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 Contents
Preface xx

CHAPTER 1 Communication
Speaking
Competence and Public
1

DEFINING COMMUNICATION 6
Communication as a Transactional Process: Working with an
Audience 6
Communication as Sharing Meaning: Making Sense 8
DEFINING COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE IN PUBLIC SPEAKING 11
Effectiveness: Achieving Goals 11
Degrees of Effectiveness: From Deficiency to Proficiency 11
Audience Orientation: You Are Not Talking to Yourself 12
Appropriateness: Speaking by the Rules 12
ACHIEVING COMPETENT PUBLIC SPEAKING 14
Knowledge: Learning the Rules 14
Skills: Showing Not Just Knowing 15
Sensitivity: Developing Receptive Accuracy 15
Commitment: Acquiring a Passion for Excellence 15
Ethics: Determining the Right and Wrong of Speaking 16
Ethical Standards: Judging Moral Correctness of Speech 16
Plagiarism: Never Inconsequential 18
SUMMARY 19
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 19
CHECKLIST 20
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 20

vii
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 2 Speech Anxiety 22

SPEECH ANXIETY AS A CHALLENGE 23

Pervasiveness of Speech Anxiety: A Common Experience 23
Intensity of Speech Anxiety: Fate Worse Than Death? 24
[Box Feature] First Speech: Sample Narrative Speech
of Introduction on Speech Anxiety 25
SYMPTOMS: FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE 27
Basic Symptoms: Your Body’s Response to Threat 27
Appropriateness of Symptoms: Relevance to Public Speaking 28
CAUSES OF DYSFUNCTIONAL ANXIETY 28
Self-Defeating Thoughts: Sabotaging Your Speech 29
Catastrophic Thinking: Fear of Failure 29
Perfectionist Thinking: No Mistakes Permitted 29
The Illusion of Transparency: Being Nervous about Looking Nervous 30
31
Desire for Complete Approval: Trying Not to Offend
Anxiety-Provoking Situations: Considering Context 31
Novelty of the Speaking Situation: Uncertainty 31
Conspicuousness: The Spotlight Effect 32
Types of Speeches: Varying Responses 32

STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING SPEECH ANXIETY 32

Prepare and Practice: Transforming Novelty into Familiarity 33
Gain Realistic Perspective: Rational Not Irrational Thinking 34
Adopt a Noncompetitive Communication Orientation: Reframing 35
Use Coping Statements: Rational Reappraisal 37
Use Positive Imaging: Visualizing Success 37
Use Relaxation Techniques: Reducing Fight-or-Flight Response 38
Try Systematic Desensitization: Incremental Relaxation 38
SUMMARY 39
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 39
CHECKLIST 40
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 40

CHAPTER 3 Audience Analysis and Topic Selection 41

TYPES OF AUDIENCES 41
Captive Audience: Disengaged Listeners 42
Committed Audience: Agreeable Listeners 42
 CONTENTS ix

Contrary Audience: Hostile Listeners 42

Concerned Audience: Eager Listeners 44
Casual Audience: Unexpected Listeners 44
AUDIENCE COMPOSITION 44
Age: Possible Generation Gaps 45
Gender: Go Beyond Simplistic Stereotypes 47
Ethnicity and Culture: Sensitivity to Diversity 49
Group Affiliations: A Window into Listeners’ Views 49
ADAPTING TO DIVERSE AUDIENCES AND SITUATIONS 50
Establish Identification: Connecting with Your Audience 50
Likability: I Can Relate to You 50
Stylistic Similarity: Looking and Acting the Part 51
Substantive Similarity: Establishing Common Ground 52
Build Credibility: Establishing Believability 55
Adapt to the Situation: Influence of Circumstances 57
Adapt While Speaking: Exhibit Sensitivity 58
TOPIC CHOICE AND AUDIENCE ADAPTATION 59
Exploring Potential Topics: Important Choice 59
Do a Personal Inventory: You as Topic Source 59
Brainstorm: New Possibilities 60
Crowdsourcing for Topics: Group Wisdom 60
Scanning for Topics: Quick Ideas 60
Appropriateness of Topic: Blending Topic and Audience 61
Speaker Appropriateness: Suitability for You 61
Audience Appropriateness: Suitability for Your Listeners 61
62
Occasion Appropriateness: Suitability for the Event
Narrowing the Topic: Making Subjects Manageable 63
SUMMARY 64
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 64
CHECKLIST 65

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 66

CHAPTER 4 Gathering Material 67

THE INTERNET: ONLINE RESEARCH 68

Search Engines 69
Virtual Libraries 69
x CONTENTS

Government Sites 70
Survey Sites 70
Wikipedia: Credible Scholarship or Mob Rule? 70
News and Blogging Sites: Be Very Choosy 71
Famous Quotation Sites: The Wisdom of Others 71
Evaluating Internet Information: Basic Steps 72
LIBRARIES: BRICKS-AND-MORTAR RESEARCH FACILITIES 75
Librarian: Expert Navigator 75
Library Catalogues: Computer Versions 75
Periodicals: Popular Information Sources 76
Newspapers: An Old Standby 77
Reference Works: Beyond Wikipedia 77
Databases: Computerized Collections of Credible Information 77
INTERVIEWING: QUESTIONING EXPERTS 78
Interview Plan: Be Prepared 78
Interview Conduct: Act Appropriately 79
Interviewing by Email: Surprise Yourself 79
SUMMARY 80
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 80
CHECKLIST 80
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 81

