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 Burns: Understanding Nursing Research, 5th Edition

Chapter 07: Understanding Theory and Research Frameworks

Test Bank

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. A study framework reflects the:

a. blueprint for the study.
b. data analysis strategy.
c. researcher’s “theory” or idea about the study.
d. specific plan for data collection.
ANS: C
When an idea for a study first emerges, the researcher has a “theory” about what the
study outcomes will be and why. As a researcher develops a plan for conducting a study,
the theory on which the study is based is expressed as the study framework.
The research design is the blueprint for the study. When an idea for a study first emerges,
the researcher has a “theory” about what the study outcomes will be and why. As a
researcher develops a plan for conducting a study, the theory on which the study is based
is expressed as the study framework.
Data analysis is planned ahead of time through the research design. When an idea for a
study first emerges, the researcher has a “theory” about what the study outcomes will be
and why. As a researcher develops a plan for conducting a study, the theory on which the
study is based is expressed as the study framework.
The specific plan for data collection is mapped out in the methodology section. The
correct answer is “researcher’s ‘theory’ or idea about the study.” When an idea for a
study first emerges, the researcher has a “theory” about what the study outcomes will be
and why. As a researcher develops a plan for conducting a study, the theory on which the
study is based is expressed as the study framework.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 227

2. A researcher theorizes that walking three times per week will minimize the likelihood of
premature labor in at-risk pregnant women. The researcher initiates a research program to
test this theory. This research study is attempting to validate what aspect of theory?
a. Development
b. Explanation
c. Prediction
d. Strategies for controlling outcomes
ANS: D
Theories are tested through research to determine the correctness of their descriptions,
explanations, predictions, and strategies to control outcomes.
In this situation the theory is already developed. The correct answer is “Strategies for
controlling outcomes.” Theories are tested through research to determine the correctness
of their descriptions, explanations, predictions, and strategies to control outcomes.

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-2

The theory being tested will not explain why the situation happens. The correct answer is
“Strategies for controlling outcomes.” Theories are tested through research to determine
the correctness of their descriptions, explanations, predictions, and strategies to control
outcomes.
Prediction requires formal experimental study. The correct answer is “Strategies for
controlling outcomes.” Theories are tested through research to determine the correctness
of their descriptions, explanations, predictions, and strategies to control outcomes.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 239

3. Which of the following is true about theoretical frameworks used in research? Theories:
a. are constructed by people and are tentative in nature.
b. offer precise guidance in all situations.
c. represent ultimate truth and are congruent with reality.
d. represent ultimate truth and are congruent with reality.
ANS: A
Theories are developed in nursing to explain phenomena important to clinical practice.
Theories must be tested through research to determine their correctness.
No theory an offer precise guidance in all situations. Theories are developed in nursing to
explain phenomena important to clinical practice. Theories must be tested through
research to determine their correctness.
Theories provide a possible explanation of how concepts are related to one another; they
do not prove it. Theories are developed in nursing to explain phenomena important to
clinical practice. Theories must be tested through research to determine their correctness.
Theories strive for truth, but it is relative. Theories are developed in nursing to explain
phenomena important to clinical practice. Theories must be tested through research to
determine their correctness.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 239

4. “Abstract” is defined in research as:

a. concrete and specific.
b. not well defined and general.
c. particular and realistic.
d. well defined and precise.
ANS: B
An abstract idea focuses on more general things.
Concrete and specific is the opposite of abstract. An abstract idea focuses on more
general things.
Particular and realistic are descriptive of concrete ideas. An abstract idea focuses on more
general things.
Concrete ideas are well defined and precise. An abstract idea focuses on more general
things.

DIF: Cognitive level: Knowledge REF: p. 228

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-3

5. Which of the following is true about the relationship between a study framework and the
hypotheses?
a. Hypotheses are inductively identified within the stated framework.
b. If the hypotheses are stated, the researcher does not need to have a framework.
c. The hypotheses are not meant to be testable, but the framework is.
d. The framework and hypotheses must be congruent with each other.
ANS: D
In a well-thought-out study, the researcher would explain abstractly in the framework
why one variable is expected to cause the other. Concretely the idea would be expressed
as a hypothesis to be tested through the study methodology.
Hypotheses must be clearly identified. The correct answer is “The framework and
hypotheses must be congruent with each other.” In a well-thought-out study, the
researcher would explain abstractly in the framework why one variable is expected to
cause the other. Concretely the idea would be expressed as a hypothesis to be tested
through the study methodology.
The framework provides the foundation for the study, hypotheses flow from it. In a
well-thought-out study, the researcher would explain abstractly in the framework why
one variable is expected to cause the other. Concretely the idea would be expressed as a
hypothesis to be tested through the study methodology.
Hypotheses are exactly what are tested in a research study. In a well-thought-out study,
the researcher would explain abstractly in the framework why one variable is expected to
cause the other. Concretely the idea would be expressed as a hypothesis to be tested
through the study methodology.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 228

6. The framework and conceptual map for a study:

a. are always included in the study report.
b. are usually clearly identified in the report.
c. often must be inferred by the reader from the text of the report.
d. should be referred to only at the end of the study.
ANS: C
Every study has a framework. Unfortunately, in some studies, the ideas that compose the
framework remain nebulous and vaguely expressed. A conceptual map graphically shows
the interrelationships of the concepts and statement in a theory.
Unfortunately, this is not always true. Every study has a framework. Unfortunately, in
some studies, the ideas that compose the framework remain nebulous and vaguely
expressed. A conceptual map graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and
statement in a theory.
Sometimes they are, but sometimes the reader has to figure them out. Every study has a
framework. Unfortunately, in some studies, the ideas that compose the framework remain
nebulous and vaguely expressed. A conceptual map graphically shows the
interrelationships of the concepts and statement in a theory.

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-4

The framework and conceptual map should be part of the literature review, in the early
portion of the study. Every study has a framework. Unfortunately, in some studies the
ideas that compose the framework remain nebulous and vaguely expressed. A conceptual
map graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and statement in a theory.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 228

7. Which of the following represents the most concrete term?

a. Concept
b. Construct
c. Framework
d. Variable
ANS: D
A variable is more specific than a concept and is measurable. A concept is more abstract
than a variable and represents the name for an object or phenomenon of interest. A
concept is the most abstract element of all. A framework explains how the researcher sees
the relationship between variables.
A concept is more abstract than a variable and represents the name for an object or
phenomenon of interest. A concept is the most abstract element of all.
A construct is a concept that has been created for the study.
A framework explains how the researcher sees the relationship between variables.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 230

8. Conceptual definitions are important to include in a research report because conceptual

definitions:
a. may differ in their meaning of terms depending on the study framework.
b. provide a dictionary definition that can be understood by everyone.
c. suggest how to precisely measure the variables of interest.
d. tell others how the concept will be measured in the study.
ANS: A
A conceptual definition is more comprehensive than a dictionary definition and includes
associated meanings the word may have. Defining concepts allows consistency in the
way the term is used because many terms commonly used in nursing language have not
been clearly defined and subsequent researchers will be able to operate using the same
meanings.
A conceptual definition is more comprehensive than a dictionary definition. A conceptual
definition is more comprehensive than a dictionary definition and includes associated
meanings the word may have. Defining concepts allows consistency in the way the term
is used because many terms commonly used in nursing language have not been clearly
defined.
The method of measurement will tell how the variable will be measured. A conceptual
definition is more comprehensive than a dictionary definition and includes associated
meanings the word may have. Defining concepts allows consistency in the way the term
is used because many terms commonly used in nursing language have not been clearly
defined.

