GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Definition
GIS is a computer-based information system that enables capture, modeling,
Manipulation, retrieval, analysis and presentation of geographically referenced data

Other definitions of GIS

 A container of maps in digital form.

 A computerized tool for solving geographic problems.

 A spatial decision support system.

 A tool for revealing what is otherwise invisible in geographic information

 A tool for automatically performing operations on geographic data

Advantages of Geographic Information Systems:

 Visualize spatial information

 Power to create maps with images shown
 Can be used for a vast range of tasks involving geography
 Provide solutions for problems
 Model seismic activity precisely

Disadvantages of Geographic Information Systems:

 Very expensive
 Requires enourmous amount of date: makes it prone for error
 Geographical error increases with larger scale
 Relative loss of resolution
 Violation of privacy

Components of GIS

 Hardware,

 Software,

 Data,

 People, (humanware)
  Procedure,

 Network (Internet

Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or
networked configurations.

Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information.. A review of the key GIS software subsystems is provided above software components
are:

 Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information

 A database management system (DBMS)

 Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization

 A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

Data
Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular data
can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provide

A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most
organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.

People

GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans
for applying it to real world problems. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The
identification of GIS specialists versus end users is often critical to the proper implementation of
GIS technology.
Methods

A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

GIS DATA TYPES

The basic data type in a GIS reflects traditional data found on a map. Accordingly, GIS
technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are:

Spatial data Describes the absolute and relative location of geographic

features.
Attribute data Describes characteristics of the spatial features. These
characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in
nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.

NB: The coordinate location of a forestry stand would be spatial data, while the characteristics of that
forestry stand, e.g. cover group, dominant species, crown closure, height, etc., would be attribute data.

DATA SOURCES

A wide variety of data sources exist for both spatial and attribute data. The most common
general sources for spatial data are:

hard copy maps;

aerial photographs;
remotely-sensed imagery;
point data samples from surveys; and
Existing digital data files.

DATA INPUT TECHNIQUES

There are at least four basic procedures for inputting spatial data into a GIS. These are:

Manual digitizing;
Automatic scanning;
Entry of coordinates using coordinate geometry; and the
Conversion of existing digital data.

MANUAL DIGITIZING
Digitizing can be done in a point mode,where single points are recorded one at a time, or in a stream
mode, where a point is collected on regular intervals of time or distance, measured by an X and Y
movement, e.g. every 3 metres. Digitizing can also be done blindly or with a graphics terminal. Blind
digitizing infers that the graphic result is not immediately viewable to the person digitizing.

Manual digitizing has many advantages. These include:

Low capital cost, e.g. digitizing tables are cheap;

Low cost of labour;
Flexibility and adaptability to different data types and sources;
Easily taught in a short amount of time - an easily mastered skill
Generally the quality of data is high;
Digitizing devices are very reliable and most often offer a greater precision that the data
warrants; and
Ability to easily register and update existing data.

Automatic Scanning

A variety of scanning devices exist for the automatic capture of spatial data.

All have the advantage of being able to capture spatial features from a map at a rapid rate of speed.

Given these basic constraints some other practical limitations of scanners should be identified.
These include :

hard copy maps are often unable to be removed to where a scanning device is available, e.g.
most companies or agencies cannot afford their own scanning device and therefore must
send their maps to a private firm for scanning;
hard copy data may not be in a form that is viable for effective scanning, e.g. maps are of
poor quality, or are in poor condition;
geographic features may be too few on a single map to make it practical, cost-justifiable, to
scan;
often on busy maps a scanner may be unable to distinguish the features to be captured from
the surrounding graphic information, e.g. dense contours with labels;
with raster scanning there it is difficult to read unique labels (text) for a geographic feature
effectively; and
Scanning is much more expensive than manual digitizing, considering all the
cost/performance issues.

Coordinate Geometry

A third technique for the input of spatial data involves the calculation and entry of
coordinates using coordinate geometry (COGO) procedures. This involves entering, from
survey data, the explicit measurement of features from some known monument. This input
technique is obviously very costly and labour intensive

Conversion of Existing Digital Data

A fourth technique that is becoming increasingly popular for data input is the conversion of
existing digital data. A variety of spatial data, including digital maps, are openly available
from a wide range of government and private sources. The most common digital data to be
used in a GIS is data from CAD systems. A number of data conversion programs exist,
mostly from GIS software vendors, to transform data from CAD formats to a raster or
topological GIS data format. Several ad hoc standards for data exchange have been
established in the market place.

