Human Anatomy & Physiology

Chapter 6
The Nervous
System
Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory input – gathering information
• To monitor changes occurring inside and
outside the body (changes = stimuli)
2. Integration –
• to process and interpret sensory input
and decide if action is needed.
3. Motor output
• A response to integrated stimuli
• The response activates muscles or glands
Functions of the Nervous System
 Structural Classification of the
Nervous System

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
 Functional Classification of the
Peripheral Nervous System
• Sensory (afferent) division
• Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system
 Functional Classification of the
Peripheral Nervous System
• Motor (efferent) division
• Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
the central nervous system
 Functional Classification of the
Peripheral Nervous System
• Motor (efferent) division
• Two subdivisions
• Somatic nervous system = voluntary
• Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Organization of the Nervous System
 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

• Neurons = nerve cells

• Cells specialized to transmit messages
• Major regions of neurons
• Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center
of the cell
• Processes – fibers that extend from the
cell body (dendrites and axons)
 Neuroglia vs Neurons

• Neuroglia divide, Neurons do not.

• Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
• Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia
cells, not the neurons.
• Glial cell types provide support,
nutrition, insulation, and help with signal
transmission in the nervous system
 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
(Neuroglia or Glia)
• Astrocytes
• Abundant, star-shaped cells
• Support neurons
• Form barrier
between capillaries
and neurons
• Control the chemical
environment of
the brain (CNS)
 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
• Microglia (CNS)
• Spider-like phagocytes
• Dispose of debris
• Ependymal cells (CNS)
• Line cavities of the
brain and spinal cord
• Create, secrete and
circulate
cerebrospinal fluid
 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

• Oligodendrocytes
(CNS)
• Produce myelin
sheath around
nerve fibers in the
central nervous
system
 Neuroglia of CNS
Fluid-filled cavity
of the brain or
spinal cord

Neuron
Ependymal
cell

Oligodendrocyte

Astrocyte

Microglial cell

Axon

Myelin
sheath (cut)

Capillary Node of
Ranvier
 Support Cells of the PNS
• Satellite cells
• Protect neuron cell bodies
• Schwann cells
• Form myelin sheath in the peripheral
nervous system

Figure 7.3e
 Facts about Neurons

• Neurons are some of the longest-lived

cell in your body.

• They are irreplaceable (amitotic)

• They have huge appetites

Neuron Anatomy

• Cell body
(soma)
• Nucleus
• Large
nucleolus
Neuron Anatomy
• Extensions
outside the cell
body
• Dendrites –
conduct
impulses toward
the cell body
• Axons –
conduct
impulses away
from the cell
body (only 1!)
 Axons and Nerve Impulses
• Axons end in axonal terminals
• Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
• Axonal terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
• Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent
neurons
• Synapse – junction between nerves
 Nerve Fiber Coverings

• Schwann cells –
produce myelin
sheaths in jelly-roll
like fashion
• Nodes of Ranvier –
gaps in myelin
sheath along the
axon
 Application

• In Multiple Sclerosis the myelin sheath

is destroyed.
• The myelin sheath hardens to a tissue
called the sclerosis.
• This is considered an autoimmune
disease.
• Why does MS appear to affect the
muscles?
 Neuron Cell Body Location
• Most are found in the central nervous
system
• Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated
fibers
• Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the
white matter of the central nervous system
• Ganglia – collections of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system
Structural Classification of Neurons
• Multipolar neurons – many extensions
from the cell body
• 3 or more processes
Structural Classification of Neurons
• Bipolar neurons – one axon and one
dendrite (2 processes)
Structural Classification of Neurons

• Unipolar neurons – have a short single

process leaving the cell body (1 process)
 Functional Classification of
Neurons
• Sensory (afferent) neurons
• Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
to CNS
• Cutaneous sense organs
• Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
• Motor (efferent) neurons
• Carry impulses from the central nervous
system to the rest of the body
 Functional Classification of
Neurons

• Interneurons (association neurons)

• Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
• Connect sensory and motor neurons
• Most abundant neuron and mostly
multipolar
Neuron Classification
 How Neurons Function
(Physiology)

• Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli

• Conductivity – ability to transmit an
impulse
• The plasma membrane of a neuron at
rest is polarized (0)
• Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell
 Starting a Nerve Impulse
• Depolarization (+) – a
stimulus depolarizes the
neuron’s membrane
• A depolarized
membrane allows
sodium (Na+) to flow
inside the membrane
• The exchange of ions
initiates an action
potential in the neuron
The Anatomy Of An Action Potential
 The Action Potential
• If the action potential (nerve impulse)
starts, it is propagated over the entire
axon
• Potassium ions rush out of the neuron
after sodium ions rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane
• The sodium-potassium pump restores
the original configuration
• This action requires ATP
 Nerve Impulse Propagation

• The impulse
continues to move
toward the cell body
• Impulses travel
faster when fibers
have a myelin
sheath
Continuation of the Nerve Impulse
between Neurons
• Impulses are able to cross the synapse
to another nerve
• Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s
axon terminal
• The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
• An action potential is started in the dendrite
How Neurons Communicate at
Synapses
Nerve Impulse Transmission
 The Reflex Arc
• Reflex – rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to stimuli
• Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Figure 7.11a
Simple Reflex Arc
Types of Reflexes and Regulation
• Autonomic reflexes
•Smooth muscle regulation
•Heart and blood pressure regulation
•Regulation of glands
•Digestive system regulation
• Somatic reflexes
•Activation of skeletal muscles
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
• CNS develops from the embryonic
neural tube
• The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
• The opening of the neural tube becomes
the ventricles
• Four chambers within the brain
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Regions of the Brain

• Cerebral
hemispheres
• Diencephalon
• Brain stem
• Cerebellum
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

• Paired (left
and right)
superior parts
of the brain
• Include more
than half of
the brain
mass
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

• The surface
is made of
ridges (gyri)
and grooves
(sulci)
 Lobes of the Cerebrum
• Fissures (deep grooves) divide the
cerebrum into lobes
• Surface lobes of the cerebrum
• Frontal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe
Lobes of the Cerebrum
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

• Somatic sensory area – receives

impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors
• Primary motor area – sends impulses
to skeletal muscles
• Broca’s area – involved in our ability to
speak
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
Sensory and Motor Areas of the
Cerebral Cortex
 Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

• Cerebral areas involved in special

senses
• Gustatory area (taste)
• Visual area
• Auditory area
• Olfactory area
 Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

• Interpretation areas of the cerebrum

• Speech/language region
• Language comprehension region
• General interpretation area
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum
 Layers of the Cerebrum

• Gray matter
• Outer layer
• Composed
mostly of neuron
cell bodies
 Layers of the Cerebrum

• White matter
• Fiber tracts
inside the gray
matter
• Example:
corpus callosum
connects
hemispheres
Layers of the Cerebrum
• Basal nuclei – internal
islands of gray matter
• Regulates voluntary
motor activities by
modifying info sent to
the motor cortex
• Problems = ie unable
to control muscles,
spastic, jerky
• Involved in
Huntington’s and
Parkinson’s Disease
 Diencephalon
• Sits on top of the brain stem
• Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres
• Made of three parts
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus
Diencephalon
 Thalamus
• Surrounds the third
ventricle
• The relay station for
sensory impulses
• Transfers impulses
to the correct part of
the cortex for
localization and
interpretation
 Hypothalamus
• Under the thalamus
• Important autonomic
nervous system
center
• Helps regulate body
temperature
• Controls water
balance
• Regulates metabolism
 Hypothalamus

• An important part of the limbic system

(emotions)
• The pituitary gland is attached to the
hypothalamus
Epithalamus

• Forms the roof of the

third ventricle
• Houses the pineal
body (an endocrine
gland)
• Includes the choroid
plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
 Brain Stem

• Attaches to the
spinal cord
• Parts of the
brain stem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla
oblongata
Brain Stem
Midbrain

• Mostly composed
of tracts of nerve
fibers
• Reflex centers for
vision and
hearing
• Cerebral
aqueduct – 3rd-
4th ventricles
 Pons
• The bulging center
part of the brain
stem
• Mostly composed
of fiber tracts
• Includes nuclei
involved in the
control of breathing
 Medulla Oblongata
• The lowest part of the brain stem
• Merges into the spinal cord
• Includes important fiber tracts
• Contains important control centers
• Heart rate control
• Blood pressure regulation
• Breathing
• Swallowing
• Vomiting
 Cerebellum

