrations: complementary solution 379
12.2.2 Response to harmonic excitations: particular
solution 382
12.2.3 Combined response: complimentary and
particular solutions 384
12.2.4 Transient vibration 385
12.3 Initial/boundary value problems for deformable solids 386
12.3.1 Two-dimensional deformable solid 386
12.3.2 One-dimensional bar 387
12.3.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam 387
12.4 Vibration response of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 388
12.4.1 Eigenvalue problem 389
12.4.2 Free vibration problem 391
12.5 Semidiscrete equations of motion 394
xiv Contents

12.5.1 Two-dimensional deformable element 394

12.5.2 One-dimensional elastic bar element 396
12.5.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam element 398
12.6 Mass matrix 400
12.6.1 Consistent mass matrices 400
12.6.2 Lumped mass matrix 402
12.7 Damping matrix 403
12.8 Global equation of motion 405
12.9 Analytical analysis of vibration of semidiscrete systems 405
12.9.1 Eigenvalue problem for the semidiscrete equation
of motion 406
12.9.2 Orthogonality of the eigenvectors 414
12.9.3 Response to initial excitations by modal analysis 415
12.10 Direct time integration of the equation of motion of a solid 421
12.10.1 Central finite difference approximations:
explicit time integration 423
12.10.2 Linear and average acceleration methods:
implicit time integration 424
12.10.3 Newmark’s method for direct time integration 426
12.10.4 α-Method for direct time integration 428
12.10.5 Initial conditions 430
12.10.6 Solution algorithm 430
12.11 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 431
12.11.1 Stability of the explicit method 431
12.11.2 Stability and consistency of the Newmark and
α-methods 435
Problems 440
References 444

Appendix A MATLAB 445

Appendix B Guidelines for writing a finite element code in MATLAB 459
Appendix C Finite element analysis with ANSYS 475
Appendix D ANSYS tutorial: beam and bar elements 483
Appendix E ANSYS tutorial: two-dimensional linear elastic analysis 499
Appendix F ANSYS tutorial: thermomechanical deformation 503
Index 515
Preface

This book comes out of teaching graduate level finite element method and
applied mechanics courses over the last two decades at Northeastern University.
One of the major goals in writing this book is to convey to the reader that the
physical models, the solution methods, and the results are inseparable parts of
analysis. The knowledge in these areas is spread over many excellent textbooks
including references [1–9] in the finite element literature, [10–18] in the mechan-
ics literature, [19–23] in the engineering mathematics literature, and [24–25] in
the heat transfer literature, among others. I have drawn upon these textbooks and
my own derivations in preparing this book which aims for a unified presentation
between the two covers.
Having a good grasp of the underlying physics of a problem, its mathematical
representation, and the capabilities and the limitations of the solution methods
is necessary to setup the problems and to interpret the results effectively. I
hope that this book will help guide the users of the finite element codes to
have a holistic view in their analysis. This book also aims to provide detailed
background information on the development of the finite element method with
a target audience who is interested to develop their own codes for engineering
research.
All physical systems in the realm addressed by finite element analysis can be
represented by boundary/initial value problems. In this book, we primarily focus
on the solution of one- and two-dimensional linear elasticity and heat transfer
problems. Extension of these solution techniques to three-dimensional analysis
is straight forward, therefore it is not addressed here to preserve the clarity of
presentation and avoid repetition. A chapter is dedicated at the beginning to the
detailed derivation of the boundary/initial value problems in heat transfer and
elasticity. Chapter 2 is intended to serve as a reference for not only this book,
but also for those who want a concise review of these topics.
The finite element method falls under the general umbrella of variational
methods. The connections between the classical variational techniques and
the finite element method are introduced in Chapters 3 and 4. The former is
dedicated to a brief introduction to variational calculus followed by two classical
variational methods: the Rayleigh–Ritz and Galerkin. In Chapter 4, we develop
the Rayleigh–Ritz-based finite element method for the solution of the boundary
value problems governed by self-adjoint ordinary differential equations. Here,
and in the rest of the book, the finite element method is developed as a natural