CHAPTER 5 Using Supporting Materials Effectively 82

USING EXAMPLES COMPETENTLY 83

Types of Examples: Specific Illustrations 83
Hypothetical Examples: It Could Happen 83
Real Examples: It Did Happen 84
Brief Examples: Short and to the Point 85
Extended Examples: Telling a Story 85
Using Examples Effectively: Choose Carefully 85
Use Relevant Examples: Stay on Point 85
Choose Vivid Examples: Create Images 86
Use Representative Examples: Reflect What Is Accurate 86
Stack Examples: When One Is Not Enough 87
USING STATISTICS COMPETENTLY 88
Choose Statistics for Effect: Beyond Numbing Numbers 89
Use Accurate Statistics Accurately: No Distorting 89
Make Statistics Concrete: Meaningful Numbers 89
 CONTENTS xi

Make Statistical Comparisons: Gaining Perspective 90

Use Credible Sources: Build Believability 91
Stack Statistics: Creating Impact 91
Use Visual Aids: Clarify Statistical Trends and Analysis 92
USING TESTIMONY COMPETENTLY 93
Types of Testimony: Relying on Others 93
Testimony of Experts: Relying on Those in the Know 93
Eyewitness Testimony: You Had to Be There 94
Testimony of Non-Experts: Ordinary Folks Adding Color to Events 95
How to Use Testimony Effectively 95
Quote or Paraphrase Accurately: Consider Context 95
Use Qualified Sources: Credibility Matters 95
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ACROSS TYPES 96
Choose Interesting Supporting Materials: Counteracting
Boredom 96
Cite Sources Completely: No Vague References 97
Abbreviate Repetitive Source Citations: Oral Reference
Reminders 97
Combine Examples, Stats, and Quotes: The Power of Three 99
SUMMARY 99
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 99
CHECKLIST 100
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 100

CHAPTER 6 Attention: Getting People to Listen 102

NATURE OF ATTENTION: A TRANSACTIONAL PROCESS 104

Selective Attention of Listeners: Filtering Stimuli 104
How to Be a Mindful Listener: Assisting the Speaker 106
SPEAKER’S ATTENTION STRATEGIES: TRIGGERING LISTENING 107
The Vital Appeal: Meaningfulness 108
Novelty: The Allure of the New 108
Unusual Topics: Choosing Outside the Box 108
Unusual Examples: The Anti-Sedative 109
Unusual Stories: Compelling Attention 110
Unusual Phrasing: Wording Matters 110
Unusual Presentation: Song and Dance 110
Humorous Appeal: Keep Listeners Laughing 111
xii CONTENTS

Do Not Force Humor: Not Everyone Is Funny 112

Use Only Relevant Humor: Stay Focused 112
Be Sensitive to Audience and Occasion: Humor Can Backfire 113
Consider Using Self-Deprecating Humor: “I’m Not Worthy” 114
Startling Appeal: Shake Up Your Listeners 114
Startling Statements, Facts, or Statistics: The “Oh WOW” Effect 114
115
Inappropriate Use: Beware Bizarre Behavior
Movement and Change: Our Evolutionary Protection 116
Intensity: Extreme Degree of a Stimulus 117
SUMMARY 118
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 118
CHECKLIST 119
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 120

CHAPTER 7 Introductions and Conclusions 121

OBJECTIVES FOR COMPETENT INTRODUCTIONS 122

Gain Attention: Focusing Your Listeners 123
Begin with a Clever Quotation: Let Others Grab Attention 123
Startle Your Audience: Surprise Opener 123
Use Questions: Engage Your Listeners 124
Tell a Relevant Story: Use Narrative Power 126
Begin with a Simple Visual Aid: Show and Tell 126
Refer to Remarks of Introduction: Acknowledging Praise 127
Make a Clear Purpose Statement: Providing Intent 128
Establish Topic Significance: Making Your Listeners Care 130
Establish Your Credibility: Why Listeners Should Believe You 130
Preview the Main Points: The Coming Attractions 132
OBJECTIVES FOR COMPETENT CONCLUSIONS 133
Summarize the Main Points: Connecting the Dots 133
Refer to the Introduction: Bookending Your Speech 134
Make a Memorable Finish: Sizzle Don’t Fizzle 134
SUMMARY 136
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 136
CHECKLIST 137
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 138
 CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER 8 Outlining and Organizing Speeches 139

EFFECTIVE OUTLINING 140

Standard Formatting: Using Correct Symbols 140
Division: Dividing the Pie 141
Coherence: Logical Consistency and Clarity 142
Completeness: Using Full Sentences 144
Balance: No Lopsided Time Allotment 145
[Box Feature] A Student Outline: Rough Draft and Revision 146
EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATION: CREATING PATTERNS 149
Topical Pattern: By the Subjects 149
Chronological Pattern: According to Time 150
Spatial Pattern: Visualization 150
Causal Pattern: Who or What Is Responsible 152
Problem–Solution Pattern: Meeting Needs 152
Problem–Cause–Solution Pattern: Knowing Why and How 152
Comparative Advantages Pattern: Who or What Is Better 153
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence: Five-Step Pattern 154
Narrative Pattern: Telling a Story 155
CONNECTING THE DOTS: ADDITIONAL TIPS 156
Provide Definitions 156
Use Signposts 157
Make Transitions 157
Use Internal Previews 157
Give Internal Summaries 158
PREPARATION VERSUS PRESENTATION OUTLINES 159
SUMMARY 160
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 160
CHECKLIST 161
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 161