SPATIAL DATA MODELS

Three basic types of spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data digitally.
These are referred to as:

Vector;
Raster;
Image.

RASTER DATA FORMATS

Raster data models incorporate the use of a grid-cell data structure where the geographic area
is divided into cells identified by row and column. This data structure is commonly called
raster. While the term raster implies a regularly spaced grid other tessellated data structures
do exist in grid based GIS systems

VECTOR DATA FORMATS

All spatial data models are approaches for storing the spatial location of geographic features
in a database. Vector storage implies the use of vectors (directional lines) to represent a
geographic feature. Vector data is characterized by the use of sequential points or vertices to
define a linear segment. Each vertex consists of an X coordinate and a Y coordinate.

Vector lines are often referred to as arcs and consist of a string of vertices terminated by a
node. A node is defined as a vertex that starts or ends an arc segment

IMAGE DATA

Image data is most often used to represent graphic or pictorial data. The term image
inherently reflects a graphic representation, and in the GIS world, differs significantly from
raster data. Most often, image data is used to store remotely sensed imagery, e.g. satellite
scenes or orthophotos, or ancillary graphics such as photographs, scanned plan documents,
etc. Image data is typically used in GIS systems as background display data (if the image has
been rectified and georeferenced); or as a graphic attribute. Remote sensing software makes
use of image data for image classification and processing. Typically, this data must be
converted into a raster format (and perhaps vector) to be used analytically with the GIS.

ATTRIBUTE DATA MODELS

A variety of different data models exist for the storage and management of attribute data.
The most common are:

Tabular
Hierarchial
Network
Relational
Object Oriented
Tabular Model

The simple tabular model stores attribute data as sequential data files with fixed formats (or
comma delimited for ASCII data), for the location of attribute values in a predefined record
structure. This type of data model is outdated in the GIS arena

Hierarchical Model

The hierarchical database organizes data in a tree structure. Data is structured downward in a
tables. Any level in the hierarchy can have unlimited children, but any child can have only one
parent.Hierarchial DBMS have not gained any noticeable acceptance for use within GIS.

Network Model

The network database organizes data in a network or plex structure. Any column in a plex
structure can be linked to any other. Like a tree structure, a plex structure can be described in
terms of parents and children. This model allows for children to have more than one parent.

Relational Model

The relational database organizes data in tables. Each table, is identified by a unique table
name, and is organized by rows and columns. Each column within a table also has a unique
name. Columns store the values for a specific attribute, e.g. cover group, tree height. Rows
represent one record in the table. In a GIS each row is usually linked to a separate spatial
feature, e.g. a forestry stand.

The relational DBMS is attractive because of its:

 simplicity in organization and data modelling.
flexibility - data can be manipulated in an ad hoc manner by joining tables.
efficiency of storage - by the proper design of data tables redundant data can be
minimized; and
the non-procedural nature - queries on a relational database do not need to take into
account the internal organization of the data.

DATA EDITING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

Data editing and verification is in response to the errors that arise during the encoding of
spatial and non-spatial data.

DATA EDITING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

Data editing and verification is in response to the errors that arise during the encoding of
spatial and non-spatial data. The editing of spatial data is a time consuming, interactive
process that can take as long, if not longer, than the data input process itself.

Several kinds of errors can occur during data input. They can be classified as:

Incompleteness of the spatial data. This includes missing points, line segments,
and/or polygons.

Locational placement errors of spatial data. These types of errors usually are the
result of careless digitizing or poor quality of the original data source.

Distortion of the spatial data. This kind of error is usually caused by base maps that
are not scale-correct over the whole image, e.g. aerial photographs, or from material
stretch, e.g. paper documents.

Incorrect linkages between spatial and attribute data. This type of error is commonly
the result of incorrect unique identifiers (labels) being assigned during manual key in
or digitizing. This may involve the assigning of an entirely wrong label to a feature, or
more than one label being assigned to a feature.

Attribute data is wrong or incomplete. Often the attribute data does not match
exactly with the spatial data. This is because they are frequently from independent
sources and often different time periods. Missing data records or too many data
records are the most common problems.

