DC NETWORK ANALYSIS 4.1 INTRODUCTION When a number of network elements* are connected together to form a system that consists of set(s) of interconnected elements performing specific or assigned functions, itis called a “network”. An electrically closed network is a “circuit”. An electrical network is a combination of numerous electric elements (¢.g., resis- tance R, inductance L, capacitance C, etc.) ‘Some important definitions related to an electrical network are as follows Node: It is the junction in a circuit where two or more network elements are connected together Branch: Iti that part of the circuit which lies between two junctions in a circuit, Loop: I is a closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more than once Mesh: Tis such @ loop that contains no other loop within it 4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF NETWORK ELEMENTS 4.2.1 Linear and Non-linear Elements A linear element shows linear characteristics of voltage vs current. Thus the parameters of linear elements remain constant (ic., the parameters do not change with voltage or current applied to that element). Resistors, inductors and capaci tors are linear elements. On the other hand, for a non-linear element, the current passing through it does not change linearly with the linear change in applied voltage across it, at a particular temperature and frequency. In a non-linear element the parameters change with applied voltage and current changes, Semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors, thyristors, etc. are typical examples of non-linear elements Ohm's law is not valid for non-linear elements. ‘network clement is a componeat of a ciuit having diferent charactenatics lke linear, non linear, active or passive ele and wil be defined shorty181 4.2.2 Active and Passive Elements Ifa circuit element has the capability of enhancing the energy level of an electric signal passing through it, itis called an active element, viz., a battery, a trans- former, semiconductor devices, etc. Otherwise the element that simply allows the passage of the signal through it without enhancement is called passive element (viz., resistors, inductors, thermistors and capacitors). Passive elements do not have any intrinsic property of boosting an electric signal. 4.23 Unilateral and Bilateral Elements If the magnitude of the current passing through an element is affected due to change in polarity of the applied voltage, the element is called a unilateral ele- ment. On the other hand if the current magnitude remains the same even if the polatity of the applied voltage is reversed, i is called a bilateral element. Unilat- eral elements offer varying impedances with variation in the magnitude or direc tion of flow of the current while bilateral elements offer same impedance irrespective of the magnitude or direction of flow of current. A resistor, an indus tance and a capacitor, all are bilateral elements while diodes, transistors, etc, are unilateral elements. 4.3 SERIES RESISTIVE CIRCUITS Resistors are said to be in series when they are connected in such a way that there is only one path through which current can flow. Therefore the current in a series circuit is the same at all parts in the circuit, The voltage drop across each compo- nent in a series circuit depends on the current Ievels and the component resistance (or impedance). 4.3.1 Currents and Voltages in a Series Circuits ‘The circuit diagram for three series connected resis tors and a dc. voltage source is shown in Fig. 4.1 ‘The total resistance connected across the voltage =R, +R, + Ry, (Ris called the equiva- e Tent resistance in ohms for the given circuit.) For a series circuit with m resistors, the equiva- lent resistance R is thus R=R +R, +R b4R, (41) The equivalent circuit for the series resistance circuit is shown in Fig, 4.2 The equivalent circuit consists of the voltage source E and the equivalent resistance R, The current J flows from the positive terminal of the voltage source, Using Ohm's law the current through the series circuit