CHAPTER 9 Speaking Style: Using Language 162

ORAL VERSUS WRITTEN STYLE 163

STYLE IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 164
STANDARDS OF COMPETENT ORAL STYLE 165
Clarity: Saying What You Mean 165
Precision: Picking the Apt Words 167
xiv CONTENTS

Vividness: Painting a Picture 169

Metaphor and Simile: Figures of Speech 170
Alliteration: Several of the Same Sounds 171
Repetition: Rhythmic Cadence 171
Antithesis: Using Opposites 173
SUMMARY 173
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 173
CHECKLIST 174
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 174

CHAPTER 10 Delivering Your Speech 175

METHODS OF COMPETENT DELIVERY 176

Manuscript Speaking: Looking for Precision 176
Memorized Speaking: Memory Do Not Fail Me Now 178
Impromptu Speaking: Off-the-Cuff Presentations 179
Extemporaneous Speaking: The Virtues of an Outline 180
DEVELOPING COMPETENT DELIVERY 182
Eye Contact: Connecting with Your Audience 182
Voice: Developing Vocal Variety 183
Fluency: Avoiding Excessive Vocal Fillers 184
Speaking Rate: Finding the Right Pace 185
Articulation and Pronunciation: Striving for Clarity of Speech 186
Body Movements: Finding the Right Balance Nonverbally 187
Podium Usage: Avoiding the Lectern Lean 188
Microphone Usage: Amplifying Your Delivery 189
Distracting Behaviors: Avoiding Interference 190
Online Speeches: Clean Up Your Room 191
Audience-Centered Delivery: Matching the Context 192
SUMMARY 193
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 193
CHECKLIST 194
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 195

CHAPTER 11 Visual Aids 196

BENEFITS OF VISUAL AIDS: REASONS TO USE THEM 196

TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS: MAKING APPROPRIATE CHOICES 197
 CONTENTS xv

Objects: Show and Tell 197

Models: Practical Representations 199
Graphs: Making Statistics Clear and Interesting 199
Maps: Making a Point Geographically 201
Tables: Factual and Statistical Comparisons 201
Photographs: Very Visual Aids 202
Drawings: Photo Substitutes 203
VISUAL AIDS MEDIA: SIMPLE TO TECHNOLOGICALLY
ADVANCED 203
Chalkboard and Whiteboard: All Dinosaurs Are
Not Extinct 204
Poster Board: Simplicity Itself 205
Handouts: An Old Standby 206
Video Excerpts: DVDs, YouTube, and Visual Power 206
Projection Equipment: Blowing It Up 207
Computer-Assisted Presentations 208
[Box Feature] PowerPoint: Lots of Power, Little Point? 211
GUIDELINES FOR COMPETENT USE: AIDS NOT
DISTRACTIONS 212
Keep Aids Simple 212
Make Aids Visible 212
Make Aids Neat, Attractive, and Accurate 213
Do Not Block the Audience’s View 213
Keep Aids Close to You 214
Put the Aid Out of Sight When Not in Use 214
Practice with Aids 215
Do Not Circulate Your Aids 215
Do Not Talk in the Dark 215
Anticipate Problems 215
SUMMARY 217
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 217
CHECKLIST 218
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 218

CHAPTER 12 SSpeakers
kepticism: Becoming Critical Thinking
and Listeners 219

SKEPTICISM, TRUE BELIEF, AND CYNICISM 220

DANGERS OF TRUE BELIEF 221
THE PROCESS OF TRUE BELIEVING 222
xvi CONTENTS

Confirmation Bias: Searching for Support 222

Rationalization of Disconfirmation: Clinging to
Falsehoods 223
Burden of Proof: Whose Obligation Is It? 224
THE PROCESS OF SKEPTICISM: INQUIRING MINDS
WANT TO KNOW 225
Probability Model: Likely But Not Certain 226
Possibility: Could Happen, But Do Not Bet on It 226
226
Plausibility: Making a Logical Case
Probability: What Are the Odds? 228
Certainty: Without Exception 230
Skepticism and Open-Mindedness: Inquiring Minds,
Not Empty Minds 231
Becoming a Skeptic: Steps to Be Taken 232
What Speakers as Skeptics Do 232
What Listeners as Skeptics Do 232

SUMMARY 233
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 233
CHECKLIST 234
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 234

CHAPTER 13 Argument, Reasoning, and Evidence 235

AN ARGUMENT: STAKING YOUR CLAIM 236

Syllogism: Formal Logic 237
Toulmin Structure of Argument: Informal Logic 238
CRITERIA FOR REASONING AND EVIDENCE: IS IT FACT
OR FALLACY? 239
Credibility: Should We Believe You? 240
Manufactured or Questionable Statistics: Does It Make Sense? 240
Biased Source: Grinding an Ax 241
Expert Quoted Out of Field: No Generic Experts Allowed 242
Relevance: Does It Follow? 243
Ad Hominem Fallacy: Diversionary Tactic 243
Ad Populum Fallacy: Arguing from Public Opinion 244
Sufficiency: Got Enough? 245
Self-Selected Sample: Partisan Power 246
Inadequate Sample: Large Margin of Error 246
Hasty Generalization: Arguing from Example 247
 CONTENTS xvii