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-5

Operational definitions tell how the variable will be measured in the study. A conceptual
definition is more comprehensive than a dictionary definition and includes associated
meanings the word may have. Defining concepts allows consistency in the way the term
is used because many terms commonly used in nursing language have not been clearly
defined.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 231

9. In the research report, what can the reader expect in a theoretical statement? A theoretical
statement:
a. is always clearly identified.
b. would only be discussed in the framework section; may be implied.
c. may be omitted if variables are not yet well defined.
d. would only be discussed in the framework section.
ANS: B
In some studies, the statements are implied rather than clearly stated, and sometimes they
are located within the introduction or literature review rather than within a clearly
expressed framework.
In some studies, the statement will not be clearly identified. The correct answer is “may
be implied.” In some studies, the statements are implied rather than clearly stated, and
sometimes they are located within the introduction or literature review rather than within
a clearly expressed framework.
The researcher should not omit the theoretical statement. The correct answer is “may be
implied.” In some studies, the statements are implied rather than clearly stated, and
sometimes they are located within the introduction or literature review rather than within
a clearly expressed framework.
Theoretical statements can be found in the introduction or literature review sections. The
correct answer is “may be implied.” In some studies, the statements are implied rather
than clearly stated, and sometimes they are located within the introduction or literature
review rather than within a clearly expressed framework.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 227

10. Which relationship diagram below best represents the following hypothesis?
“Conventional gauze dressings cause fewer skin changes in wound sites than do
hydrocolloid or hydroactive dressings.”
a. Gauze dressing → skin changes
b. Gauze dressing ← wound site
c. Type of dressing → skin changes
d. Type of dressing ↔ wound site
ANS: C
A conceptual map includes all of the major concepts in a theory or framework. These
concepts are linked by arrows expressing the proposed linkages between concepts. Each
linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic illustration of a relational statement of the theory.

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-6

This response does not use the correct variable, which is “type of dressing.” (Gauze is
one type.) A conceptual map includes all of the major concepts in a theory or framework.
These concepts are linked by arrows expressing the proposed linkages between concepts.
Each linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic illustration of a relational statement of the
theory.
Wound site is not one of the variables involved. A conceptual map includes all of the
major concepts in a theory or framework. These concepts are linked by arrows expressing
the proposed linkages between concepts. Each linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic
illustration of a relational statement of the theory.
Wound site is not one of the variables involved. A conceptual map includes all of the
major concepts in a theory or framework. These concepts are linked by arrows expressing
the proposed linkages between concepts. Each linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic
illustration of a relational statement of the theory.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 233

11. Which of the following responses best describes the relational statement that is
diagrammed below?
Pain perception ← (+) → anxiety
a. Anxiety causes increased pain perception.
b. Increased perception of pain causes anxiety.
c. Pain perception and anxiety are inversely related.
d. Pain perception and anxiety are positively related to one another.
ANS: D
A conceptual map includes all of the major concepts in a theory or framework. These
concepts are linked by arrows expressing the proposed linkages between concepts. Each
linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic illustration of a relational statement of the theory.
In this illustration, the diagram does not indicate a direction for pain perception; it only
shows a positive relationship between the two concepts as evidenced by the positive sign
in the middle of the diagram.
The diagram does not indicate a direction for pain perception.
The diagram does not indicate a direction for pain perception.
There is not an indication of an inverse relationship which would be seen with a negative
sign instead of a positive sign along the arrow.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 233

12. Select the correct pair of terms to make the statement congruent with the following map.
Attitudes of practicing nurses toward HIV-positive patients — (+) → care behavior
As attitudes of practicing nurses become more (positive or negative), their care behavior
toward patients (increases or decreases).
a. Negative, decreases
b. Negative, increases
c. Positive, decreases
d. Positive, increases
ANS: D

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-7

A conceptual map includes all of the major concepts in a theory or framework. These
concepts are linked by arrows expressing the proposed linkages between concepts. Each
linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic illustration of a relational statement of the theory.
In this illustration, a positive, directional relationship is shown between nurses’ behavior
and their subsequent care activities with HIV-positive patients.
The relationship shown in the illustration is a positive one, not negative, between the two
concepts.
The diagram does not show an inverse relationship.
The diagram does not show an inverse relationship.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 233

13. Which of the following provides a partial map for the indicated relationship drawn from
this research title?
“Effects of attendance and effort on cognitive and physical functioning among older
adults in a long-term exercise program”
a. Cognitive function → attendance in a long-term exercise program
b. Effort → physical functioning
c. Long-term exercise program → older adults
d. Physical function → effort in an exercise program
ANS: B
A conceptual map includes all of the major concepts in a theory or framework. These
concepts are linked by arrows expressing the proposed linkages between concepts. Each
linkage shown by an arrow is a graphic illustration of a relational statement of the theory.
In this example, the title of the research project clearly shows a positive relationship
between attendance and effort on cognitive and physical functioning in older adults in a
long-term exercise program. This diagram begins to accurately demonstrate this
relationship.
This indicates the wrong directional relationship between the variables.
Older adults is not a variable in this situation.
This indicates the wrong directional relationship between the variables.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 233

14. Schematic models or maps represent reality with a minimum use of:
a. arrows.
b. boxes.
c. symbols (+, –, ?, etc.).
d. words.
ANS: D
A conceptual map graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and statements
in a theory with a minimum amount of words.
The purpose of schematic models or maps is to represent reality with arrows, boxes, and
symbols. A conceptual map graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and
statements in a theory with a minimum amount of words.

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-8

The purpose of schematic models or maps is to represent reality with arrows, boxes, and
symbols. A conceptual map graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and
statements in a theory with a minimum amount of words.
The purpose of schematic models or maps is to represent reality with arrows, boxes, and
symbols. A conceptual map graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and
statements in a theory with a minimum amount of words.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 233

15. Which of the following is an example of a theory from a physiological background that is
used by nurses as a framework for nursing studies?
a. Gate control theory of pain
b. Health promotion model
c. Social cognitive theory
d. Theory of coping
ANS: A
The theoretical bases of physiological studies are derived from physics, physiology, and
pathophysiology.
This theory has more of a psychological background. The theoretical bases of
physiological studies are derived from physics, physiology, and pathophysiology.
This theory comes from sociology and psychology. The theoretical bases of physiological
studies are derived from physics, physiology, and pathophysiology.
This theory has more of a psychological background. The theoretical bases of
physiological studies are derived from physics, physiology, and pathophysiology.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 230

16. Which of the following links most closely to middle range theory?
a. Basic research
b. Clinical practice
c. Conceptual models
d. Grand theories
ANS: B
Middle range theories tend to be more closely linked to clinical practice than conceptual
models, basic research, or grand theories.
“Basic research” is pursuit of knowledge for knowledge’s sake and has less relevance
than middle range theories. Middle range theories tend to be more closely linked to
clinical practice than conceptual models or grand theories.
Middle range theories tend to be more closely linked to clinical practice than conceptual
models or grand theories.
Middle range theories tend to be more closely linked to clinical practice than conceptual
models or grand theories.

DIF: Cognitive level: Comprehension REF: p. 235

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-9

17. Which of the following statements is true regarding the connection of theory to
qualitative research? Qualitative research:
a. can guide or be derived from theory.
b. cannot generate grand theories due to lack of statistics.
c. is based on middle range theories.
d. leads only to practice model and conceptual frameworks.
ANS: A
Theory can guide or be derived from qualitative research.
Oftentimes qualitative research, as an outcome, generates theory at all levels of
usefulness.
Most qualitative research is done when little knowledge is known about a particular
phenomenon. Middle range theories are derived after much is known about a
phenomenon, when working theories can be generated that can affect practice.
Qualitative research can lead to more than practice model and conceptual frameworks.
Theory can guide or be derived from qualitative research.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 244

18. Critiquing a framework that includes both a conceptual model and a theory is:
a. complex because definitions are required for both constructs and concepts.
b. made easier because both are interwoven within the study.
c. not likely to happen because the situation never occurs in nursing research.
d. something only an advanced researcher should attempt.
ANS: A
Critiquing a framework that includes both a conceptual model and a theory is more
complex than critiquing a framework based only on a theory.
Critiquing a framework that includes both a conceptual model and a theory is more
complex than critiquing a framework based only on a theory.
Frameworks including both a conceptual model and a theory are not common, but do
occur. Critiquing a framework that includes both a conceptual model and a theory is more
complex than critiquing a framework based only on a theory.
Any researcher might have the need to critique a study with both a conceptual model and
a theory. Critiquing a framework that includes both a conceptual model and a theory is
more complex than critiquing a framework based only on a theory.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 246

19. Which of the following questions should a reviewer ask when critiquing a study’s
framework?
a. How are the concepts defined?
b. What level of measurement are the variables?
c. What measurement methods are used in the study?
d. What statistical package will be used for analysis?
ANS: A

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

 Test Bank 7-10

Defining the concepts under study in the research is a critical element when describing
the conceptual framework. Reviewers should evaluate the clarity of the definitions the
researcher provides when evaluating the conceptual framework of a research report.
Level of measurement of the variables and methods used to measure the variables are
described in the methods section of a research report.
Level of measurement of the variables and methods used to measure the variables are
described in the methods section of a research report.
Level of measurement of the variables and methods, including types of statistics used to
measure the variables are described in the methods section of a research report.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 240

20. When critiquing a study, the following statement is noted: “Women will experience less
anxiety while undergoing a mammogram after the proposed educational program.”
Which type of statement is it?
a. Hypothesis
b. Proposition
c. Relational statement
d. Theoretical statement
ANS: A
This statement is an example of a hypothesis. A hypothesis predicts the nature of a
relationship between the study variables.
Propositions can be expressed at various levels of abstraction. This statement is an
example of a hypothesis.
Relational statements are propositions. This statement is an example of a hypothesis.
Theoretical statements are quite abstract. This statement is an example of a hypothesis.