xv
xvi Preface

extension of the Rayleigh–Ritz method and the boundary value problem is

defined over a subsegment (element) of the solution domain.
Chapters 5 and 6 develop the finite element form of the boundary value
problems that represent the deformation of bars and Euler–Bernoulli beams,
respectively. These chapters are extended to analysis of two-dimensional trusses
and frames, respectively. Chapters 4–6 are foundational in all aspects of solving
an engineering problem by using finite element method, with topics ranging from
the physical model to element derivation, element assembly, imposing boundary
conditions, and postprocessing.
Chapter 7 gives a detailed account of solution of two-dimensional linear
elasticity problems by using isoparametric elements. In Chapter 8, an analysis of
two-dimensional finite element method is provided for rectangular and simple
triangular elements much like in reference [3]. Chapter 9 introduces the finite
element method for the solution of one-dimensional, steady state heat transfer
problems. This is extended to two-dimensional heat transfer problems by using
isoparametric formulation in Chapter 10.
Chapters 4–10 of the book are involved with setup and solution of boundary
value problems at steady state. Solution methods for problems in which transient
effects are significant are introduced in Chapters 11 and 12 for parabolic and
hyperbolic systems for heat transfer and solid mechanics problems, respectively.
Derivation of the finite difference approximations to the derivative operators;
direct time integration methods for the heat transfer (parabolic) problems;
and their convergence, stability, and accuracy characteristics are presented in
Chapter 11. Transient analysis methods for solids and structures are presented in
Chapter 12. In addition to the derivation of the semidiscrete equation of motion
by finite element method, this chapter includes comprehensive treatments of
vibration of single- and multidegree of freedom systems and solution approaches
to the transient problems with modal, as well as direct time integration methods.
This book is written for an audience who wants to write their own finite ele-
ment codes, who wants to use commercially available finite element programs,
and who wants to make informed choices on element types, solution conver-
gence, and in-depth understanding of physical models. The target audience for
the first part of the book is the first-year graduate students. A one semester
course can be delivered by using Chapters 1–6 and 8. The target audience for
the second part of the book is graduate students in their second-year or higher.
A one semester course can be delivered for this group by using Chapters 7
and 9–12.
Examples in the book have been prepared by using Mathematica and by finite
element programs written in MATLAB. Appendix A provides a summary of
the MATLAB functions I find useful to write a finite element program. Two of
the MATLAB-based finite element programs used in the book are provided in
Appendix B. We also provide extensive instructions on using the commercially
available finite element analysis program ANSYS Mechanical APDL for one-
and two-dimensional solid mechanics and heat transfer problems. These include
 Preface xvii

step-by-step instructions to use the program from the graphical user interface and
a summary of how to prepare input macros with the ANSYS Parametric Design
Language (APDL). Several APDL macros are also provided.
Acknowledgments

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many people who helped me
along the way and who were influential in writing of this book in one fashion or
another. Many of the students who were in ME 5657 and ME 7275 at North-
eastern University asked many deep, penetrating questions to help me focus
on the details and pointed out typos and early mistakes. I had many enjoyable
discussions about the topic and the course with my former graduate students
Dr. Dinçer Bozkaya, Dr. Ernesto Lopez, Dr. Hsuan-Yu Chou, Dr. Qian Sheng,
Dr. Hankang Yang, Dr. Soroush Irandoust, and Dr. Runyang Zhang who were
teaching assistants during different periods. Dr. Tuğçe Kaşıkçı was the one who
pointed out the obvious by asking “why don’t these notes have any examples?”
This book was written during trying times for humanity when the Covid-19
epidemic was raging around the World and for me personally. I would like
to thank the editors at Elsevier, Mr. Brian Guerin and Mr. Rafael Guilherme
Trombaco, for their patience and understanding with the delays. Mr. Sojan
Pazhayattil for the excellent typesetting. Ms. Berin Üçyiğit was my eighth and
ninth grade mathematics teacher at Tevfik Fikret Lisesi in Ankara, Turkey. I am
grateful to her for the love of mathematics and geometry I developed under her
tutelage.
Finally, I would like to thank my family. My father instilled the sense of right
and wrong in me and my mother provided for me and my brother after he passed
away. She showed both of us the value of never giving up. I am grateful to both
for their love and for the opportunities they provided us. Lastly, I would like
to thank my wife Lynne and our children Serra and Emre for the patience and
encouragement they afforded me during this project.