Correlation Mistaken for Causation: X Does Not Necessarily

Cause Y 248
False Analogy: Mixing Apples and Oranges 249
SUMMARY 250
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 251
CHECKLIST 251
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 252

CHAPTER 14 Informative Speaking 253

DISTINGUISHING INFORMATIVE FROM PERSUASIVE SPEAKING 254

Noncontroversial Information: Staying Neutral 255
Precursor to Persuasion: No Call to Action 255
TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES 257
Reports: Facts in Brief 257
Explanations: Deeper Understanding 257
Demonstrations: Acting Out 258
Narratives: Storytelling 259
Speeches That Compare: Balancing the Pros and Cons 260
GUIDELINES FOR COMPETENT INFORMATIVE SPEAKING 261
Be Informative: Tell Us What We Do Not Know 261
Adapt to Your Audience: Topic Choice and Knowledge Base 262
Avoid Information Overload: Beware the Data Dump 263
Tell Your Story Well: Narrative Tips 263
SUMMARY 265
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 266
CHECKLIST 266
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 267

CHAPTER 15 Foundations of Persuasive Speaking 268

DEFINING PERSUASION 270

GOALS OF PERSUASION 271
Conversion: Radical Persuasion 271
Modification: Do Not Ask for the Moon 272
Maintenance: Keep ‘Em Coming Back 273
xviii CONTENTS

ATTITUDE–BEHAVIOR CONSISTENCY 274

Direct Experience: No Secondhand Attitudes 275
Social Pressure: Getting Heat from Others 276
Effort Required: Degree of Difficulty 277
ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL 278
PROPOSITIONS: FACT, VALUE, AND POLICY CLAIMS 281
CULTURE AND PERSUASION 283
SUMMARY 284
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 285
CHECKLIST 285
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 286

CHAPTER 16 Persuasive Speaking Strategies 287

ENHANCE THE SPEAKER: IDENTIFICATION

AND CREDIBILITY 288
USE LOGIC AND EVIDENCE: A PERSUASIVE FOCUS 289
Persuasive Arguments: Quality and Quantity 289
Persuasive Evidence: Statistics Versus Narratives 290
TRY EMOTIONAL APPEALS: BEYOND LOGIC 290
General Emotional Appeals: Motivating Change 291
Fear Appeals: Are You Scared Yet? 291
Anger Appeals: Moderately Upset 294
Ethics and Persuasion: Emotional Appeals Revisited 296
FRAMING: USING LANGUAGE TO SHAPE
ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR 297
INDUCE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: CREATING TENSION 298
USE THE CONTRAST EFFECT: MINIMIZE THE MAGNITUDE 300
USE A TWO-SIDED ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN:
REFUTATION 303
SUMMARY 304
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 304
CHECKLIST 305
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 306
 CONTENTS xix

CHAPTER 17 Speeches for Special Occasions 307

TRIBUTE ADDRESSES 307

Toasts: Raising a Glass in Tribute 308
Roasts: Poking Fun with Admiration 309
Tribute to Colleagues: Honoring the Departing 310
Eulogies: Praising the Departed 311
INTRODUCTIONS OF FEATURED SPEAKERS 313
SPEECHES OF PRESENTATION 315
SPEECHES OF ACCEPTANCE 315
COMMENCEMENT ADDRESSES 316
AFTER-DINNER SPEECHES 318
SUMMARY 318
TED TALKS AND YOUTUBE VIDEOS 319

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 319

APPENDIX A Text of an Informative Speech: “The Annual Plague” 320

APPENDIX B Text of a Persuasive Speech: “Get Big Money

Out of College Sports” 324

APPENDIX C Group Oral Presentations 330

Glossary 333
References 339
Credits 367
Index 369
Preface
Public speaking texts continue to take two main approaches. One could be called
the all-you-can-eat buffet approach. These works are resplendent with almost
every conceivable tasty feature that only the most dedicated and motivated stu-
dents will ever sample. They can be wonderful books as a kind of “everything
you ever wanted to know about public speaking, and then some” reference work,
but public speaking novices may see them as daunting. A second is the cookbook
approach. These works primarily offer a list of recipe steps for constructing and
presenting a speech. Striving to cover “only the basics,” they achieve this pur-
pose, but few students are likely to find the recipe approach interesting reading.
Each approach has its merits and supporters. The significant success of the
first two editions of Practically Speaking, however, suggests a clear desire by
many to go in a different direction. Practically Speaking offers that different di-
rection, one that was deemed worthy enough to receive the prestigious, peer-
reviewed, 2018 Textbook Excellence Award from the Textbook and Academic
Authors Association. Understanding this different approach can be ascertained
by addressing key objectives for both students and teachers.