DIF: Cognitive level: Application REF: p. 232

21. What is the best skill to use in distinguishing statements expressed as propositions from
hypotheses?
a. A checklist created from the details of the study
b. A list of questions that can identify one from the other
c. The precise definitions of each kind of statement
d. Use of critical thinking
ANS: D
Using critical reasoning is the best way to identify propositions from hypotheses.
Checklists do not exist for the distinguishing propositions from hypotheses within a study.
Using critical reasoning is the best way to identify propositions from hypotheses.
A list of questions will help, but it is critical reasoning that best differentiates. Using
critical reasoning is the best way to identify propositions from hypotheses.
The definitions indicate a certain degree of abstraction. Using critical reasoning is the
best way to identify propositions from hypotheses.

DIF: Cognitive level: Analysis REF: p. 232

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

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 Test Bank 7-11

22. Which of the following techniques can a reviewer use for assistance when critiquing a
published study in the area of theory and research frameworks?
a. Develop an expertise in a particular statistical method to improve analysis ability.
b. Creating a conceptual map of the concepts as described in the study.
c. Reading other research reports to familiarize oneself with the concepts being
studied.
d. Writing a well thought-out and well-written study.
ANS: B
Creating a conceptual map from the concepts as described in the study will assist the
reviewer in understanding the relationships the researcher is proposing between the
concepts under study.
The reviewers does not need to develop an expertise in any particular statistical method
to improve analysis ability; rather the reviewer needs to be able to discern if the statistical
methods used are appropriate for the questions posed, and if the report is clearly written.
While having a broader knowledge on the concepts being studied may assist the reviewer
in understanding the concepts being studied in the current report being reviewed, it is not
necessary.
Writing a well thought-out study is the goal of the researcher. The goal of the reviewer is
to be able to effectively evaluate whether a research report is well written and that the
research has usefulness for clinical practice.

DIF: Cognitive level: Synthesis REF: p. 233

Copyright © 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

Other documents randomly have
different content
were enabled, after a stiffish climb up the face of a rather steep
hillside, to attain a ridge 1,700 feet high, which separates the
watersheds of the east and west sides of the island. After a brief
stay here, we descended the other side by a steep and almost
obliterated track for about three hours more, when we reached
Livoni, the site of an old Kaicolo stronghold. Here, amid the ruins of
the town, we found a farmhouse of recent construction, the property
of a Mr. McCorkill, who had obtained a three years' lease of the land,
and was about to try his hand at stock-farming. He had two hundred
head of cattle, for which he obtained a ready sale at Levuka, but the
difficulties of transit were considerable, and he did not seem hopeful
as to the success of his enterprise. He was, moreover, apprehensive
that his house, which was built close to the bank of a mountain
torrent, was on a rather insecure site, and that the next heavy flood
in the rainy season would sweep away all his household belongings.
He pointed out close to his own house the characteristic raised
foundations of an old native temple (Bure Kalou), and told us that
his workmen, in clearing the ground for his garden and paddock,
frequently turned up human skulls and other bones. He also very
kindly promised to send me some Kaicolo crania on the first
opportunity; a promise which he amply redeemed some weeks later
by presenting me with two excellent specimens.
After a short stay in his house, and refreshed by a drink of delicious
milk, we continued our walk down this valley, following the course of
the river, which, as we advanced, rapidly increased in size, and
pursued so sinuous a course that we were obliged to cross and
recross it five or six times before we arrived at Buréta—a native
village on the west side of Ovalau—which we gained just before
nightfall. A further walk of about a mile brought us to the residence
of a friend of Mr. Parr's (Captain Morne), a retired merchant captain,
and now the owner of a large estate, by whom we were most
hospitably entertained and lodged for the night.
This gentleman was doing a large trade in pine-apples, of which he
has about twenty acres under cultivation. He sends the produce
periodically to Sydney by steamer, packed in wooden boxes, where
they fetch about 20s. per dozen. On the following morning we spent
some hours in strolling about the estate, and in a creek near the
outlet of the Livoni River we saw the curious mud-fish
Periophthalmus jumping about on the moist beach in the ludicrous
manner which has been so well described by Mr. Moseley in his
"Notes of a Naturalist," its pectoral fins being used for terrestrial
progression.
We made the return journey by the south side of the island, Captain
Morne very considerately sending us on in one of his boats as far as
the south-west extreme of Ovalau, from whence a three hours' walk
along the seashore brought us back to Levuka.

TOTOONGA VALLEY, OVALAU, FIJI.