xix
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Exploring the Variety of Random
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Title: Sailor Jack, the Trader

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SAILOR JACK,

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 The last of the “Louisiana.”

CASTLEMON’S WAR SERIES.

Sailor Jack, the Trader

BY

HARRY CASTLEMON,
AUTHOR OF “GUNBOAT SERIES,” “ROCKY MOUNTAIN SERIES,”
“FOREST AND STREAM SERIES,” ETC., ETC.

Four Illustrations by Geo. G. White.

PHILADELPHIA:
PORTER & COATES.

Copyright, 1893,

BY

PORTER & COATES

 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE
I. Tom Randolph, Conscript, 1
II. Lambert’s Signal-Fire, 29
III. Mr. Randolph Carries Tales, 59
IV. The Phantom Bushwhackers, 86
V. The Cotton Thieves, 114
VI. The Man He Wanted to See, 141
VII. Sailor Jack in Action, 168
VIII. Bad News from Marcy, 195
IX. Rodney is Astonished, 222
X. Mark Goodwin’s Plan, 247
XI. Ben Makes a Failure, 273
XII. Surprised and Captured, 302
XIII. In Williamston Jail, 326
XIV. The Prison Pen, 350
XV. On Account of the Dead Line, 375
XVI. Sailor Jack, the Trader, 403
XVII. Conclusion, 435
SAILOR JACK, THE TRADER.
 CHAPTER I.
TOM RANDOLPH, CONSCRIPT.

“Well, by gum! Am I dreamin’? Is this Tom Randolph or his hant?”