OBJECTIVES FOR STUDENTS

Practically Speaking aims to address four key objectives for students: (1) readabil-
ity, (2) clarity, (3) applicability, and (4) affordability. Regarding the first ­objective—
readability—the wisdom of Samuel Johnson seems apt: “What is written without
effort is in general read without pleasure.” Maximum effort has been devoted to
writing a textbook that might ignite the interest of student readers, not induce a
coma. Textbooks are not meant to read like spy thrillers, but they need not read
like an instruction manual for setting up your new flat-screen TV. Therefore, I
attempted to practice what I teach about gaining and maintaining attention by
using the attention-getting strategies discussed in Chapter 6. The text includes
novel and humorous examples, stories, quotations, photos, and cartoons; intense,
dramatic, and poignant illustrations; colorful and vivid language and metaphors;
and startling statistics and historical facts sprinkled throughout every chapter.
The writing style is conversational, and the perpendicular pronoun “I” is used
when relating personal narratives. First-person singular is more engaging than

xx
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
The easy way in which the planters of Louisiana are found to
accumulate wealth, excites in every one the desire of pursuing the
same road, without having the necessary means at command.
Hundreds of respectable farmers have paid with their lives for a
neglect of this truth. Instigated by the anxiety to become rich, and
unable withal to purchase slaves, they were under the necessity of
labouring for themselves. The consequence was, they shortly fell
victims to their mistaken notions. One can only be seasoned by
degrees to the climate of Louisiana. To force the march of time and
habit, is impossible. The more stout and healthy the person, the
greater the risk. People who, allured by the prospect of wealth,
would attempt to work in this climate as they were used to do in the
north, would fall sick and die, without having provided for their
children, who are then forced upon the charity of strangers. There
are many tracts of second-rate land, equal to land of the best quality
in the northern states, in the west and east of Louisiana, which are
perfectly healthy, and where farmers of less property may buy lands,
and establish labour and corn farms, or raise cattle in abundance.
Those who have proceeded in this way, which is more proportioned
to their means, have never failed to acquire in the course of time, a
large fortune, as by the open water communication the produce can
easily be conveyed to New Orleans, where, in the summer, they find
a ready and advantageous market. These parts have hitherto been
too much neglected, to which circumstance it is greatly owing that
New Orleans, at certain seasons, is almost destitute of provisions,
when the waters of the tributary rivers of the Mississippi, Ohio, &c.,
are low.
A third class of settlers in Louisiana are merchants. New Orleans has
unfortunately the credit of being a place to which wealth flows in
streams, and it is consequently the resort of all adventurers from
Europe and America, who come hither in the expectation, that they
have only to be on the spot to make money. Thousands of these ill-
fated adventurers have lost their lives in consequence. It is true, that
most of the wealthy merchants were needy adventurers, who began
with scarcely a dollar in their pockets, as pedlars, who sold pins and
glass beads to the Indians. But the surest way for the merchant who
wishes to begin with a small capital, will always be to settle in one of
the smaller towns, Francisville, Alexandria, Natchitoches, Baton
Rouge, &c. Those who have followed this course grew wealthy in a
short time. I admit there is an exception with respect to such as
have a sufficient capital to begin business with in the city itself, or to
embark in commercial relation with Great Britain, the north of the
Union, or the continent of Europe.
The commission trade is advantageous in the extreme; and the clear
income realised in commercial business by several merchants,
amounts to 50,000 dollars a year. All the French, English, and
Spaniards, who have established themselves in this place, have
become rich, especially if the individuals of the latter nations were
conversant with the French language.
For manufacturers, there is in New Orleans little prospect. In a slave
state, where of course hard labour is performed only by slaves,
whose food consists of Indian corn, and at the most, of salt meat,
and their dress of cotton trowsers, or a blanket rudely adapted to
their shapes, the mechanic cannot find sufficient customers. Half of
the inhabitants have no need of his assistance; and as he cannot
renounce his habits of living on wheat flour, fresh meat, &c.,
provisions which at certain seasons are very dear in New Orleans,
his existence there must be very precarious. The charges are
proportionably enormous. The price for the making of a great coat,
is from fourteen to sixteen dollars; of a coat, from ten to twelve
dollars. The greatest part of the inhabitants, therefore, buy their
own dresses ready made in the north. The wealthy alone employ
these mechanics.
There are yet several trades which would answer well in New
Orleans, such as clever tailors, confectioners, &c. But as almost
every article is brought into this country, the mechanics have rather
a poor chance of succeeding, and if not provided with a sufficient
capital, they are exposed to great penury until they can find
customers. This class of people are very little respected, and hardly
more so than the people of colour in Louisiana.
 CHAPTER XIX.
Geographical Features of the State of Louisiana.—Conclusion.