• Two hemispheres with convoluted

surfaces
• Provides involuntary coordination of
body movements
Cerebellum
 Protection of the Central Nervous
System
• Scalp and skin
• Skull and vertebral column
• Meninges
 Protection of the Central Nervous
System
• Cerebrospinal fluid
• Blood brain barrier

Figure 7.16a
 Meninges
• Dura mater
• Double-layered external covering
• Periosteum – attached to surface of the
skull
• Meningeal layer – outer covering of the
brain
• Folds inward in several areas
 Meninges

• Arachnoid layer
• Middle layer
• Web-like
• Pia mater
• Internal layer
• Clings to the surface of the brain
 Cerebrospinal Fluid

• Similar to blood plasma composition

• Formed by the choroid plexus
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain
• Circulated in arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the
spinal cord
Ventricles and Location of the
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Ventricles and Location of the
Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Blood Brain Barrier
• Includes the least permeable capillaries
of the body
• Excludes many potentially harmful
substances
• Useless against some substances
• Fats and fat soluble molecules
• Respiratory gases
• Alcohol
• Nicotine
• Anesthesia
 Traumatic Brain Injuries
• Concussion
• Slight brain injury
• No permanent brain damage
• Contusion
• Nervous tissue destruction occurs
• Nervous tissue does not regenerate
• Cerebral edema
• Swelling from the inflammatory response
• May compress and kill brain tissue
 Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

• Commonly called a stroke

• The result of a ruptured blood vessel
supplying a region of the brain
• Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
that blood source dies
• Loss of some functions or death may
result
 Spinal Cord
• Extends from the
medulla oblongata to
the region of T12
• Below T12 is the cauda
equina (a collection of
spinal nerves)
• Enlargements occur in
the cervical and lumbar
regions
 Alzheimer’s Disease
• Progressive degenerative brain disease
• Mostly seen in the elderly, but may
begin in middle age
• Structural changes in the brain include
abnormal protein deposits and twisted
fibers within neurons
• Victims experience memory loss,
irritability, confusion and ultimately,
hallucinations and death
 Spinal Cord Anatomy
• Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
 Spinal Cord Anatomy
• Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
• Dorsal (posterior) horns
• Anterior (ventral) horns
 Spinal Cord Anatomy
• Central canal filled with cerebrospinal
fluid
 Spinal Cord Anatomy

• Meninges cover the spinal cord

• Nerves leave at the level of each
vertebrae
• Dorsal root
• Associated with the dorsal root ganglia –
collections of cell bodies outside the central
nervous system
•Ventral root
 Peripheral Nervous System

• Nerves and ganglia outside the central

nervous system
• Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
• Neuron fibers are bundled by
connective tissue
 Structure of a Nerve

• Endoneurium
surrounds each fiber
• Groups of fibers are
bound into fascicles
by perineurium
• Fascicles are bound
together by
epineurium
 Classification of Nerves

• Mixed nerves – both sensory and

motor fibers
• Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry
impulses toward the CNS
• Efferent (motor) nerves – carry
impulses away from the CNS
 Spinal Nerves
• There is a pair of spinal nerves at the
level of each vertebrae for a total of 31
pairs
Spinal Nerves
 Autonomic Nervous System
• The involuntary branch of the nervous
system
• Consists of only motor nerves
• Divided into two divisions
• Sympathetic division
• Parasympathetic division
Comparison of Somatic and
Autonomic Nervous Systems
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous
System
 Autonomic Functioning

• Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
• Response to unusual stimulus
• Takes over to increase activities
• Remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment
 Autonomic Functioning

• Parasympathetic – housekeeping
activites
• Conserves energy
• Maintains daily necessary body functions
• Remember as the “D” division - digestion,
defecation, and diuresis
 Development Aspects of the
Nervous System
• The nervous system is formed during
the first month of embryonic
development
• Any maternal infection can have
extremely harmful effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last
areas of the brain to develop
 Development Aspects of the
Nervous System

• No more neurons are formed after birth,

but growth and maturation continues for
several years
• The brain reaches maximum weight as
a young adult
• However, we can always grow dendrites