“I don’t wonder that you are surprised. It’s Tom Randolph easy
enough, though I can hardly believe it myself when I look in the
glass. There isn’t a nigger in the settlement that isn’t better clad and
better mounted than I am.”
“Well, I have seen you when you looked a trifle pearter, that’s a
fact.”
“And what brought me to this? The Yankees and their cowardly
sympathizers. I don’t blame the boys in blue so much, for brave
soldiers always respect one another, even though their sense of duty
compels them to fight under different flags; but the traitors we have
right here among us are too mean to be of any use. And the
meanest one among them is Rodney Gray.”
The first speaker was Lieutenant Lambert, who, by his zealous
efforts to serve the cause of the South, brought about the
bombardment of Baton Rouge, and the person whom he addressed
was the redoubtable Captain Tom himself, who had just returned to
Mooreville after undergoing two months’ military discipline at Camp
Pinckney.
The last time we saw these two worthies was shortly after the
Confederate General Breckenridge made his unsuccessful attempt to
capture Baton Rouge, and the conscripting officer, Captain Roach,
disappeared so completely that no one had ever heard a word of
him since, and the veteran Major Morgan, backed by fifty soldiers
who hated all Home Guards and other skulkers as cordially as they
hated the Yankees, came to take his place. Knowing that Captain
Roach had been very remiss in his duty, that he had spent more time
in visiting and eating good dinners than he had in sending conscripts
to the army, Major Morgan hardly gave himself time to take
possession of the office in Kimberley’s store before he declared that
that sort of work was going to cease entirely, and that everyone in
his district who was liable to military duty, Home Guards as well as
civilians, must start for the camp of instruction at once or be taken
there by force. The news spread rapidly, and in a very few hours
everyone in the settlement had heard it. The wounded and disabled
veterans of the Army of the Centre, of whom there were a goodly
number in the neighborhood, were overjoyed to learn that at last
there was a man in the conscripting office who could not be trifled
with, and some of the civilians, who came under the exemption
clause of the Conscription Act, secretly cherished the hope that
Captain Tom and his first lieutenant might be sent to serve under
Bragg, who did not scruple to shoot his soldiers for the most trivial
offences.
As to Tom and his Home Guards, they did not at first pay much
attention to the major’s threats. It was right that civilians should be
forced to shoulder muskets, since they would not do it of their own
free will, but as for them, they were State troops, and the
government at Richmond could not order them around as it pleased.
Besides, they had great confidence in Mrs. Randolph’s powers of
persuasion. She would never permit her son to go into the army, and
having managed Captain Roach pretty near as she pleased, the
Home Guards did not see why she could not manage Major Morgan
as well; but when it became noised abroad that the latter had curtly
refused Mrs. Randolph’s invitation to dinner, intimating that he was
not ordered to Mooreville to waste his time in visiting and nonsense,
they were terribly frightened, and demanded that Captain Tom
should “see them through.” When they enlisted in his company, he
promised to stand between them and the Confederate authorities,
and now was the time for him to make that promise good; but Tom
was as badly frightened as they were, and did not know what to do.
When his mother suggested that it might be well for him to put his
commission in his pocket, and ride to Mooreville and talk the matter
over with the major, Tom almost went frantic.
“Go down there and face that despot alone,” he exclaimed, “while
he has fifty veterans at his back to obey his slightest wish? I’d about
as soon be shot and have done with it. Besides, what have I got to
ride? The Yankees have stolen me afoot.”
Captain Tom knew well enough that he was not telling the truth. It
wasn’t Yankees who “stole him afoot,” but men who wore the same
kind of uniform he did. You will remember that we compared the
short visit of Breckenridge’s army to a plague of locusts. Everything
in the shape of eatables in and around Mooreville, as well as some
articles of value, disappeared and were never heard of afterward;
and among those articles of value were several fine horses, Tom
Randolph’s being one of the first to turn up missing. His expensive
saddle and bridle disappeared at the same time, and now, if Tom
wanted to go anywhere, he was obliged to walk or ride a plough
mule bare-back, which was harrowing to his feelings. He wouldn’t
appear before a Confederate officer of rank in any such style as that,
he said, and that was all there was about it. But, as it happened, the
conscripting officer had a word to say on that point. On the morning