Louisiana lies under the same degree of north latitude as Egypt, and
bears a striking resemblance to that country. Their soil, their climate,
and their very rivers, exhibit the same features, with the exception,
that the Mississippi runs from north to south, whereas the Nile takes
an opposite course. Close to the eastern bank of the former, we find
a continued series of Cyprus, swamps, and lakes, sometimes
intersected by a tributary stream of the Mississippi, with elevated
banks or hills. Farther towards the east are large tracts of lands, with
pinewoods stretching towards the river Mobile, which resembles the
Mississippi in every thing, except in size. Further southward,
between the Mississippi and Mobile, we find the rivers Amite,
Tickfah, Tangipao, Pearl, Pascagola, emptying themselves into a
chain of lakes and swamps, running in a south-east direction from
the Mississippi to the mouth of the Mobile. Further to the westward
is the Mississippi in its meandering course, its banks lined with
plantations from Natchez to New Orleans, each plantation extending
half a mile back to the swamps. South of New Orleans, is another
chain of swamps, lakes, and bayons, terminating in the gulf of
Mexico. West of the Mississippi, a multitude of rivers flow in a
thousand windings, lined with impenetrable forests of cyprus, cotton
trees, and cedars, intermixed with canebrack and the palmetta. In
this labyrinth of rivers, the Red-river, the Arkansas, the White-river,
and Tensaw rivers are seen meandering. Farther east are the
immense prairies of Opelausas, and Attacapas, interspersed here
and there with rising farms, forests along the banks of the Red-river,
and more to the westward the great prairies, the resort of
innumerable buffaloes and of every kind of game. The Red-river, like
the Mississippi, forms an impenetrable series of swamps and lakes.
Beyond this river are seen pinewoods, from which issues the
Ouachitta, losing itself afterwards in the Delta of the Mississippi.
Beyond these pine woods, in a north western direction, rise the
Mazernes mountains, extending from the east to west 200 miles,
and forming the boundary line between east and west Louisiana. To
the north and west of the Red-river, the country is dry and healthy,
but of inferior quality; to the east we find a chain of lakes; to the
south another chain. In summer they dry up, thus affording fine
pasturage to buffaloes. In autumn, with the rising of the rivers, they
again fill with water. Southward is a continued lake, intermixed with
swamps, which terminate at last in the gulph of Mexico.
Louisiana, though the smallest of the states and territories formed
out of the ancient Louisiana, is by far the most important, and the
central point of the western commonwealth. Its boundaries are, on
the south, the Gulph of Mexico; on the west, the Mexican province
of Tecas; on the north, the Arkansas territory, and the state of
Mississippi; and on the east, the state of Mississippi, and Mexico.
The number of inhabitants amounts to 190,000, 106,000 of whom
are people of colour. The constitution of the state inclines to Federal.
The governor, the senators, and the representatives, in order to be
eligible, must be possessed of landed property—the former to the
amount of at least 5000 dollars, the next 1000, and the latter 500.
Every citizen of the state is qualified to vote. The government in this,
as well as in every other state, is divided into three separate
branches. The chief magistrate of the state is elected for the term of
four years. Under him he has a secretary of state. The present
governor is an Anglo-American; Mr. Johnson, the secretary, is a
Creole.
The legislative branch is composed of the senators, and of the house
of representatives. The former consists of sixteen members, elected
for the term of four years. They choose from among themselves a
president, who takes the place of the governor, in case of the demise
of the latter.[K] The house of representatives consists of forty-four
members, headed by a speaker; the court of justice of three judges
of the district court, a supreme judge of the criminal court of New
Orleans, and eight district judges, with an equal number of district
attorneys. The sessions are held every Monday. The parish and
county courts have twenty-eight county or parish judges, twenty-six
sheriffs, and 159 lawyers, to assist them in their labours. In a
political view, the acquisition of Louisiana is no doubt the most
important occurrence in the United States since the revolution; and,
considered altogether, it may be called a second revolution.
Independently of the pacific acquisition of a country containing
nearly a million and a half of square miles, with the longest river in
the world flowing through a valley several thousand miles in length
and breadth, their geographical position is now secured, and they
form, since the further acquisition of Florida, a whole and compact
body, with a coast extending upwards of 1000 miles along the gulph
of Mexico, and 500 miles on the Pacific ocean. Whether the vast
increase of wealth amassed by most of those who settled on the
banks of the Mississippi will prove strong enough to retain this
political link unbroken, is very much to be doubted. It is very clear
that the inhabitants of the valley of the Mississippi, and especially of
Louisiana, entertain a feeling of estrangement from their northern
fellow citizens.
With the exception of a number of respectable Americans, Louisiana
and the valley of the Mississippi have hitherto been the refuge of all
classes of foreigners, good and bad, who sought here an asylum
from oppression and poverty, or from the avenging arm of justice in
their native countries. Many have not succeeded in their
expectations—many have died—others returned, exasperated
against a country which had disappointed their hopes, because they
expected to find superior beings, and discovered that they were men
neither worse nor better than their habits, propensities, country,
climate, and a thousand other circumstances had made them. The
fault was theirs. Though there exists not, perhaps, a country in the
world where a fortune can be made in an easier way, yet it cannot
be made without industry, steadiness, and a small capital to begin
with—things in which these people were mostly deficient. And there
is another circumstance not to be lost sight of. Whoever changes his
country should have before him a complete view and a clear idea of
the state in which he intends to settle, as well as of the rest of the
Union: he ought to depend upon his own means, on himself in short,
and not upon others. Upon no other terms will prosperity and
happiness attend the emigrant’s exertions in the United States. The
foreign mechanic who, emigrating into the United States, selects the
states of New York, Pennsylvania, or Ohio, will find sufficient
occupation, his trade respected, and his industry rewarded by wealth
and political consequence. The manufacturer with a moderate
capital, will choose Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and the like places. The
merchant who is possessed of 2 or 3000 dollars, and settles in Ohio,
in the north western part of Pennsylvania, or over in Illinois, will, if
he be prudent and steady, have no reason to complain of the
Yankees. The farmer, with a capital of from 3 to 4000 dollars, will fix
upon the state of Ohio, in preference to any other, especially if he
comes accompanied only by his own family, and is therefore obliged
to rely on the friendly assistance of his neighbours. He will there
prefer the lands adjacent to navigable rivers, or to the rise of the
new canal. If he goes beyond Ohio, he will find eligible situations in
Illinois, and in Missouri. Any one who can command a capital
exceeding 10,000 dollars, who is not incumbered with a large family,
and whose mind does not revolt at the idea of being the owner of
slaves, will choose the state of Mississippi, or of Louisiana, and
realize there in a short time a fortune beyond his most sanguine
expectations. He has his choice there of the unsold lands along the
Mississippi, and Red-river, in the parishes of Plaquemines or Bayon
Bastier; in the interior, of La Fourche, Iberville, Attacapas,
Opelousas, Rapides, Nachitoches, Concordia, New Feliciana, and all
the way up the Mississippi, to Walnut-hills, four hundred miles above
New Orleans. All that has been urged against the unhealthiness of
the country may be answered in these few words. Louisiana, though
not at every season of the year equally salubrious, is far healthier
than Cuba, Jamaica, and the West Indies in general. Thousands of
people live free from the attacks of any kind of fever. On the
plantations there is not the least danger.—In New Orleans the yellow
fever has not appeared these four years past, and the place is so far
from being unhealthy now, that the mortality for the last three years
was less in this place than in Boston, New York and Philadelphia.
Cleanliness, sobriety, a strict attention to the digestive system, and
the avoiding of strong liquors, and exposure to heat, or to the rising
miasmata, will keep every one as healthy in Louisiana as any where
else. The neglect of proper precautions will cause as serious
inconvenience in Louisiana as in any other country. This is the real
condition of the state, and those acquainted with it will readily bear
testimony to the correctness of my opinion, that it holds out not only
to British emigrants, but also to capitalists of that country,
advantages far surpassing those of their own vast dominions in any
quarter of the globe.
In Louisiana they should embark a part of their capital, not in land
speculations, or in buying extensive tracts, which they have to sell in
the course of time in small parcels, but in plantations. These are
sources of wealth far superior to the gold mines of Mexico, and are
guaranteed by a firm constitution, and by the character and the
habits of a liberal people, taken in the whole, whatever John Bull
may have to say against it. In this manner may the said John Bull
still reap the reward of his having formed and maintained the first
settlements in the United States, at a vast expense of blood and
treasure.
This would be the means of drawing closer the now rather relaxed
ties which formerly united him with his kinsman, for Brother
Jonathan is neither so bad as John Bull supposes him to be, nor so
faultless as he fancies himself.—Medium tenuere beati.
THE END.
 TABLE
OF THE
STATES, COUNTIES, CITIES, TOWNS, AND
VILLAGES.