The most common problems that occur in converting data into a topological structure
include:

slivers and gaps in the line work;

dead ends, e.g. also called dangling arcs, resulting from overshoots and undershoots
in the line work; and
 Bow ties or weird polygons from inappropriate closing of connecting features.

Data Verification

Six clear steps stand out in the data editing and verification process for spatial data. These
are:

Visual review. This is usually by check plotting.

Cleanup of lines and junctions. This process is usually done by software first and
interactive editing second.
Weeding of excess coordinates. This process involves the removal of redundant
vertices by the software for linear and/or polygonal features.
Correction for distortion and warping. Most GIS software has functions for scale
correction and rubber sheeting. However, the distinct rubber sheet algorithm used
will vary depending on the spatial data model, vector or raster, employed by the
GIS. Some raster techniques may be more intensive than vector based algorithms.
Construction of polygons. Since the majority of data used in GIS is polygonal, the
construction of polygon features from lines/arcs is necessary. Usually this is done in
conjunction with the topological building process.
The addition of unique identifiers or labels. Often this process is manual.
However, some systems do provide the capability to automatically build labels for a
data layer.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of Science which deals with helping

machines finds solutions to complex problems in a more human-like fashion.
Artificial Intelligence is computer programs that can engage in human-like reasoning.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

  Can take on stressful and complex work that humans may struggle/can not do.
 Can complete task faster than a human can most likely
 To discover unexplored things. i.e. outer space
 Less errors and defects
 Function is infinite

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

 Lacks the "human touch"

 Has the ability to replace human jobs
 Can malfunction and do the opposite of what they are programmed to do
 Can be misused leading to mass scale destruction
 May corrupt younger generation

Goals of AI

 To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that understand,
think, learn, and behave like humans.

Major areas of AI

This is quite different to another site that says that major areas of artificial intelligence research
can be split into seven categories.

 Natural Language Processing – the ability of computers to communicate with people in

natural language.
 Computer Vision – the analysing of images to find features of the images.
 Knowledge based systems – Systems that contain a ‘database’ of knowledge and can help
in finding information, making decisions and planing.
 Robotics – Create devices that can manipulate and interact with its environment.
 Machine Learning – Analysing data and treads to help with a task latter.
 Automatic Programming – The creation of programs from a programmer’s specification.
 Intelligent computer-aided instruction – Customising the tutoring of a student to fit the
students learning style.

EXPERT SYSTEM
A piece of software programmed using artificial intelligence techniques. Such systems use databases of
expert knowledge to offer advice or make decisions in such areas as medical diagnosis and trading on
the stock exchange

Characteristics of Expert Systems

  High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive

Capabilities of Expert Systems

The expert systems are capable of −

 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
 Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem

They are incapable of −

 Substituting human decision makers

 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge

Components of Expert Systems

The components of ES include −

 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface

Let us see them one by one briefly −

Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.

What is Knowledge?

The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.

Components of Knowledge Base

The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.

 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers

and scholars in the task domain.
 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.

Knowledge representation

It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition

The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.

The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills.

He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at
work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of
IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also
monitors the development of the ES.

Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.

In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.

In case of rule based ES, it −

 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.

To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −

 Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining

Forward Chaining

It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”

Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces
the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.

This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.
User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally
Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain.
The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.

It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear
in the following forms −

 Natural language displayed on screen.

 Verbal narrations in natural language.
 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.

The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.

Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface

 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.

 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
 It should make efficient use of user input.

Benefits of Expert Systems

 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.

 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.
 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts in.
 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.
ROBOTS
What are Robots?

Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment.

What is Robotics?

Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical

Engineering, and Computer Science for designing, construction, and application of robots.

Aspects of Robotics

 The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to accomplish a

particular task.
 They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.
 They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when and how a
robot does something.

Robot Locomotion
Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment. There
are various types of locomotions −

 Legged
 Wheeled
 Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
 Tracked slip/skid

Components of a Robot

Robots are constructed with the following −

 Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power, hydraulic, or
pneumatic power sources.
 Actuators − They convert energy into movement.
 Electric motors (AC/DC) − They are required for rotational movement.
 Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in them.
 Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
 Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.
 Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task environment.
Robots are equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the depth in the environment.
A tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human
fingertips.
Computer Vision
This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see. The computer vision plays vital role in
the domains of safety, security, health, access, and entertainment.

Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and comprehends useful information from a
single image or an array of images. This process involves development of algorithms to
accomplish automatic visual comprehension.

Hardware of Computer Vision System

This involves −

 Image acquisition device such as camera

 a processor
 a software
 A display device for monitoring the system
 Accessories such as camera stands, cables, and connectors

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of Science which deals with helping

machines finds solutions to complex problems in a more human-like fashion.
Artificial Intelligence is computer programs that can engage in human-like reasoning.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

 Can take on stressful and complex work that humans may struggle/can not do.
 Can complete task faster than a human can most likely
 To discover unexplored things. i.e. outer space
 Less errors and defects
 Function is infinite

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

 Lacks the "human touch"

 Has the ability to replace human jobs
 Can malfunction and do the opposite of what they are programmed to do
 Can be misused leading to mass scale destruction
 May corrupt younger generation

Goals of AI
  To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that understand,
think, learn, and behave like humans.

Major areas of AI

This is quite different to another site that says that major areas of artificial intelligence research
can be split into seven categories.

 Natural Language Processing – the ability of computers to communicate with people in

natural language.
 Computer Vision – the analysing of images to find features of the images.
 Knowledge based systems – Systems that contain a ‘database’ of knowledge and can help
in finding information, making decisions and planing.
 Robotics – Create devices that can manipulate and interact with its environment.
 Machine Learning – Analysing data and treads to help with a task latter.
 Automatic Programming – The creation of programs from a programmer’s specification.
 Intelligent computer-aided instruction – Customising the tutoring of a student to fit the
students learning style.

EXPERT SYSTEM
A piece of software programmed using artificial intelligence techniques. Such systems use databases of
expert knowledge to offer advice or make decisions in such areas as medical diagnosis and trading on
the stock exchange

Characteristics of Expert Systems

 High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive

Capabilities of Expert Systems

The expert systems are capable of −

 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
  Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem

They are incapable of −

 Substituting human decision makers

 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge

Components of Expert Systems

The components of ES include −

 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface

Let us see them one by one briefly −

Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.

What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.

Components of Knowledge Base

The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.

 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers

and scholars in the task domain.
 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.

Knowledge representation

It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.

Knowledge Acquisition

The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.

The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills.

He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at
work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of
IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also
monitors the development of the ES.

Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.

In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.

In case of rule based ES, it −

 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.

To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −

  Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining

Forward Chaining

It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”

Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces
the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.

This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.

User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally
Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain.
The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.

It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear
in the following forms −

 Natural language displayed on screen.

 Verbal narrations in natural language.
 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.

The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.

Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface

 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.

 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
 It should make efficient use of user input.

Benefits of Expert Systems

 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.

 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.
 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts in.
 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.
ROBOTS
What are Robots?

Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment.

What is Robotics?

Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical

Engineering, and Computer Science for designing, construction, and application of robots.

Aspects of Robotics

 The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to accomplish a

particular task.
 They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.
 They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when and how a
robot does something.

Robot Locomotion
Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment. There
are various types of locomotions −

 Legged
 Wheeled
 Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
 Tracked slip/skid

Components of a Robot

Robots are constructed with the following −

 Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power, hydraulic, or
pneumatic power sources.
 Actuators − They convert energy into movement.
 Electric motors (AC/DC) − They are required for rotational movement.
 Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in them.
 Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
 Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.
 Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task environment.
Robots are equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the depth in the environment.
A tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human
fingertips.
Computer Vision
This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see. The computer vision plays vital role in
the domains of safety, security, health, access, and entertainment.

Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and comprehends useful information from a
single image or an array of images. This process involves development of algorithms to
accomplish automatic visual comprehension.

Hardware of Computer Vision System

This involves −

 Image acquisition device such as camera

 a processor
 a software
 A display device for monitoring the system
 Accessories such as camera stands, cables, and connectors

Tasks of Computer Vision

 OCR − In the domain of computers, Optical Character Reader, a software to convert

scanned documents into editable text, which accompanies a scanner.
 Face Detection − Many state-of-the-art cameras come with this feature, which enables to
read the face and take the picture of that perfect expression. It is used to let a user access
the software on correct match.
 Object Recognition − They are installed in supermarkets, cameras, high-end cars such as
BMW, GM, and Volvo.
 Estimating Position − It is estimating position of an object with respect to camera as in
position of tumor in human’s body.