On the morning of the 11th of October we got under way from

Levuka, and spent the day in steaming over to Suva, a commodious
harbour, situated on the south-east side of Viti Levu, where it was
our intention to coal ship from a stationary hulk which supplies the
steamers plying between Sydney and the Fijian ports. It is said that
Suva, from the accommodation which its harbour affords, and from
its position on an easily accessible part of the largest island of the
group, is destined to become the seat of government and the future
capital of Fiji; but at the time of our visit the settlement was very
insignificant, and looked a mere speck in the great extent of wooded
land which seemed from our anchorage to spread before us in a vast
semicircle.
Leaving the ship on the morning of the following day, I started for a
walk on shore, taking my gun, insect bottle, and collecting boxes. I
at first directed my steps inland along the main road, and for about
three miles proceeded over an upland plain of undulating land,
thickly covered with tall reeds, and showing here and there patches
of brush in the wet hollows. In the last-mentioned localities a good
many birds, chiefly parrots, were to be heard screaming shrilly, but
owing to the denseness of the foliage, few were visible.
In the afternoon I returned to the settlement, and from thence
proceeded along the beach towards the low point which shelters the
harbour from the north-east winds. Here, as the tide fell and laid
bare broad flats of mud and coral, several flocks of sandpipers,
whose general plumage resembled that of the snipe, came in from
seaward, settled, and commenced to feed. A brace of duck and a
large grey tern were the only other birds seen.
We learned that the country in the immediate vicinity of Suva was
exceedingly unproductive. The soil was very thin, and the sub-soil
was a stiff pasty clay of a grey colour—in places resembling
soapstone—and so impervious to drainage as to render all attempts
at agriculture hitherto abortive.
We left Suva on October 13th, and sailed for Tongatabu, searching
on the way for certain reefs and banks of doubtful existence, which
it was desirable on proper evidence to expunge from the charts.
During the traverses which we made in sounding for these, I had a
good opportunity of plying the tow-net. Among the forms thus
obtained were a minute conferva, a brilliantly phosphorescent
pyrosoma, measuring three inches in length, and a small shell-less
pteropod, the Eurybia gaudichaudi. A specimen of the latter, which I
examined in a glass trough, measured one-twelfth of an inch across
the body. After giving it about half-an-hour's rest, it protruded its
epipodia and tentacles, and commenced to swim about vigorously.
The caudal portion of the body was furnished with cilia, and the
digestive organs presented the appearance of a dark-red opaque
mass, surrounded by a transparent envelope of a gelatinous
consistency, whose surface exhibited a reticulated structure.
Tongatabu, Friendly Islands, 8th to 18th of November.—The credit of
discovering the Tonga Islands rests with Tasman, who saw them on
the 20th of January, 1643, and subsequently anchored his ship on
the north-west side of the large island, Tongatabu. Cook saw the
islands during his second voyage in October 1773, and on his third
voyage in 1777 he made a stay of three months at the group, for
more than a month of which time he was anchored at Tongatabu,
the principal and most southward island of the group. The islands
were subsequently visited by D'Entrecasteaux, Maurelle (1781),
Lieutenant Bligh of the Bounty, Captain Edwards of the Pandora
(1791), and other explorers of the eighteenth century.
In the month of November 1806, an English privateer, the Port-au-
Prince, arrived at Lifonga, one of the Hapai Islands, where the ship
was seized by the natives, and most of the crew massacred. Among
the few whose lives were spared was a young man named Mariner,
who acquired the friendship of the chief, Finow, and lived peacefully
with the natives for the space of four years, accumulating during
that time a vast amount of information concerning their manners
and habits. Mariner's narrative was subsequently published in a book
written by Dr. John Martin, which is still regarded as the standard
work on the Tonga Islands.
The Wesleyan missionaries established themselves here in the year
1822, and were well received; and some years subsequently a
French Roman Catholic mission was also successfully established. At
the time of our visit the entire population of the Tonga Islands,
including Tongatabu, Hapai, and Vavau, amounted to 25,000, while
that of Tongatabu alone was 12,000. Of the latter number, 8,000
belonged to the Wesleyan, and 4,000 to the Catholic, Church.
We anchored in the harbour of Tongatabu, off the town of
Nukualofa, on the 8th of November, at about midday. The anchorage
looked very bare indeed, there being only one vessel beside ours, a
merchant barque belonging to Godeffroy and Co., of Hamburg, the
well-known South Sea Island traders.
The most striking objects on shore, as viewed from our position in
the anchorage, were the Wesleyan Church—an old dilapidated
wooden building crowning the summit of a round-topped hill, about
sixty feet high, and said to be the highest point on the island—and
the king's palace, a very neat-looking villa-edifice abounding in
plate-glass windows, and surrounded by a low wall, in which
remained two breaches, intended for the reception of massive iron
gates, which, through a series of untoward circumstances, are not
likely to be ever placed in position. It appears that some time ago
the king gave a carte blanche order for two pairs of gates to be sent
out from England, and when, after a long series of delays, owing to
mistakes in the shipping arrangements, they at length reached
Tongatabu, he was rather unpleasantly surprised to find that the
excessive charges for freightage had run up the entire cost to the
sum of £800. They were then found to be so large and massive as to
be quite unsuited for the purpose for which they were intended, so
they were thrown down on the ground in a disjointed condition,
where they now lie, rusting and half-buried in weeds. Somewhat in
the rear of the royal palace is seen a rather imposing private
dwelling-house, the residence of Mr. Baker, formerly a Wesleyan
minister, and now the political prime minister of the kingdom.
In the afternoon some of us walked out to see the old fortified town
of Bea, which is distant from Nukualofa about four miles in a
southerly direction, and is reached by a very good cart-road. This
town—or, more properly speaking, village, for it is now but thinly
populated—was formerly the stronghold of a party of Tongans, who
objected to the introduction of Christianity, and were consequently
obliged to defend themselves against the followers of the Wesleyan
missionaries. The village is encircled by a rampart and moat, which
have for many years past been allowed to go to decay, so that the
moat is now partly obliterated with weeds and rubbish, and the
strong palisades, which in former times added considerably to the
defensive strength of the ramparts, have almost entirely
disappeared.
As we entered the village by a cutting which pierced the ramparts on
the north side, we saw the spot where Captain Croker, of H.M.S.
Favourite, was shot down in 1848, when heading an armed party of
bluejackets, with whom he was assisting the missionary party in an
attack upon the irreconcilables. It seems to have been altogether a
most disastrous and ill-advised undertaking, and of its effects some
traces still remain in an assumption of physical superiority over their
white fellow-creatures, which may be seen among some of the
Tongans.
Nowhere have I seen the cocoa-nut trees growing in such luxuriance
as at Tongatabu. Here they grow over the whole interior of the
island, as well as near the seashore; a circumstance which may be
attributed to the mean level of the island being only a few feet
above high-water mark, and to the coral sub-soil extending over the
entire island. The latter is everywhere penetrated to a greater or less
degree by the sea-water, as evidenced by the brackish water which
is reached on sinking a well to a depth of two or three yards.
We made shooting excursions for several miles to the eastward and
westward of Nukualofa, and on one of the latter we met with an
intelligent native, who excited in us hopes of obtaining some good
duck-shooting, and undertook to bring us to the right place. Under
his guidance we reached a series of extensive salt-water lagoons,
which seemed likely places enough. However, on this occasion he
proved to be a false prophet; and as he was anxious to make
amends for our disappointment, he induced us to follow him into the
bush in quest of pigeons. Of these, on reaching a thick part of the
forest, we heard a good many; but owing to the dense foliage of the
shrubs, which obscured our view aloft, we got very few glimpses of
the birds, which, as a rule, keep to the summits of the tallest trees.
Nevertheless, by dint of "cooing," to evoke responses from the birds
and thus ascertain their whereabouts, we at length succeeded in
shooting a good specimen of the great "fruit pigeon."
Our guide, "Davita," was most elaborately tattooed from the waist to
the knees. He was a well-to-do man, and the chief of a district; and
was also, as he informed us, a member of the "royal guard," whose
duty it is to act as sentries in front of the door of the king's palace.
"Davita" accompanied us back to the town, and after receiving his
honorarium and bidding us good-bye, he went off to procure his
military uniform, and subsequently, as we walked by the palace on
our way to the boat, we saw our friend in full toggery doing sentry.
He was a very fine man, but did not look half so well in a soldier's
uniform as in his native garb, which consisted simply of a waistcloth,
above and below which appeared the margins of his beautiful blue
tattooing.
There are evidences of recent elevation of the land both to the
eastward and westward of Nukualofa. I noticed above high-water
mark extensive flats of almost barren land, composed of level
patches of coral, the interstices of which were gradually getting filled
up with coral detritus, and the decayed remains of stunted plants.
The mangrove bushes here seemed with difficulty to eke out an
existence, their roots being no longer bathed in sea water; but on
the other hand a few Ivi trees (Aleurites sp.?) had gained a footing.
An amazing quantity of crabs of the genus Gelasimus inhabit these
desolate flats, where they will have an opportunity of gradually
adapting themselves to a terrestrial existence. I noticed two species,
one of which was covered with a hairy brown integument, and was
rather sluggish in its movements, waddling awkwardly into its
burrow while it held aloft one of its hands in a most ridiculous
fashion. The other was a smaller crab, with a greenish body, and
having one of its pincer-claws, which was of a brilliant orange colour,
of a huge size compared with its fellow. Probably, after the lapse of a
few years, these flats will form part of the general forest land, when
the crabs may undergo further adaptive changes.
We saw little of King George during our stay, as being now advanced
in years he leads a retired life, passing his days in a small room in
the rear of the palace, and only coming out of doors after sunset for
a little airing. However, his grandson, "Wellington Gnu," who is
governor of Nukualofa, and heir presumptive to the throne, was
most civil and obliging. He is a remarkably fine-looking man, being
six feet two inches in height, and stout in proportion; his face beams
with amiability and intelligence; and he possesses all the manners
and bearing of a polished gentleman. Although the lineal heir to the
throne by direct descent, it is very doubtful whether he will succeed
the present king, as Maafu, his cousin, and the son of a deceased
brother of King George, is older in years, and is consequently by the
Tongan laws the legitimate heir to the throne.[3]
[3] Since the above was written I have heard of the death of
Maafu.