Pittsburgh, county town of Alleghany county.

Alleghany (river), Monongehela (river).
Oeconomy, Rapp’s Settlement in Beaver county.
Zanesville, capital of Muskiagum county.
New Lancaster, capital of Fairfield county.
Columbus, capital of the State of Ohio.
Chilicothe, capital of the Sciota county.
Franklintown, capital of Franklin county.
Cincinnati, capital of Hamilton county.
Newport, capital of Campbell county, in Kentucky.
Vevay, capital of New Switzerland county, in the State of Indiana.
Madisonville, capital of Jefferson county.
Charlestown, capital of Clark county.
Jeffersonville, capital of Floyd county.
Clarkesville and New Albany, villages of Floyd county.
Louisville, capital of Jefferson county, in Kentucky.
Shippingport and Portland, villages.
Troy, capital of Crawford county.
Owensborough, capital of Henderson county.
Harmony, in Indiana, second settlement of Rapp, purchased 1823, by Owen, of Lanark.
Shawneetown, in the State of Illinois.
Fort Massai, in the State of Illinois.
Golconda, capital of Pope county.
Vienna, capital of Johnson county.
 America, capital of Alexander county.
Trinity, village of Alexander.
Kaskakia, Cahokia, towns of Illinois.
Vandalia, capital of the State of Illinois.
Hamburgh, village in Illinois.
Cape Girardeau, capital of the county of the same name.
St. Genevieve and Herculaneum, towns of the State of Missouri.
City of St. Louis, capital of Missouri (the state).
New Madrid, capital of New Madrid county.
Tennessee, State of
Nashville, Knoxville, towns of Tennessee, and New Ereesborough, capital of the State.
Hopefield, capital of Hempstead county.
St. Helena, village of Arkansas territory.
Vixburgh, capital of Warren county.
Warrington, village of Warren county.
Palmyra Plantations, Bruinsburgh, Natchez (city of), in the State of Mississippi.
Gibsonport, capital of Gibson county.
Baton Rouge, Plaquemines, Manchac, Bayon, Tourche, the former the capital of the
county, and the latter bayons.
New Orleans (city of), the capital of Louisiana.

In Chapter xix. the following Rivers occur.

Mobile—the rivers Amite, Tickfah, Tangipao, Pearl, Pascaguala, Arkansas, White and
Red-River, Tensaw.
Plaquemines, Interior of la Tourche, Iberville, Attacapas, Opelousas, Rapides,
Natchitoches, Concordia, Avoyelles, New Feliciana, Parishes of Louisiana.

