Safety Rules in Chemical Laboratories

 General rules inside the chemical laboratory:

 You have to come in time without delay.

 White coat is used to protect your body and your clothes from any
deterioration.
 You have to study and understand the experiment very well.
 Do not touch, smell, or taste any material or chemical.
 Use the pipette filler to take any portion of liquid chemical; do not suck with
your mouth.
 Do not inhale the vapors of chemicals or solvents.
 Do not waste in consuming chemicals.
 Do not eat, drink or smoke inside the lab.
 Put the flammable solvents away from fire.
 Be careful during heating or boiling any chemical.
 To dilute the concentrated acids, it should be added to the water gradually and
carefully with stirring. Do not add water to the acid.
 Bench of the work inside the lab should be very clean before and after
performing experiments.

 The sources of danger inside the laboratory:

1. Toxic chemicals. 2. Flammable chemicals.

3. Explosive chemicals. 4. Glassware.

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  First aid and actions in emergency cases:

 In all cases of intoxication, injury and fire inform directly your lecturer and call
emergency services if needed.
 Cut with glass: remove glass fragments from wound, treat wound with iodine
and bandage.
 Acid burning: Wash the burnt area with a gentle stream of water; neutralize
with baking soda (NaHCO3) 5 % solution, wash with water again.
 If spilled concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) over oneself: clean injured place
with paper or cloth, then wash and neutralize.
 Alkali burning: Wash the burnt area with a gentle stream of water; neutralize
with acetic acid (CH3COOH) solution or 5% of ammonium chloride solution, wash
with water again.
 If reagent accidentally gets to mouth: immediately spilt it away, rinse
mouth with water and neutralizing solutions (baking soda, boric or acetic acid).
 Flame burning: Wash the burnt area with 5% potassium permanganate and
bandage. In case of slightly burning, wash with alcohol and put layer of glycerin.
 Intoxication with gases or with other substances via respiratory duct:
lead patient to fresh air, give him ammonia to smell.

 Eye hurtful:
 If alkali material reaches the eye, wash eye with a lot of water and then wash
with 2% boric or acetic acid solution.
 If acid material reaches the eye, wash eye with saturated solution of borax or
5% of sodium bicarbonate solution.
 You have to go to hospital if any accident happened to eye.

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Chemical label:
 Read the label of chemicals carefully.
 Take only the amount you need in a beaker or test tube.
 Do not deteriorate the chemicals by returning the remained amount to the
chemical bottle.
 Cap the bottle directly after taking the amount you need.
 There are important special symbols you have to be aware during the
handling of different chemicals:

Corrosive material Dangerous vapor

Flammable Explosive

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 Toxic Radioactive

 Glassware in Laboratories

Glassware used in lab are resist to chemicals, easy to follow up the reaction and
easy to clean.

Glassware are divided into two categories:

 First, Glassware used in heating :

This type is tolerant for heating even with direct flame, but cannot used in
measuring.
 Examples:
1. Test tubes:

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 Regular test tubes Conical test tubes

Burning tubes Capped test tubes Graduated test tubes

2. Beakers: are used in solution preparation, liquid heating and precipitation

processes.

3. Conical Flasks: are used in titration, heating, and filtration processes.

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4. Funnels: are used in filling some glassware and filtration processes.

 Second, Glassware used in Measuring:

This type is used only in measuring process but does not tolerant for heating
processes.

 Examples:
1. Burette: it is used in volumetric titration.

Graduated burette Volumetric burette

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2. Pipette: it is used to take a certain volume of liquids.

Graduated pipette Volumetric pipette

3. Graduated cylinder: it is used to take a roughly volume of liquids.

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4. Volumetric flask: it is used for preparation of solutions with specific
concentrations.

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 LABORATORY TECHNIQUE, MATERIALS
AND FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 While working in the analytical chemistry laboratory it is necessary

to learn how to:
a) prepare laboratory glassware, instruments and filters for work;
b) filter, to heat and to dry materials;
c) measure liquid volume or weight with technical and analytical balance;
d) assemble chemical equipment;
e) prepare solutions of required concentration;
f) calculate the required amount of reagents .