following his arrival in the village a couple of strange troopers
galloped into Mr. Randolph’s front yard and drew up at the steps
with a jerk. Captain Tom’s heart sank when he saw them coming, for
something told him that they were after him and nobody else; and
paying no heed to the earnest entreaties of his mother, who assured
him that he might as well face them one time as another, for he
could not save himself by flight, he disappeared like a shot through
the nearest door, leaving her to explain his absence in any way she
thought proper. But after taking a second look at the unwelcome
visitors, Mrs. Randolph knew it would be of no use to try to shield
the timid Home Guard. The trooper who ascended the steps, leaving
his comrade to hold his horse, was a rough-looking fellow, as well he
might be, for he had seen hard service. The little pieces of metal on
his huge Texas spurs tinkled musically, his heavy cavalry sabre
clanked against his heels as he walked, and Mrs. Randolph thought
there was something threatening in the sound. He lifted his cap
respectfully, but said in a brisk business tone:
“I’d like to see Tom Randolph, if you please.”
“Do you mean Captain Randolph?” corrected the lady.
“No, ma’am. He was given to me as plain Tom Randolph, and that
is the only name I know him by. I’d like to see him, if you please.”
“Will you step in while I go and find him?”
“Thank you, no. I have no time to sit down. I am in a great hurry.”
“You can spare a moment to tell me, his mother, what you are
going to do with him, can you not?”
“All I can say is that the major wants to see him at once,” was the
short answer.
“Do you know what the major wants of him, so that I can explain
——”
“Pardon me if I say that no explanations are necessary. It is
enough for him to know that Major Morgan wants to see him
without a moment’s delay.”
The tone in which the words were spoken satisfied Mrs. Randolph
that the impatient trooper could not be put off any longer, so she
turned about and went into the house. She knew that Tom had gone
straight to her room, and when she tried the door she found that he
had locked himself in.
“Who’s there?” demanded a husky voice from the inside.
“It is I, my dear, and I am alone,” was the reply. “Let me in at
once. Now, call all your courage to your aid, and show yourself the
brave soldier you were on the night you knocked that Yankee
sentinel down with the butt of a musket and escaped being sent to a
Northern prison-pen,” she continued, as she slipped through the half
open door, which was quickly closed and locked behind her. “Major
Morgan wants to see you at his office, and, my dear, you had better
go at once. The man at the door will not wait much longer.”
“I don’t care if he won’t,” shouted Captain Tom, who was terribly
alarmed. “If he gets tired of standing there, let him go back where
he came from and tell that major that I—what business has that
fellow got out there?”
 Tom chanced to look through the window while he was talking,
and when he saw one of the troopers ride down the carriage-way as
if he were going to the rear of the house, it flashed upon him that
the man was going there to watch the back door. At the same
moment the jingling of spurs and the rattling of a sabre were heard
in the next room, the door knob was tried by a strong hand, and
something that might have been the toe of a heavy boot was
propelled with considerable force against the door itself.
“Open up here,” commanded a stern voice on the other side. “Do
it at once, or I shall be obliged to force an entrance.”
This threat brought Captain Tom to his senses. In a second the
door was unlocked and opened, and the soldier stepped into the
room.
“By what right does Major Morgan——” began Tom.
“I don’t know a thing about it,” was the quick reply. “It is no part
of my duty to inquire into my superior’s private affairs. All I can say
is that I am commanded to bring Tom Randolph before him without
loss of time. You are Tom Randolph, I take it. Then saddle up and
come with me.”
“But the Yankees stole my horse and I have nothing to ride except
a mule,” whined Tom.
“Then ride the mule or come afoot. Make up your mind to
something, for I am going to start in half a minute by the watch.”
“You will give my son time to exchange his citizen’s clothes for his
captain’s uniform, of course,” ventured Mrs. Randolph.
“Sorry I haven’t an instant to wait, but the color of his clothes will
make no sort of difference to Major Morgan,” was the reply. “Now
then, will you order up that mule, or walk, or ride double with my
man?”
“Are you an officer?” faltered Tom.
“Not much of one—only a captain.”
“Well, that puts a different look on the matter entirely,” said Tom,
who up to this time thought he was being ordered around by a
private soldier. “Since you are an officer I expect to receive an
officer’s treatment from you, and I don’t wish to be addressed——”
“That’s all right. But hurry up, for the time is precious.”