N.B. The Counties in the State of Louisiana, are called Parishes.

Printed by Bradbury & Dent, Bolt-court, Fleet-street.

 Footnotes
[A] Of course this billiard table is not mentioned as a matter of
importance, but merely to give a characteristic idea of the state of
society in these parts.
[B] Eighteen miles from Pittsburgh on the road to Beaver, the new
and third settlement of the Swabian separatists, called Economy,
was established two years ago by Rapp, a man celebrated in the
Union for his rustic sagacity. This man affords an instance of what
persevering industry, united with sound sense, may effect.—When
he arrived with his 400 followers from Germany, twenty years ago,
their capital amounted to 35,000 dollars; and so poor were they at
first, that their leader could not find credit for a barrel of salt. They
are now worth at least a million of dollars. Their new settlement
promises to thrive, and to become superior to those which they
sold in Buttler County, Pennsylvania, and in Indiana on the Wabash.
Nothing can exceed the authority exercised by this man over his
flock. He unites both the spiritual and temporal power in his own
person. He has with him a kind of Vice-Dictator in the person of his
adopted son, (who is married to his daughter), and a council of
twelve elders, who manage the domestic affairs of the community,
now amounting to 1000 souls. When he was yet residing in Old
Harmony, twenty-eight miles north of Pittsburgh, the bridge
constructed over a creek which passes by the village, wanted
repair. It was winter time; the ice seemed thick enough to allow of
walking across. The creek, however, was deep, and 100 feet wide:
Master Rapp, notwithstanding, ventured upon it, intending to come
up to the pier. He was scarcely in the middle of the river, when the
ice gave way. A number of his followers being assembled on the
shores, were eager to assist him.—“Do you think,” hallooed Rapp,
“that the Lord will withdraw his hands from his elect, and that I
need your help?” The poor fellows immediately dropped the boards,
but at the same time Master Rapp sunk deeper into the creek. The
danger at last conquered his shame and his confidence in
supernatural aid, and he called lustily for assistance.
Notwithstanding the cries of the American by-standers, “You d—d
fools, let the tyrant go down, you will have his money, you will be
free,” they immediately threw boards on the ice, went up to him,
and took him out of the water, amidst shouts of laughter from the
unbelieving Americans. On the following Sunday he preached them
a sermon, purporting that the Lord had visited their sins upon him,
and that their disobedience to his commands was the cause of his
sinking. The poor dupes literally believed all this, promised
obedience, and both parties were satisfied. Several of his followers
left him, being shocked at his law of celibacy, but such was his
ascendancy over the female part of the community, that they chose
rather to leave their husbands than their father Rapp, as they call
him. Last year, however (1826), he abolished this kind of celibacy,
hitherto so strictly observed, and on the 4th of July, eighteen
couples were permitted to marry. This settlement is one of the
finest villages in the west of Pennsylvania. A manufactory of steam
engines, extensive parks of deer, two elks, and a magnificent
palace for himself, splendidly furnished, show that he knows how to
avail himself of his increasing wealth. The inhabitants of Pittsburgh
make frequent excursions to this settlement, and though his
manners savour of the Swabian peasant, yet his wealth and his
hospitality have considerably diminished the contempt in which he
was formerly held by the Anglo-Americans.
[C] Sawyers are bodies of trees fixed in the river, which yield to the
pressure of the current, disappearing and appearing by turns above
water, like the rotatory motion of the saw-mill, from which they
have derived their name. They sometimes point up the stream,
sometimes in the contrary direction. A steam-boat running on a
sawyer, cannot escape destruction.
[D] Planters are large bodies of trees, firmly fixed by their roots to
the bottom of the river, in a perpendicular manner, and rising no
more than a foot above the surface at low water. They are so firmly
rooted, as to be unmoved by the shock of steam-boats running
upon them.
[E] Bayons, outlets of the Mississippi, formed by nature. They are
in great numbers, and carry its waters to the gulph of Mexico.
Without these outlets, New Orleans would be destroyed by the
spring floods in a few hours.
[F] In New Orleans, water is found two feet below the surface.
Those who cannot afford to procure a vault for their dead, are
literally compelled to deposit them in the water.
[G] The whole number of vessels then in port was 100 schooners,
brigs, and ships.
[H] Pensacola has been established as a port for the United States
navy: 1825–1826.
[I] The whole course of the Mississippi exceeds, the Missouri
included, 4200 miles. This latter is its principal tributary stream,
and superior in magnitude even to the Mississippi.
[J] Below New Orleans there is no place well adapted for the site of
a large city.
[K] The governor of Louisiana has 5000 dollars a year: the
governors of other states either 2 or 3000 dollars. According to the
American money, four dollars forty-four cents make a pound: a
dollar has 100 cents.
 Transcriber’s Note
Minor errors in punctuation are corrected silently.
In the final table of place names, ‘New Ereesborough’ is referred to as the state capital
of Tennessee. This seems a corruption of ‘Murfreesborough’, which was the capital until
1826.
The following issues, which were deemed printer’s errors, and their resolutions are
described here:

p. ii [t]hroughout] Added.

p. 80 approach[e]d Added.

p. 82 Baton [D/R]ouge Corrected.

p. 99 hickor[i]y Removed.

p. 108 backswood-man / backwoods-man Corrected.

p. 206 Fran[s]cisville Removed.

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