Wellington entertained us most hospitably, and drove us in his

buggies to various places of interest in the island. On one occasion
he took three of our officers to Moa, a native town situated near the
south-east extremity of the island. From there they went on to a
place eight miles to the southward, where there is a famous
megalithic structure of unknown origin, which has been described
and figured by Brenchley in his "Voyage of the Curaçoa." As our
experience differs somewhat from Brenchley's, I may be excused for
making a few remarks thereon. The monument—if such it can be
called—consists of three large slabs of coral rock, two of which are
planted vertically in the ground at a distance of about fifteen feet
apart, while the third forms a horizontal span, resting on its edges in
slots made in the summits of the vertical slabs. The height of the
structure, of which the picture gives a good idea, is about fifteen
feet. We were, I regret to say, unable to obtain any information—
legendary or otherwise—concerning the origin of this remarkable
structure.
He also took us on a very pleasant excursion to a village called Hifo,
which lies about eleven miles to the south-west of Nukualofa. The
party consisted of Wellington Gnu (pronounced "Mou"), David Tonga,
the principal of the native school, Captain Maclear, and myself. Our
means of locomotion consisted of two buggies, in which we started
on the outward journey by a circuitous route, so as to take in the
village of Bea and four or five others on our way. On arriving at Hifo,
we halted in the centre of the village, on an open patch of sward
under the shade of several large vi trees (Spondias dulcis), on whose
branches were hanging large numbers of fox bats (Pteropus
keraudrenii), of which we obtained specimens. We were now
formally introduced to the chief of Hifo, who at once announced that
a feast would speedily be prepared in honour of our visit, and
pending the necessary culinary arrangements, invited us to walk
through his dominions. In an adjacent bay we were pointed out the
place where Cook had formerly anchored his vessel, a matter of
great interest to the Tongans, who are keenly alive to the fact that
the period of Cook's visit formed the great turning-point in their
history.
As we returned to the village we found that the natives had collected
in great numbers under the shade of the trees before mentioned; so
we squatted down on the grass, taking up our places with the chief's
party, so as to occupy the base-line of a large horseshoe-shaped
gathering of natives. The ceremony began with the preparation of
the kava, in which respect the Tongans now differ from the Fijians in
reducing the root to a pulpy condition by pounding it between
stones instead of the rather disgusting process of mastication. While
the national beverage was being prepared, a large procession of
women, gaily dressed, and bearing garlands, shells, and similar
offerings, filed solemnly into the centre of the group, and deposited
their presents at the feet of Captain Maclear and myself, who were
the distinguished guests on this occasion. Sometimes a frolicsome
girl would place a garland round one of our necks, and then trip
away, laughing merrily. When the kava was ready, a fine-looking
elderly man, the second in authority in the village, acted as master
of the ceremonies, and gave the orders for carrying out the various
details of the function. As the cupbearer advanced with each
successive bowl of liquor, this venerable functionary called out in
order of precedence the names of the different persons who were to
be served, beginning with the visitors, and continuing to indicate
each one by name, until every one of the whole vast assemblage—
men and women—had partaken. As soon as the kava drinking was
over, a procession of young men advanced into the midst of the
assemblage, bearing on their shoulders palm-leaf baskets which
contained pigs roasted whole, large bunches of bananas, and cocoa-
nuts, which they deposited seriatim at our feet. The district chief
then made a short speech, informing us, through Wellington's
interpretation, that these precious gifts were also at our disposal.
Captain Maclear replied, to the effect that we gratefully accepted the
present, and requested that it might be distributed for consumption
among the villagers. Accordingly the feast was spread, and eating,
drinking, and merry-making became general. Occasionally one of the
girls would rise from her place, and after lighting a cigarette, of
which the cylinder was composed of pandanus leaf instead of paper,
would give a few puffs from her own swarthy lips, and then present
it courteously to one of us. The act was looked on as a delicate way
of paying a compliment, and was on each occasion loudly
applauded, the damsel, as she returned among her friends, seeming
as if overcome with confusion at her own temerity. When the time
fixed for our departure arrived, a most affectionate shaking of hands
took place, and we bade good-bye to the happy little village of Hifo,
delighted with the kindness, hospitality, and good nature of these
far-famed Friendly Islanders.
 ANCIENT STONE MONUMENT AT TONGATABU (p. 173).

On the last day previous to our departure from Tongatabu, we made

an excursion to the south side of the island, under the guidance of
Mr. Symonds, the British Consul, and Mr. Hanslip, the consular
interpreter, in order to examine some caves which were said to be of
an unusually wonderful nature. They had, of course, never been
thoroughly explored, and were consequently said to be of prodigious
extent, forming long tunnels through the island. One story was to
the effect that an adventurous woman had penetrated one branch of
the cave, entering on the south side of the island, and threading its
dark recesses for many days, until she finally emerged into the light
of day somewhere near Nukualofa, on the north side of the island.
A pleasant drive of about ten miles brought us to the shore of a
small bay exposed to the prevailing wind, and receiving on its beach
the full fury of the swell of the main ocean. The foreshore was
strewn with coral débris, and above high-water mark were quantities
of pumice-stone, probably washed up from the sides of the
neighbouring volcanic island of Uea. On either side, the bay was
hemmed in by bold projecting crags of coral rock, whose faces
indicated, by parallel tide erosions, that they had been elevated by
sudden upheaval into their present position. About one hundred
yards from the beach, and forty feet above the sea-level, was the
entrance to the caves, a narrow aperture in the upraised coral rock,
leading by a rapid incline into a spacious vaulted chamber, from
whose gloomy recesses dark and forbidding passages led in various
directions. In the floor of the chamber were deep pools of water,
probably communicating with the sea, and said to be tenanted by a
species of blind eel, about two feet long, which we were told the
natives sometimes caught with hook and line, and fed upon. I was
provided with fishing-tackle for capturing a specimen of this singular
creature; but as several of our party were induced to relieve
themselves of the intolerable heat of the cave by bathing in these
pools, the fish were probably scared away, and I was unable to
obtain a single specimen.
The rock pierced by the caverns was everywhere of coral formation,
and as water freely penetrated through from the soilcap above, the
roof and floor were abundantly decorated with stalactites and
stalagmites in all their usual fantastic splendour. I noticed that many
parts of the floor of the cave were speckled with white spots
resembling bird-droppings, on which drops of water were frequently
falling from the roof above, and I formed the opinion that the white
colour of these spots was due to the drops of water which pattered
on them having traversed a portion of the ground above, from which
they did not receive a charge of lime salts, and consequently
washing clean the portion of the coral floor on which they fell,
instead of depositing thereon a calcareous stalagmite. This surmise
was strengthened by observing the absence of stalactites depending
from the roof in these situations.
Numbers of small swifts, apparently the same species which is
common on the island (Collocalia spodiopygia), flitted about the
vaulted parts of the cave, looking in the torchlight like bats, which at
first sight I felt sure they must be, until our native guide succeeded
in catching one specimen, which resolved our doubts. We traversed
the more open parts of the cave to a distance of about one hundred
yards from the entrance; but finding further progress all but
impracticable, from the narrowness of the passages, and the
quantity of water of uncertain depth to be encountered, we soon
gave up the attempt, and were glad to return to the cool and clear
atmosphere of the upper air.
During the voyage from Tonga to Fiji, we spent a good deal of time
in hunting up the reputed positions of certain doubtful "banks," viz.,
the "Culebras" and "La Rance" banks, with a view to clearing up the
question as to their having any real existence except in the too vivid
imaginations of the discoverers. On the 24th of November, when in
latitude 24° 25′ S., longitude 184° 0′ W., we steamed over the
position assigned by the chart to the "La Rance" bank, and here our
sounding line ran out to three hundred fathoms without touching
bottom, thus sufficiently establishing the non-existence of any such
"bank." Our position at this time may be roughly stated as some two
hundred miles to the southward of Tongatabu. During the greater
portion of the day, the sea-surface exhibited large patches of
discoloured water, due to the presence of a fluffy substance of a dull
brown colour, which in consistency and general arrangement
resembled the vegetable scum commonly seen floating on the
stagnant water of ditches. This matter floated on the surface in
irregularly-shaped streaky patches, and also in finely-divided
particles impregnated the sea-water to a depth of several feet.
Samples were obtained by "dipping" with a bucket as well as with
the tow-net, and when submitted to microscopic examination it
proved to be composed of multitudes of minute confervoid algæ. On
slightly agitating the water in a glass jar, the fluffy masses broke up
into small particles, which, under a magnifying power of sixty
diameters, were seen to be composed of spindle-shaped bundles of
filaments. Under a power of five hundred diameters, these filaments
were further resolved into straight or slightly-curved rods, articulated
but not branching, and divided by transverse septa into cylindrical
cells, which contained irregularly-shaped masses of granular matter.
These rods, which seemed to represent the adult plant, measured
1⁄
2000 inch in width. On careful examination of many specimens,
some filaments were observed, portions of which seemed to have
undergone a sort of varicose enlargement, having a width two or
three times that of the normal filaments. These propagating
filaments (if I am right in so calling them) were invested by a
delicate tubular membrane, and were filled with a granular semi-
transparent matter, in which were imbedded a number of discoid
bodies which were being discharged one by one from the ruptured
extremity of the tube. These bodies measured 1⁄1000 of an inch in
diameter: when viewed edgewise they presented a lozenge-shaped
appearance, and they were devoid of cilia or striæ. A jar full of the
sea-water was put by until the following day, when it was found that
the confervoid matter had all risen to the surface, forming a thick
scum of a dull green colour, while the underlying water was of a pale
purple colour, resembling the tint produced by a weak solution of
permanganate of potash.
From the 24th to the 29th of November, during which time the ship
traversed a distance of three hundred miles, we were surrounded by
these organisms; during the first three days the large patches were
frequently in sight, and for the rest of the time the sea presented a
dusty appearance, from the presence of finely-divided particles. On
the evening of the 25th an unusually dense patch was sighted, and
mistaken for a reef, being reported as such by the look-out man
aloft.
On the 28th November I encountered among the proceeds of the
tow-net another minute alga, of quite a different appearance from
that just described. It was composed of vermiform rods 1⁄1000 inch
in width, and breaking up into cylindrical segments with biconcave
ends.
We returned to Levuka on the 4th of December, and stayed in
harbour for ten days. At this time we had dismal wet weather, and
consequently little was done in the way of exploration. I received a
visit from a Mr. Boyd of Waidou, a colonist, who has resided for the
last sixteen years in Fiji, and who has spent a great deal of his time
in collecting natural history specimens. He very kindly presented me
with some crania, three of natives of Mallicollo, New Hebrides, and
two from Merilava in Bank's Group.
We anchored at Suva for part of a day, in order to fill up with coal,
and then proceeded on our voyage to Sydney.
I made frequent use of the tow-net during this cruise, obtaining
thereby a great quantity and variety of surface organisms. Among
these were representatives of Thalassicolla, Pyrocystis, Phyllosoma,
Sagitta, Eurybia, Atlanta, etc. I obtained one specimen of a curious
Annelid. It was two inches in width, had two prominent ruby-
coloured eyes, and was marked along its snakelike body by a double
row of conspicuous black dots.
One day, as were lying almost becalmed, a few hundred miles from
the Australian coast, we passed into the midst of a great flock of
brown petrels, who were sitting on the water grouped in the form of
a chain, and apparently feeding. I had the tow-net out, and after
dragging it for about half a mile, brought it in, and found it to
contain a mass of yellow-coloured cylindrical and oval bodies
belonging to the group Thalassicollidæ. The cylindrical bodies were
about one inch in long diameter, by 1⁄8 of an inch in width, and
those of an oval shape were about 3⁄16 inch in long diameter. They
proved to be mere gelatinous sacks, without any appearance of
digestive or locomotory organs. The thin membranous wall was
dotted over thickly with dark cells of a spherical or oval shape, each
of which contained from three to nine light-coloured nuclei. On
examining one of the oval bodies under a magnifying power of forty
diameters, the clear transparent nature of the interior of the
organism allowed the cells on the distal side to be seen out of focus
with misty outlines, while the cells on the proximal wall, which was
in focus, came out sharp and clear, and vice versâ.
 CHAPTER IX.