in ampere is obtained as a R RVR IRS, Fig. 41 A simple series resistive circuit I= 42182 There is only one path for current flow in a series circuit. ‘The current flow causes a voltage drop V ot potential difference actoss each resistor in the circuit of Fig. 4.1, Using Ohm's law, the Fig. 4.2 Equivalent of a simple voltage drops across each resistor in volts are series resistive circuit obtained as V,= IR, V, and Vy = IR, Since the sum of the resistive voltage drops is equal to the applied emf, for any series ciscuit, EVE EMH, or E=IR) + Ry+ Ry +R) 43 Next we consider series connection of voltage sources instead of series connection of resis- tors If three voltage sources are connected in series as shown in Fig. 4.3, the resultant volt- age in volt is E, +E, +8, In Fig. 4.4 the lowermost voltage source E has its negative terminal connected to the nega- tive terminal of the middle cell. The resultant Fig, 43. Series connection of voltage in this case is three-voltage sources E=E,+E,-By In Fig. 4.3 the voltage sources assist one another to produce the circuit current, so they A are said to be in “series aiding”. In Fig. 4.4 & the bottommost voltage source will attempt to 5 produce current in the opposite direction to that formed by the other two. Therefore this bottommost source is connected in “series op- posing” with the top two cells. Fig. 44 Series connections of three voltage sources with the polarity of one source reversed 43.2. Voltage Divider In Fig, 4.5 two series connected resistors are =>) used as a voltage divider or potential divider. Here, vs Lf 4 3h Also vy=R,-—2— Fig. 45 Voltage divider (or po- BRS RoR, tential divider) circuit183, 1 R, then V,=¥,= 2 ‘When n number of resistors are connected in series then voltage drop (V,) across any resistance (R.) is given by Vi-E 8 44 *RIR IRE OTR, oo V; and E are expressed in volt and resistors are given in ohms. Voltage Divider Theorem Ina series circuit, the portion of applied emf developed across each resistor is the ratio of that resistor’s value to the total series resistance in the circuit 4.3.3 Potentiometer The circuit diagram of a variable resistor employed as a potentiometer is shown in Fig. 4.6. The potentiometer is essentially a single resistor with terminals at each end and a movable contact that can be set to any point on the resistor. Terminals A and B are the end terminals and terminals C is the ad- justable contact (Fig. 4.6), The output voltage (V,). in volt, is given as (45) BAG A simple potentiometric V,=E oH EX RR circuit If the moving contact is half way between the two end terminals then When and when. Thus it is seen that the potentiometer can be adjusted to give an output voltage ranging linearly from 0 to E. 4.3.4 Power ina Series Circuit In Fig. 4.5, the power (VA) dissipated in R, is given by ve any series circuit containing n number of resistors the power dissipated is Pi +P, + Pye +P, = Vy + Vel + Vy to Vg TV, Vz 4 Vy to + Vy) IE184 —__ 4.6) RRR +R, eo In de circuit volt-ampere power (VA) is same as power expressed in watts. Thus P is usually expressed in watts in de circuits, 43.5 Current-limiting Resistor amps operate to a voltage level lower than -{___________] Ee or (EID) ~ (sum of resistances of lamps) an 4.3.6 Open Circuits and Short Circuits in a Series Circuit An open circuit occurs in a series resistance circuit te when one of the resistors (or any series network ele- ment) becomes disconnected from the adjacent one. Open circuit can also occur when one of the resistors (or an element) has been destroyed by excessive power dissipation. In the circuit shown in Fig, 4.8, the open circuit can be thought of another resistance in series with i i | gs i} ig 48 An open circuit value “infinity”. Therefore the current, != -—=—— = R+Rt= The voltage drop across the open cir cuit (Vojc) in volts is obtained as Voge = E-IR, = EB-0=E Figure 4.9 shows a series resistance Ry short circuited in the series circuit. Here the resistance between the terminals of Ry becomes zero after short cizcuit. There fore, the circuit