 Being satisfied at last that his meeting with the dreaded conscript
officer could not be delayed any longer, Captain Tom hastened to his
room after his commission, while his mother sent a darky to the
stable-yard to bring up the solitary mule that had been left there
when the few remaining field-hands went to work in the morning.
And a very sorry-looking beast it proved to be when it was led to the
door—too decrepit to work, and so weak with age that it fairly
staggered as Tom threw his weight upon the sheepskin which the
thoughtful darky had placed on the animal’s back to serve in lieu of
a saddle. A sorry picture Captain Tom made, too, when he was
mounted; but he had no choice between going that way and riding
double with a private, and that was a thing he could not bring
himself to do.
While they were on their way to town Captain Tom made several
fruitless attempts to induce his captors—for that was just what they
were—to give him some idea of what he might expect when he
presented himself before the major; but although he could not
prevail upon them to say a word on that subject, he was able to
make a pretty shrewd guess as to the nature of the business in
hand, and if he had known that he was going to prison for a long
term of years he could not have felt so utterly wretched and
disheartened.
“If I were going to jail I might have a chance to get pardoned
out,” thought Tom, “but the only way to get out of the army is to be
killed or have an arm or leg shot off. I’d be perfectly willing to go if
Jeff Davis and all his Cabinet could be compelled to go too. I’m
afraid I am in for trouble this time, sure.”
If Captain Tom had any lingering doubts on this point they were
dispelled in less than half a minute after he entered the enrolling
office. He had never before met the grizzly veteran who sat at
Captain Roach’s desk with a multitude of papers before him, and
when their short interview was ended Captain Tom hoped from the
bottom of his heart that he might never meet him again. He proved
to be just what he looked—a thorough soldier, who had come there
with the determination to perform his disagreeable duty without fear
or favor. Every man in the office was a stranger to Tom. There were
stacks of carbines and cavalry sabres in all the corners, horses
saddled and bridled were hitched to the rack in front of the door,
and there were a few tanned and weather-beaten soldiers standing
around ready to start at the word, but there was not a Home Guard
to be seen.
“This is Tom Randolph, sir,” was the way in which one of the
guards brought the new-comer to the notice of the conscript officer.
“Don’t sit down,” he added a moment later, as Tom drew a chair
toward him. “Take off your hat.”
Captain Randolph was amazed, for this was not the way he had
always been treated in that office. Hitherto he had been a privileged
character, and had had as much to say as Captain Roach himself;
but now things were changed, and for the first time in his life Tom
was made to see that he was not of so much importance in the
world as he had supposed himself to be. He took off his hat, but
noticed that the soldiers in the room did not remove theirs, and that
nettled him. So did the manner in which the major acknowledged
the introduction, if such it could be called. He did not offer to shake
hands as Tom thought he would, but merely looked over the top of
his spectacles for a moment. Then he pulled a sheet of paper toward
him, ran his finger down the list of names written on it until he had
found the one he wanted, and made a short entry opposite to it;
after which he pushed away the paper and said:
“Report at one o’clock this afternoon. That’s all.”
“But, major,” Tom almost gasped, “what am I to report for?”
“What for? Why, marching orders, of course.”
“Well, will you tell me where I am to march?”
“Along the road that leads to the camp of instruction. Where else
should a recruit march to, I’d like to know. You’re conscripted.”
“But, major,” protested Tom, drawing forth an official envelope
with hands that trembled so violently that he could scarcely control
them, “I really don’t see how you can conscript me. I am a captain
in the State troops, and there’s my commission from the governor.”
“It isn’t worth straws,” answered the major, snapping his fingers in
the air. “Don’t want to see it. Besides, you have resigned.”
“But my resignation has not been accepted.”
 “That doesn’t matter. It will be, for there are no such things as
State troops now, I am happy to say. You’re liable to military duty
easy enough, and—that’s all.”
“I retain my rank, don’t I, sir?” said Tom.
It was astonishing what an effect this simple question had upon
the occupants of the room. Some quickly turned their faces to the
wall, others tiptoed through the nearest doors, and all shook with
suppressed merriment. The major jerked his spectacles off his nose,
looked hard at Tom to see if he were really in earnest, and cleared
his throat before he replied:
“No, sir; you will begin as Private Randolph, but will be given
every opportunity to show what you are made of, and to win a
commission that is worth something more than the paper it happens
to be written on. Don’t worry about that. Well, sergeant, where are
the men I ordered you to bring before me?”
Hardly able to tell whether he was awake or dreaming, Tom
Randolph yielded to the friendly hand that was laid upon his arm,
and suffered himself to be led away from the desk, his place being
immediately filled by four brawny soldiers, who raised their hands
with a military salute. The first words one of them spoke aroused
Tom from his stupor and interested him.
“We didn’t find Lambert and Moseley to home, sir. They must have
had warnin’, I reckon, for they’ve took to the bresh.”
“They needn’t think to escape me by resorting to any such trick as
that,” said the major grimly. “They owe a duty to their country in this
hour of her peril, and they’ve got to do it. I’ll have a detail watch
their houses night and day till they come back.”
Tom Randolph could hardly believe that the soldier who laid his
hand upon his arm and conducted him to a remote corner of the
room, so that they could talk without danger of being overheard,
was the same captain who had been so impatient and peremptory
with him and his mother a short time before, but such was the fact.
Having performed his duty and brought his prisoner to the office, as
he had been told to do, the captain had thrown off his soldier airs
and was as jolly and friendly a fellow as one would care to meet.
 “You see you are going to have good company while you are in
camp,” said he.
“I don’t know what you call good company,” snarled Tom.
“Lambert is nothing more than a common overseer, while Moseley is
a chicken and hog thief. Good company, indeed!”
“But we heard that they are officers in your company of Home
Guards,” said the captain in a surprised tone.
“They were chosen against my earnest protest,” replied Tom, “but
they have never been commissioned by the governor. Their election
was not legal, and so I didn’t report it. But, captain, I don’t think
your major has any authority to ride over the governor in this rough
way.”
“Hasn’t he a right to conscript everyone who does not come under
the exemption clause?” answered the captain. “If you have read that
act I will venture to say that you did not see the words ‘Home
Guards’ in it. Come now.”
“But I am my father’s overseer,” said Tom, switching off on
another track.
“Since when?”
“Since long before Breckenridge made his attack on Baton Rouge.”
“Where are you employed?”
“On the home plantation.”
“Your father doesn’t need two overseers on the home plantation,
does he? He has claimed exemption for—what’s his name?—Larkin.”
“And didn’t he say a word about me?”
“The records of the office don’t show it. Now let me tell you
something. If your father wants to claim exemption for you instead
of Larkin no doubt he can manage it with General Ruggles, who is in
command at Camp Pinckney. Major Morgan has no authority to act
in such cases. Just now your duty is to go home and make ready to
report at one o’clock sharp. Don’t be a second behind time unless
you want to get the rough side of the major’s tongue.”
“What shall I do to get ready?”
“Why, pack up a suit or two of your strongest clothes, an extra
pair of shoes and stockings, and a few blankets, which I assure you
will come handy for shelter tents when you take the field.”
 “And you don’t think of any way in which I can get out of it?” said
Tom in a choking voice.
“Oh, no. That’s a dead open and shut. You’ve got to go to camp
and stay there while your friends are working to get you out, if that
is what you want them to do. But I wouldn’t let them make any
move in that direction if I were you. Why don’t you go with us and
make a man of yourself? We are whipping the Yankees right along,
and you will have plenty of chances to distinguish yourself. We’re
bound to gain our independence, and don’t you want to be able to
say that you had a hand in it?”
The captain’s earnest words did not send any thrill of patriotism
into the heart of Tom Randolph, who just then wished that the
Yankees would sweep through Mooreville in irresistible numbers, put
an end to the war in a moment, and so keep him from going to
Camp Pinckney. He turned sorrowfully away from the captain, who
had really tried to befriend him by giving what he thought to be
good advice, mounted his aged mule, and set out for home. His
mother’s face brightened when he dismounted at the foot of the
steps, but fell instantly when Tom told her that she had better take a
good long look at him while she had the chance, for after that day
was past she would never see him again. Of course there was
mourning in that house when he told his story, and the gloom that
rested there was but partially dispelled by Mr. Randolph’s promise to
discharge Larkin without loss of time and claim exemption for Tom in
his stead.
“If you could do it this minute it would not keep me from going to