THE EAST COAST OF AUSTRALIA.

W
E remained at Sydney, refitting ship and enjoying the
unaccustomed pleasures of civilized society, from the 23rd of
January, 1881, until the 16th of April, 1881, but as little of
general interest occurred during this period, and as Sydney with its
surroundings is a place about which so much has been written by
better pens than mine, I think I shall be exercising a judicious
discretion by passing over this period in silence, and resuming the
narrative from the time when we started on our next surveying
cruise.
On leaving Sydney we received a welcome addition to our numbers
in the person of Mr. W. A. Haswell, a professional zoologist, residing
at Sydney, who expressed a wish to accompany us as far as Torres
Straits, in order that he might have opportunities of studying the
crustacean fauna of the east coast of Australia. He was consequently
enrolled as an honorary member of our mess, and Captain Maclear
kindly accommodated him with a sleeping place in his cabin. I am
indebted to Mr. Haswell for much valuable information concerning
the marine zoology of Australia.
Steaming northwards, along the east coast of Australia, the first
place at which we anchored was Port Curtis, in Queensland, where
we took up a berth in the outer roads close to the Gatcombe Head
lighthouse. The place bore a rather desolate appearance. There was
no building in sight except the lighthouse. The beach was lined with
a dense fringe of mangrove bushes, behind which rose a straggling
forest of gums and grass trees (Xanthorrhœa), and for a long time
we saw no living thing excepting several large fish-eagles (Haliæetus
leucogaster), and an odd gull that hovered about our stern, picking
up the garbage that drifted away from the ship.
On the following morning two of us landed and set to work to
explore the mudflats, which, stretching out for a long distance from
the beach, were laid bare by the ebb tide. As we ranged along in
search of marine curiosities, we encountered a solitary individual
attired in the light and airy costume of a pajama sleeping suit, and
carrying a Westly-Richards rifle on his shoulder. We soon made his
acquaintance, and found that he was in quest of wild goats, the
descendants of some domestic animals originally let loose by the
keeper of the lighthouse. He was an Englishman named Eastlake,
and held the position of "government immigration agent" on board a
ninety-ton schooner, the Isabella, which at the time was anchored
just outside the lighthouse point, awaiting a favourable wind to
enable her to put to sea. She was engaged in the "labour traffic" and
was just then about to return to the Solomon Islands with some
"time-expired" native labourers. The Queensland government
compels every vessel engaged in the "labour traffic" to carry an
immigration agent, who is accredited to and salaried by the
government. His duty is to see that the natives who are shipped
from the islands for transit to Queensland come of their own free
will, and under a proper contract, and that during the voyage they
are treated well and are furnished with proper accommodation, and
are dieted according to a scale laid down by the government. In the
afternoon I accompanied Mr. Eastlake on board. The Isabella, a
vessel of ninety tons, was allowed to carry eighty-five natives
besides her crew of some half-a-dozen hands. She had now on
board about a dozen natives of New Hebrides, who had completed
their time as contract labourers in Queensland, and were about to be
returned to their island home. The skipper of the vessel was an old
Welshman, who, in the true spirit of hospitality, did the honours of
the ship, and pressed me to partake of such luxuries as the stores in
his cuddy afforded.
Among the articles which the New Hebrides men had purchased in
Queensland with the proceeds of their labours were a number of old
muskets, which they seemed to set great store by. These weapons
are probably destined to be brought into action against some future
"labour vessel," or "slaver," as they are commonly called by the
Australians, which may violate the provision of the "Kidnapping Act"
by forcible abduction of natives.
We worked the dredge from the ship as she swung round her anchor
in seven fathoms of water, and also dragged it from a boat in
shallower water inshore. Conspicuous by their abundance amongst
the contents of the dredge, and by their curious habit of making a
loud snapping noise with the large pincer-claw, were the shrimps of
the genus Alpheus. When placed in water in a glass jar, the sound
produced exactly resembles the snap which is heard when a tumbler
is cracked from unequal expansion by hot water. We also obtained a
good many whitish fleshy Gorgoniæ, and among Polyzoa the genera
Crisia and Eschara afforded a good many specimens. A moderate-
sized brownish Astrophyton was generally found entangled in the
swabs, but in most cases some of its brittle limbs had parted
company with the disc, so that we got scarcely a single perfect
specimen. A good many crabs were found on the foreshore; among
others were species of the genera Ozius, Gelasimus, and Thalassina;
the latter a lobster-like crustacean which burrows deeply in the mud
about the mangrove bushes, and throws up around the aperture of
its burrow a conical pile of mud.
On April 23rd we got under way, and steamed for five miles further
up the bay, anchoring immediately off the settlement of "Gladstone."
Nothing could exceed the hospitality shown to us by the inhabitants
of this quiet little Utopia. Our stay of five days was occupied by an
almost continuous round of festivities, during which we were driven
about the country, had a cricket-match, shooting expeditions, two
balls in the Town Hall, and sundry other amusements. The
settlement contains a population of only 300, and seems to have
been of late years rather receding than advancing in numbers, as
many of the settlers had moved on to other more promising centres
of industry. There was the old story of a projected railway which was
to open up the country, develop its hidden resources, connect it with
the neighbouring town of Rockhampton—distant about eighty miles
—and give a fresh impetus to trade; but the hopes of its
construction were visionary.
We made several shooting excursions in quest of bird specimens,
and found the pied grallina (G. picata), the butcher bird (a species of
Grauculus), the garrulous honeyeater (Myzantha garrula), the
laughing jackass (Dacelo gigas), and many doves and flycatchers
abundant in the immediate vicinity of the settlement. Walking one
day through the forest about two miles inland, we came upon a
grove of tall eucalyptus trees, on the upper branches of which were
myriads of paroquets, making an almost deafening noise as they
flew hither and thither, feeding on the fragrant blossoms. Among
them were three species of Trichoglossus, viz., T. novæhollandiæ, T.
rubritorquis, and T. chrysocolla. We also shot specimens of the friar
bird (Tropidorhynchus corniculatus), and several honeyeaters,
flycatchers, and shrikes; so that as a place for bird collecting it was
exceedingly rich, both in numbers and species.
We got under way on the 30th of April, in the morning, and on the
following day anchored off the largest and most northern of the
Percy Islands. I landed with Haswell in the afternoon, and after
exploring the beach in search of marine specimens, we directed our
steps towards the interior of the island. We followed a narrow
winding foot track, which led us to a rudely-built hut, in which dwelt
an old Australian colonist named Captain Allen, to whom the island
virtually belongs. He had a small kitchen garden in the bed of a
valley, through which ran a tiny stream; and his live stock consisted
of a herd of goats and a number of poultry. We understood that he
intended eventually to undertake regular farming operations, but
that he at present merely occupied the land in order to retain the
"pre-emptive" right until the Queensland government should be in a
position to sell or let it. It appeared that as yet it was not certain
whether the colonial government had a clear title to the group of
islands, or whether—being on the Great Barrier Reef, and detached
from the mainland by a considerable distance—it was still under the
control and jurisdiction of the imperial government.
We noticed very few birds: among these were a Ptilotis, a flycatcher,