current I in ampere is given by Fig. 49 Deactivation of a resistance (R,) in a series cireuit by shorting terminals of RyDC Network Analysis 185 4.1, Find the current that flows through the resistors 10 9, 20 92, and 30 9 connected in fetes across a 240 V supply, Solution v 240 — Vg 20 ay Tov 20190 "Tor 20090 Current = 42, Determine the voltage drops across each resistor of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.10. = 52 Solution The current flowing through each resistor is given as MGA =A +243 Zsa Voltage drop across the 5.0 resistor = 10 x 5 = 50V Voltage drop across the 2.0 resistor = 10x 2=20V Fig. 4.10. Circuit of Ex. 4.2 Voliage drop across the 3 0 resistor = 10 x 3 = 30 V Polaities ate marked in Fig. 4.10(a). Check that total voltage drop is 100 V, same as supply voltage. Sov ,20v30v, eetN 20M gOv 10 4t <——100v-—>} Fig. 4.10(a) Voltage drops for the series circuit shown in Fig. 4.10 44, Inthe circuit shown in Fig. 4.11, if 2, = 10 V and >t E,=7Y, find the curent through the resistors. Solution The current through the resistors E+E, 1047 = te, A= 141674 ReR +R, DeT03 (Note that E, and E, ate in series aiding connection) Fig. 411 Circuit of Ex. 43 44 Determine the current through the resistors in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.11 when the polarity of E; is reverse. Solution E-B _ -7 Current 1= 2 Tg Laas ReR+R 2703 this time E, and E, ate in series opposition). ceeeeee 4 Calculate the minimum and maximum values of V, that can be obtained from the tireuit shown in Fig. 4.12. P is the moving contact and can slide linearly along a 300 2186 Basic Electrical Engineering Solution Ly inspection it ie evident that, if P is at the 5000 bottommost point of 300 2 resistor, V, is minimum, 40 x —80 __ sry, ‘00+ 3004500 Pe 24ov 8000 (On the other hand, if P is at the topmost point of 300 02 resistor, V, is maxirnum, $00 + 300 240 x Oe 00300500 Verona) = = 16s V, It is possible to obtain values of (V,) between 120 V and 165 V by sliding P suitably across the Fig. 4.12 Cireuit of Ex. 45 300 2 resistor 4,6, Determine the power dissipated in each re Solution Power dissipated across the 2 © resistor in Fig. 4.11 is I? x 2, Le,, (14167)? x 2, Le. 4.014 W. (The value of circuit curcent has been obtained in Ex 4.3 as 1.4167 A.) Power dissipated across the 7 0 resistor is J* x7, ie, (1.4167) x7 of 14.08 W Similaely, power dissipated in the 3 & resistor is (1.4167)! x 3, ie, 6.02 W. Total power is (EXD), be, Ey + Es) xT. This gives (10 +7) x 14167, Le, 24.084 W. [Check: Total power is F(2 +7 +3), ie, (L4167)" x 12 or 24.085 W.] 427 In the circuit showin Fig. 4.13 find the value ofthe resistor R so thatthe lamps Ly BRL 1, operate at rated conditions. The rating of each ofthe lamps is 12 V, 9 W. If Ls econss short civuted find the cuent through the circul andthe power dissipated in cach ofthe lamps e 4 & 300V Fig. 413. Circuit of Ex. 47 Solution Voltage rating of the lamps is 12 V each, while power rating of each of the lamps is 9 W If Ie the rated current through the lamps then ver or PLS Loss a TER, be the resistance of each amp, PR =9 oF, R= 2 om = 160,187 Supply voltage = 300 V (given) Voltage across resistor (R) is (200 ~ 2x 12) ie, 276 V ‘Also, current through R is 075 A = Mo. 0. ans If L becomes short circuited, resistance across terminals of Lis 0 Tr the curtent now i 7, we ean write 300-= F(R + R,) = TGS + 16) ox O78. Power dissipated in L, is now (0.78)? x 16 = 9.73 W (L, will glow brighter) Power dissipated in Lis obviously 0 4.4 PARALLEL RESISTANCE CIRCUITS Resistors are said to be connected in parallel when equal voltages appear across each resistor (or network element). The total current taken from the supply is the sum of all the individual resistor or network elements’ currents 4.4.1 Currents and Voltages in Parallel Circuits Resistors are said to be connected in parallel L when the cicuit has «wo terminals which are common to each resistor. Figure 4.14 represents a circuit having thrce resistors connected in parallel The voltage across each resistor is E volts and the current through Ry is J,, through and through Ry is Jy. R Fig. 4.14 The resistors in parallel connection 8 ee > R Ry wo be ty hk ' ROR % 1,1,1 1 RRR or R 4s) Tat Fig. 45 Eguivatent circuit of RRR three resistances in a ‘The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.15, parallel circuit If n tesisors are connected in parallel then we have Flat ty yo as) ROR RR where R is the equivalent resistance.188 Therefore, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel connection is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. 