 Cleaning of laboratory glassware:

 Before use, all glassware should be thoroughly cleaned to prevent errors

caused by contaminants. First of all the glassware is washed with tap water,
using small amounts of soap or soda and a brush to scrub the glassware.
 If the glassware is not truly cleaned, the dirt is eliminated while washing with
hydrochloric acid or "cleaning mixture": concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is
poured in 200 ml of saturated potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution mixture
reaches 500 ml. The glassware surface is rinsed in such "cleaning mixture" for
several minutes, but for ease of use the utensil can be filled with solution or
dipped into it and left to stay for longer time. Finally it should be washed with
tap water and rinsed with deionized water.
 If rinsing a pipette, burette or other glassware with a tip, water needs to be
discarded through the tip. The clean glassware should be inverted on a paper
towel to dry.

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  Filtration:

 The process usually employed to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid is

called filtration. After the filtration process, the liquid that passes through the
filter paper (filtrate), and/or the solid that remains on the filter paper
(precipitate or residue), can both be used.

 Measurement:

The measurement of liquid volume can be performed using graduated cylinders,

volumetric flasks and measuring vessels. Unlike counting, which can be exact,
measurements are never exact but are always estimated quantities. Obviously, some
instruments make better estimates than others, so more precise liquid volume is
measured by calibrated measuring vessels:
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• Pipette – vessel, used to suck, to drop and to measure liquid. Mohr pipette
measures only one, definite and marked on it volume. Graduated pipettes allow
measurement of any volume that would not exceed the volume of pipette's
graduated section. Such pipettes commonly are graduated with 0.1 ml scale and
allow to measure volume in 0.005 ml precision.

• Burette - glass tube (generally with 0.1 ml scale), used to drop and to measure
liquid volume.

Volume of liquid, which is colorless and moistens surfaces, is measured looking at

the bottom of liquid's meniscus in the measuring vessels. Colorful liquid’s volume,
when we can't see the bottom of meniscus, is measured by deducting according to a
top of meniscus. Meniscus should be in a level of a person who measures.

Measurement of volume by watching meniscus

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Standard solutions:

 Standard solution: is any solution of accurately known concentration that is

used in titration or other chemical analysis. Standard substances may be
primary or secondary.

 Primary standard: is an ultrapure compound that serves as the reference

material for a titration.

Properties of primary standard substance:

Material which is used for preparation of primary standard solution should have
these Characteristics:
1. High purity.
2. Atmospheric stability (against air or light).
3. Absence of hydrated water so that the composition of the solid does not
change with variations in humidity.
4. Must be available and not too expensive.
5. Reasonable solubility in the titration medium.
6. Reasonably large molar mass so that the relative error associated with
weighing the standard is minimized.

Examples are: Sodium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate, Oxalic acid, Sodium

chloride, Silver nitrate and EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid).

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 Secondary standard: is a substance that is not fulfilling any of the
characteristics of primary standard. These substances cannot be obtained easily
in pure state like HCl, H2SO4, NaOH and KMnO4.
Before using in titration or any analysis, secondary standard solutions must be
titrated firstly against a primary standard solution to find the accurate
concentration of solution. This process is called Standardization.

For Example: Before using the standard solution of NaOH in titration, it is titrated
with standard solution of oxalic acid.

 Concentration units
1- Molarity (M): is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution
(mol/L).

So,

Where,
= number of moles (mol). Mole is the Molecular weight expressed as grams.

= weight of solute (g).

= volume of solution (L).

= molecular weight (g/mol).

and

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Where,
= volume of liquid taken for preparation (ml).

= Total volume of solution (L).

 Titration calculations

Where,

= unknown concentration of analyte (M).

= known concentration of titrant (M).

= volume of analyte used for titration (ml).

= volume of titrant at the end point of titration (burette reading) (ml).

= number of moles of analyte and titrant, respectively, according to

balanced chemical equation.

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