a crow, and a heron; but we were told that in the less frequented
parts of the island there were brush turkeys, native pheasants, and
black cockatoos.
Among the rocks bordering the shore, a large white-tailed rat—
probably of the genus Hydromys—was said to be abundant. The only
other mammal recorded was a large fox-bat, a skeleton of which was
found hanging on a mangrove bush.
We left our anchorage at the Percy Islands on the morning of the
2nd of May, and on the forenoon of the 3rd steamed into the
sheltered waters of Port Molle, i.e., into the strait which separates
Long Island from the main shore of Queensland; and we finally
came to an anchor in a shallow bay on the west side of Long Island,
where we lay at a distance of about half-a-mile from the shore.
The island presented the appearance of undulating hills, covered for
the most part with a thick growth of tropical forms of vegetation, but
exhibiting a few patches of land devoid of trees, and bearing a rich
crop of long tangled grasses. On landing, we found that there was
no soil, properly so-called, but that the forest trees, scrub, and grass
sprung from a surface layer of shingle, which on close inspection
contrasted strangely with the rich and verdant flora which it
nourished. Small flocks of great white cockatoos flew around and
above the summits of the tallest trees, and by the incessant
screaming which they maintained, gave one the idea that the
avifauna was more abundant than we eventually found it to be. On
the beach we collected shells of the genera Nerita, Terebra,
Siliquaria, and Ostræa, and among the dry hot stones above high-
water mark we found in great numbers an Isopod Crustacean, and
as the females were bearing ova, Haswell took the opportunity to
make some researches into the mode of development of the
embryo.
I spent another day accompanying Navigating-Lieutenant Petley,
who was then cruising from point to point in one of our whale-boats,
determining on the positions for main triangulation. In the course of
the day we visited the lighthouse on Dean Island, and on arriving
there found a large concourse of blacks on the hill above, looking on
our intrusion with great consternation. The lighthouse people told us
that the natives, from their different camps on the island, had
observed our approach while we were yet a long distance off, and
hastily concluding that we were a party of black police coming to
disperse (i.e., shoot) them, had fled with precipitation from all parts
of the island, to seek the protection of the white inhabitants of the
lighthouse. It appeared that some few years previously the natives
of Port Molle had treacherously attacked and murdered the
shipwrecked crew of a schooner, and in requital for this the
Queensland Government had made an example of them by letting
loose a party of "black police," who, with their rifles, had made
fearful havoc among the comparatively unarmed natives. The "black
police," or "black troopers," as they are more commonly called, are a
gang of half-reclaimed aborigines, enrolled and armed as policemen,
who are distributed over various parts of the colony, and are under
the immediate direction of the white police inspectors. Their skill as
bush "trackers" is too well known to need description, and the
peculiar ferocity with which they behave towards their own
countrymen is due to the fact that they are drawn from a part of the
continent remote from the scene of their future labours, and from
tribes hostile to those against which they are intended to act.
Through their instrumentality the aborigines of Queensland are
being gradually exterminated. In the official reports of their
proceedings, when sent to operate against a troublesome party of
natives, the verb "to disperse" is playfully substituted for the harsher
term "to shoot."
But to return to our friends at Dean Island. Our peaceful aspect, and
a satisfactory explanation on the part of the white people in charge
of the lighthouse, soon set matters right, and the wretched blacks
were now so delighted at finding their fears to be groundless, that
they crowded about us—male and female—to the number of forty or
fifty, brought us some boomerangs for barter, and finally shared our
lunch of preserved meat and coffee, of which we partook on the
rocks near where the boat was moored. I was surprised at noticing a
large proportion of children, a circumstance which does not support
one of the views put forward to account for the rapid decrease in
numbers of the race.
Most of the men had a certain amount of clothing, scanty and
ragged though it was, but the children were all stark naked, and
some of the women were so scantily attired that the requirements of
decency were not at all provided for. They seemed to be fairly well
nourished, and from their cheerful disposition I should imagine that
they were not undergoing any privations which to them would be
irksome.
On re-embarking, we sailed along the western shore of the island,
and again landed in a small bay about a mile to the northward of the
lighthouse. We then proceeded to ascend a hill, on which Petley
wished to erect a mark for surveying purposes. The natives,
although quick enough about following us along the seashore,
showed no inclination to follow us up the hillside, and before we had
gone a few hundred yards they had all dropped off. Possibly the fear
of snakes was the deterring influence.
Port Molle proved to be an excellent place for obtaining examples of
the marine fauna of this part of the coast. A great extent of reefs
was exposed at low spring tides, exhibiting Corals of the groups
Astræa, Meandrina, Porites, Tubipora, Orbicella, and Caryophyllia,
besides a profusion of soft Alcyonarian Polyps. Holothurians were
abundant, as were also some large Tubicolous Annelids, with very
long gelatinous thread-like tentacles. We also got a few Polynæ, and
several other annelids of the family Amphinomidæ. A Squilla, with
variegated greenish markings on the test, made itself remarkable by
the vigour with which it resented one's attempts, for the most part
unintentional, to invade the privacy of its retreat. An active black
Goniograpsus was a common object on the reefs, and the widely
distributed Grapsus variegatus was also met with. Haswell obtained
from the interior of the large Pinna shells examples of a curious
small lobster-like crustacean, which is of parasitic—or perhaps rather
commensal—habit, like Pinnotheres. Not uncommon in the rock
pools was a bivalve shell of the genus Lima, which on being
disturbed swims about in a most lively manner by flapping its
elongated valves, exhibiting at the same time a scarlet mantle
fringed with a row of long prehensile tentacles. Shells of the genera
Arca, Tridacna, and Hippopus were common, and three or four
species of Cypræa were seen.
We dredged several times with one of the steam-cutters in depths
varying from twelve to twenty fathoms, obtaining several species of
Comatulas, two or three Astrophytons, Starfishes, Ophiurids, Echini
of the genera Salmacis and Goniocidaris, small Holothurians, many
species of Annelids, two or three Sponges, a great variety of
handsome Gorgoniæ, Hydroids of the group Sertularia and
Plumularia, Polyzoa of the genera Eschara, Retepora, Myriozoum,
Cellepora, Biflustra, Salicornaria, Crisia, Scrupocellaria, Amathia, etc.,
and Crustaceans of the genera Myra, Hiastemis, Lambrus, Alpheus,
Huenia, and many others. Among the Annelids was one with long
glassy opalescent bristles surrounding the oral aperture, and
projecting forwards to a distance of one and a half inches from the
prostomium. Another Annelid (species unknown) was peculiar in
having two long barb-like tentacles projecting backwards from the
under part of the head. On examining the proboscis of the latter,
while it was resting in sea-water in a glass trough, Haswell noticed a
number of singular bodies being extruded from the mouth, which he
eventually ascertained, to his great astonishment, were the partially
developed young of the worm.
One of the large Astrophytons which came up with the dredge was
seen to exhibit nodular swellings on several parts of the arms, but
principally at the points of bifurcation. Each of these swellings was
provided with one or more small apertures, and had the general
appearance of being a morbid growth. On incising the dense cyst-
wall a cavity was exposed, containing a tiny red gastropodous