the camp of instruction,” whined Tom, “for the major has no
authority to do anything but conscript everybody he can get his
hands on.”
“Has he warned Ned Griffin and Rodney Gray?” inquired Mrs.
Randolph.
“That’s so,” exclaimed Tom angrily. “What a dunce I was not to
speak to the captain about those fellows! But I was so taken up with
my own affairs that I never once thought of it. However, I’ll think of
it when I go down to the office at one o’clock, I bet you. And, father,
if you get on the track of Lambert and Moseley, don’t fail to let the
major know it. If I’ve got to be disgraced I want them to keep me
company.”
“I will bear it in mind,” answered Mr. Randolph. “And since one
o’clock isn’t so very far off, hadn’t you better get ready?”
The conscript thought this a very heartless suggestion and so did
his mother; but they could not deny that there was reason in it, and
so preparations for Tom’s departure were made at once. The parting
which took place an hour or so later was a tearful one on Tom’s part
as well as his mother’s, but there was not very much sorrow
exhibited by the black servants who crowded into the dining-room to
shake his hand, as they were in duty bound to do, and Tom made
the mental resolution that, when he returned from Camp Pinckney to
take his place as overseer on the plantation, he would see them well
paid for their indifference. He rode in his mother’s carriage this time,
accompanied by his father and a bundle of things that would have
filled a soldier’s knapsack to overflowing. When the carriage turned
into the street that ran past Kimberley’s store, Tom thrust his head
out of the window, but instantly pulled it in again to say, while tears
of vexation filled his eyes and ran down his cheeks:
“There’s a bigger crowd of people in front of the office than I ever
saw before. No doubt some of them will be glad to know I have
been conscripted; but if you have the luck I am sure you will have, I
shall be back to turn the laugh on them before many days have
passed over my head. Just look, father, and remember the name of
every one who has a slighting word or glance for me, so that I may
settle with him at some future time. I hope Rodney and Ned Griffin
are there.”
“You’ve got your wish,” replied Mr. Randolph, after he had run his
eye over the crowd, which extended clear across the street to the
hitching-rack. “Rodney and Ned are there, but they seem to be
standing on the outskirts.”
Tom mastered up courage enough to look again, and then he saw
what his father meant by “the outskirts.” There were three distinct
classes of people in that gathering. In the middle of the crowd and
in front of the office stood two score conscripts, who were closely
guarded by half as many of Major Morgan’s veterans. Some of the
conscripts seemed resolved to make the best of the situation, and
joked and laughed with their friends and relatives who had
assembled to see them off, and who formed the third class that
stood outside the guards; but Tom noticed that most of their number
looked very unhappy indeed. Tom did not see Rodney and Ned, but
he discovered several disabled veterans of Bragg’s army with whom
he had a speaking acquaintance, and they in turn discovered him
and sent up a shout of welcome.
“Hey-youp! Here comes another, and I do think in my soul it’s
Captain Tommy Randolph,” exclaimed one. “It’s him, for I know that
there kerridge.”
“An’ they tell me that you might jest as well be in the army to onct
as to be in that camp,” chimed in a second veteran. “There aint no
sich thing as gettin’ away when they get a grip onto you.”
“Not by no means,” cried a third. “Kase why, don’t you know that
they keep a pack of nigger hound dogs there that aint got nothin’ in
the wide world to do but jest chase deserters?”
The tone in which the taunting words were uttered was highly
exasperating to Tom, whose face grew red with anger.
“I wouldn’t mind them,” said his father soothingly. “That’s only
soldiers’ fun. They don’t mean anything by it.”
“I’ll try not to mind them now, but I’ll get even with every one of
them when I come back,” said Tom savagely.
Stepping out of the carriage, and showing himself to that little
mob of laughing, jeering soldiers, was one of the most trying ordeals
that Tom Randolph ever passed through, but there was no way to
escape it. As he hurried through their ranks toward the guards, who
stood aside to let him pass, they sent a few more words of advice
and encouragement after him.
“Where’s all your purty clothes, Tommy?” inquired one. “Go home
to onct an’ get ’em. If you don’t, them fule Yanks will think you are
nothin’ but a dog-gone private.”
“Don’t listen to him, Tommy,” said another. “The Yanks always pick
for officers in battle, an’ they’re dead shots, I tell you.”
“You’re mighty right,” chorused a dozen voices. “I never did see
anybody who could shoot like them Yanks. I’m glad I aint got to face
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