Application Domains of Computer Vision

 Agriculture
 Autonomous vehicles
 Biometrics
 Character recognition
 Forensics, security, and surveillance
 Industrial quality inspection
 Face recognition
 Gesture analysis
 Geoscience
 Medical imagery
 Pollution monitoring
 Process control
 Remote sensing
 Robotics
  Transport

Applications of Robotics
The robotics has been instrumental in the various domains such as −

 Industries − Robots are used for handling material, cutting, welding, color coating,
drilling, polishing, etc.
 Military − Autonomous robots can reach inaccessible and hazardous zones during war.
A robot named Daksh, developed by Defense Research and Development Organization
(DRDO), is in function to destroy life-threatening objects safely.
 Medicine − The robots are capable of carrying out hundreds of clinical tests
simultaneously, rehabilitating permanently disabled people, and performing complex
surgeries such as brain tumors.
 Exploration − The robot rock climbers used for space exploration, underwater drones
used for ocean exploration are to name a few.
 Entertainment − Disney’s engineers have created hundreds of robots for movie making.

AI NATURAL LANGUAGE

Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an intelligent systems
using a natural language such as English

Components of NLP
There are two components of NLP as given −

Natural Language Understanding (NLU)

Understanding involves the following tasks −

 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.

 Analyzing different aspects of the language.

Natural Language Generation (NLG)

It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of natural language
from some internal representation.

It involves −

 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge base.
 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words, forming meaningful phrases,
setting tone of the sentence.
  Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence structure.

NLP Terminology

 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive meaningful units.
 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.
 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves determining the
structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.
 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words into
meaningful phrases and sentences.
 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different situations and
how the interpretation of the sentence is affected.
 Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect the
interpretation of the next sentence.
 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.

VIRTUAL REALITY
the computer-generated simulation of a three-dimensional image or environment that can be interacted
with in a seemingly real or physical way by a person using special electronic equipment, such as a
helmet with a screen inside or gloves fitted with sensors

Virtual reality (VR) typically refers to computer technologies that use software to generate the realistic
images, sounds and other sensations that replicate a real WORLD

Types of VR

1. NON-IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL REALITY

Non-immersive virtual reality refers to a virtual experience through a computer where you can
control some characters or activities within the software, but the environment is not directly
interacting with you.

For example, when you play video games such as World of WarCraft, you can control characters
within the game that have their own animations and attributes. Technically, you are dealing with
a virtual world but, you are not the center of attention in the game. All actions or features are
rather interacting with the characters within.
2. FULLY IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL REALITY
On contrary to non-immersive virtual reality, a fully immersive virtual technology ensures that
you have a realistic experience within the virtual world. It will be as if you are within the
physically present in that virtual world and everything is happening to you for real.

This is an expensive form of virtual reality that involves helmets, gloves and body connectors
with sense detectors. These are connected to a powerful computer. Your movements, reactions
and even a blink of an eye are detected and projected within the virtual world. You will feel like
you are within the virtual world physically.

One example could be a Virtual Shooter gaming zone where you will be equipped with the gears
in a small room and you will be viewing a virtual world through the helmet where you are facing
other shooters trying to kill you. You will move your arms and body to run, jump, crouch, shoot,
throw and many more within the game.

4. AUGMENTED REALITY
Augmented Reality is when a certain entity or device seems to be present in reality but is
actually not. Rather than putting you into a virtual world, a virtual entity is placed in the real
world through any device.

For example, through your mobile screen, you can view your room, and probably place a cartoon
character at the corner. You will be able to see the character through your mobile screen and not
in reality.

It is mostly used by businesses such as furniture suppliers or decorators. For example, a person
willing to buy a table will be able to place the table in his room through his phone display. This
will let him understand if this table is suitable and looks good in his room, or he has to choose
another design.

5. COLLABORATIVE VR
This is a form of a virtual world where different people from various locations can come into
contact within a virtual environment, usually in the form of 3D or projected characters.

For example, there is a video game called PUBG (Players Unknown Battle-Ground), where tons
of players come to existences as individual virtual characters which they can control. Here they
can interact with each other through microphones, headsets, and chatting.
Architecture of VR System

visual,
auditory
Position & , haptic,
Orientation touch…

Input Renderin
Process g
or Processo
Simulation r
Processor

World Database

NB: ASSIGNMENTS..APPLICATION AREAS