mollusc (of the genus Stilifer), enveloped in a mass of cheesy matter,
which contained moreover one or two spherical white pellets of
(probably) fæcal matter. Haswell obtained about a dozen specimens
of the shell from a single astrophyton.
Port Denison is only forty miles to the northward of Port Molle, so
that we accomplished the passage in about six hours, and before
dusk took up a berth in the shallow bay about a mile and a half from
the shore, and three-quarters from the end of a long wooden pier,
which was built some years ago in the vain hope of developing the
shipping trade of the port. The township of "Bowen" is built on a
larger scale than "Gladstone"—of which we had such pleasant
reminiscences—but did not appear to be in a more flourishing
condition, a "gold-rush" further to the northward having drawn off
part of the population, and some of the trade which had previously
gone through the port. On the outskirts of the town were some large
encampments of the blacks, who lived in a primitive condition, and
afforded an interesting study for an ethnologist. Like most of the
Australian aborigines, their huts were little better than shelter
screens to protect them from the wind and sun. In some instances
the twigs on the lee side of a bush, rudely interlaced with a few leafy
boughs torn from the neighbouring trees, afforded all the shelter
that was required. Both men and women, especially the latter,
seemed to be in a filthy, degraded state. They had just received their
yearly gifts of blankets from the Queensland Government—I believe
the only return which they receive for the appropriation of their land.
It appears, however, that they do not much appreciate the donation,
for soon after the general issue many of the blankets are bartered
with the whites for tobacco and grog. Some of the young men are
really fine-looking fellows, and seemed to feel all the pride of life and
liberty as they strutted about encumbered with a variety of their
native weapons, among which I saw the nulla, waddy, shield, huge
wooden sword, spear without throwing-stick, and different patterns
of boomerangs. They are very expert in the use of the latter. It was
the first time that I had seen the boomerang thrown, and I can
safely say that its performances, when manipulated by a skilful
hand, fully realized my expectations. I noticed that whatever
gyrations it was intended to execute, it was always delivered from
the hand of the thrower with its concave side foremost—a
circumstance I was not previously aware of. Some of the children
were amusing themselves in practising the art, using instead of the
regular boomerang short pieces of rounded stick bent to about the
usual angle of the finished weapon; and I was surprised at noticing
that even these rude substitutes could be made to dart forward,
wheel in the air, and return to near the feet of the thrower. I had
always imagined up to this time that the flat surface was an
essential feature in the boomerang.
The foreshore at low-water afforded us examples of a great many
flat Echinoderms of the genus Peronella, Starfishes of the genus
Asteracanthus, and Crustaceans of the genera Macrophthalmus,
Matuta, Mycteris, etc. We made several hauls of the dredge in four
to five fathoms of water, obtaining a quantity of large Starfishes and
Gorgonias, and Crustaceans of the family Porcellanidæ.
We left Port Denison on the 24th of May, and continued our coasting
voyage northward, anchoring successive nights off Cape Bowling
Green, Hinchinbrock Island, Fitzroy Island, Cooktown, and Lizard
Island. We landed at the island last mentioned for a few hours. On
the shore of the bay in which we anchored was a "Beche-de-mer"
establishment, belonging to a Cooktown firm, and worked by a party
of two white men, three Chinese, and six Kanakas. The buildings
consisted of two or three rudely-built dwelling huts, and a couple of
sheds for curing and storing the trepangs. We learned from the
"Boss" that his men had been working the district for the previous
twelve months, and having now cleared off the trepangs from all the
neighbouring reefs, he expected soon to move on to some other
location further north.
The Beche-de-mer industry seems simple enough to conduct. The
sluggish animals are picked off the reefs at low tide, and at the close
of each day the produce as soon as landed is transferred to a huge
iron tank, propped up on stones, in which it is boiled. The trepangs
are then slit open, cleaned, and spread out on gratings in a smoke-
house until dry, when they are ready for shipping to the Chinese
market. The best trepangs are the short stiff black ones with
prominent tubercles.
Since the above notes were written, a horrible catastrophe occurred
at Lizard Island. The bulk of the party had gone on a cruise among
the islands to the northward, leaving the station in charge of a white
woman—wife of one of the proprietors—and two Chinamen. A party
of Queensland blacks came over from the mainland, massacred
these three wretched people, and destroyed all the property on the
station.
On the evening of the 29th of May we anchored off Flinders Island,
in latitude 14° 8′ S., and before darkness came on we spent a few
hours in exploring. The shore on which we landed was covered with
large blocks of quartzite stained with oxide of iron, and disseminated
among them were many large irregularly-shaped masses of
hæmatite. Immediately above the beach, and among the familiar
screw-pines, we saw a few fan palms, the first met with on our
northern voyage.
Groping among the rocks of the foreshore, I encountered a
multitude of crabs of the genera Porcellana and Grapsus, and caught
after much trouble a large and uncommonly fierce specimen of the
Parampelia saxicola. On anchoring, the dredge had been lowered
from the ship, and when hauled up after the ship had swung
somewhat with the tide, a curious species of Spatangus, a Leucosia,
and a somewhat mutilated Phlyxia, were obtained.
Early on the following morning I accompanied Captain Maclear and
Mr. Haswell on a boat trip to Clack Island (five miles from our
anchorage). We were anxious to see and examine some drawings by
the Australian aborigines, which were discovered in the year 1821 by
Mr. Cunningham, of the Beagle, (see "King's Australia," vol. ii., p.
25), and since probably unvisited. After about an hour's sailing we
reached the island—a bold mass of dark rock resembling in shape a
gunner's quoin; but we now found it no easy matter to find a
landing-place. On the south-east extremity was a precipitous rocky
bluff about eighty feet in height, against whose base the sea broke
heavily, while the rest of the island—low and fringed with mangroves
—was fenced in by a broad zone of shallow water, strewn with
boulders and coral knolls, over which the sea rose and fell in a
manner dangerous to the integrity of the boat. After many trials and
much risk to the boat, we at length succeeded in jumping ashore
near the south-east or weather extremity of the island. Here we
found abundant traces of its having been frequently visited by
natives, but it did not appear as if they had been there during at
least half-a-dozen years prior to the time of our visit. We saw the
drawings, as described by Cunningham, covering the sides and roofs
of galleries and grottoes, which seemed to have been excavated by
atmospheric influences in a black fissile shale. This shale, which gave
a banded appearance to the cliff, was disposed in strata of about five
feet in thickness, and was interbedded with strata of pebbly
conglomerate—the common rock of the islet. In these excavations,
almost every available surface of smooth shale was covered with
drawings, even including the roofs of low crevices where the artist
must have worked lying prone on his back, and with his nose almost
touching his work. Most of the drawings were executed in red ochre,
and had their outlines accentuated by rows of white dots, which
seemed to be composed of a sort of pipe-clay. Some, however, were
executed in pale yellow on a brick-red ground, and in many
instances the objects depicted were banded with rows of white dots
crossing each other irregularly, and perhaps intended in a
rudimentary way to convey the idea of light and shade. The objects
delineated (of which I made such sketches as I was able) were
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