4.4.2 Conductances in Parallel In de circuits conductance is the reciprocal of resistance and its unit is “Siemens” (S) in ST units or “mho” in egs units. If Gy, G, Gy, ..., G, be the conductances of the resistors connected in parallel then the equivalent conductance (G) in Si- emens is given by G=Gy+ Qt Ge 4G, (4.10) According to Ohm's law, I VG, where V is the applied voltage, G is the equivalent conductance of a parallel circuit, and 1 is the source current, 44.3 Current Divider Parallel resistance circuits are often called current divider circuits because the supply current is divided among the parallel branches. The circuit in Fig, 4.16 can be called as a current divider circuit, Here a Again, Pe Fig. 4.16 Concept of current division RR, RR, RAR, ox aan Similarly 1, = (4.12) RoR, J, and 1, ae the currents in the branches of this current divider circuit in amperes. These two equations (4.11 and 4.12) can be used to determine how a known supply current is divided into two individual currents through parallely connected resistors or network elements.DC Network Analysis 189 If G, and G, be the conductances of the resistors Ry and R,, (4.13) and 4.14) If there are n number of resistors with conductances G,, Gz .... Gy connected in parallel across a voltage source then current in any resistor with conductance G G == (4.15) G+G,+G,+-5G, [being the supply current in ampere while J; is the currrent through Gl 444° Power in Parallel Circuits For the circuit in Fig. 414, the power (in VA) across resistor Ry is given by Total power P= Eh, +1, +) / a(t = Pit Py ‘When m resistors are connected in parallel PH=PL bP, + Py eon 4 Py (4.16) (P) can be expressed in VA or in Watts in de circuits 44.5 Open Circuits and Short Circuits in Parallel Circuits ‘When one of the components in a parallel resistive circuit is open circuited, as shown in Fig. 4.17, no current flows through that branch. The other branch currents are not affected by the open circuit as they still have the normal supply voltage applied across each of them. In Fig. 4.17, 1; = 0. Supply current = 7, + J,, All currents are expressed in amperes. ‘Open circuit Fig. 4.17 Open circuit in a branch in a parallel resistive circuit190 } | Ae Fig. 418 Short circuit in a branch in a parallel circuit As there is a short circuited path across Ry, ie., across one of the resistors in the parallel circuit, no current will flow through resistors Ry, R, and R,. Total current will flow from the battery through the short cizcuited path and the cusrent (gg) = 1'= E10 = «», However, in practice this current is limited by the internal resistance of the battery and lead resistances of the wires. If the internal resis- tance of the battery be taken only and is equal to R, then current / = E/R, which is also very high (as the internal resistance of a battery is very small) Calculate the total current supplied by the battery 1 ig. 4.19 b Solution + avo ea n= Basra, 2 i oa A=4A Fig. 4.19 Circuit of Ex. 4.8 ‘The total current +hth 49 Determine the equivalent resistance of the four resistances connected in parallel Stross a 240 V supply. Also find the total current. The resistances are of 10 2, 15 0, 25, Qand 40 2, Solution The equivalent resistance L . 1 Oi v 0087-004 ORS B Total current ELM y L556, 40, Taree resistor of conductances 0.1 Siemens, 02 Siemens and 0.S Siemens are ecied in parallel, Calculate the equivalent resistance ofthe crcl Solution Equivalent conductance (G) = G, + G+ Gy 1+02+05 8 Siemens r-te1 g-iasa. og