INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(ESO 203)

LABORATORY MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR

i
 WHAT IS EXPECTED OF YOU

This laboratory is an integral part of the course Introduction to Electrical Engineering

(ESO 203). Its objective is to supplement the theoretical knowledge with the practical aspect
of the subject matter. Development of experimental skills, the ability to set up and carry out
appropriate experiments and draw relevant conclusions are essential in the formation of an
engineer. You must carefully consider the following points while preparing and performing
each experiment and while reporting the observations.

1. Students must come prepared for each experiment. You should read and understand
the theory and the experimental aspects beforehand. You must chalk out a proper plan
for carrying out the experiments (such as plan for layout of circuit etc.).
2. Each student must come to the lab with individual lab sheet, calculator, graph sheet
etc. Students are required to bring lab sheet with the title of experiment, theory, circuit
diagram and observation table already prepared. All the students are required to get
the observations/readings verified and get the observation sheets signed by the lab
instructors/tutors. Each student has to submit the lab report to the instructor/tutor in
the next lab class.
3. The students should wear shoes (not the slippers), while performing the experiments.
Students are required to get the connections verified by the lab TAs, before switching
on the power supply. Utmost care should be taken while handling the equipments to
avoid any damage or electrical shock.
4. Perform all the experiments with care. Otherwise you may damage some expensive
equipment. Carefully consider the specifications and limitations of the equipment you
are working with.
5. You should pay attention to the accuracy of measurements based on the knowledge of
tolerance of circuit elements used and limitations of measuring equipment.
6. Recording of observations, results, and discussions should be well organised from the
point of view of clarity and completeness.
7. If you observe any unusual or interesting phenomenon, do try to investigate its nature
and discuss it with your instructor.
8. Each student must complete all the experiments. Make-lab will be announced to
complete the missed experiments, if any, during the regular lab hours.

ii
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 1: DETERMINATION OF THEVENIN

EQUIVALENT OF A GIVEN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the Thevenin equivalent of a given

electrical circuit experimentally and use the equivalent circuit for theoretically predicting the
current through a given circuit element appearing across terminals A-B of the circuit. The
results must be verified through
(i) Actual test
(ii) Theoretical estimation of Thevenin equivalent of the circuit.
(iii) KVL equations.

Brief Theory

Consider an electrical circuit consisting of active sources and passive elements with
no mutual coupling and working at steady state with sinusoidal excitations at the same
frequency as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a). In so far as the impedance ZL across the terminals A-B is
~
concerned, the circuit can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source VT in series with
equivalent source impedance ZT, when looked at across the terminal A-B from the impedance
ZL. The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1 (b), where
~
VT = Open circuit voltage appearing across A-B with ZL removed,
Z T = Effective impedance of circuit seen across A-B with all sources deactivated and
replaced by their internal impedances.
Thevenin’s theorem leads to a convenient method of determining the current flow
through a part of an interconnected electric circuit, with relative ease, especially while
studying the effect of change in a circuit parameter.

Laboratory Work

The electric circuit chosen for experimental validation of Thevenin’s theorem is

shown schematically in Fig. 1.2, and the experimental set up is depicted in Fig. 1.3. Follow
the steps given below.

1.1
 ZT A
A
Network Network ~
ZL VT ZL
1 2

B B
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.1 (a) Schematic Representation of an Electrical Network and (b) Thevenin Equivalent
of the Network of (a) when viewed across terminals A-B.

R C
A
~
I
+ +
~ (r, L) ~
V1 RL R V2

B
Fig. 1.2 Schematic Circuit Arrangement.

125 V, 3-phase ac supply

R Y B N

C
R = 150 Ω A
a a′
K
(r, L) V R = 150 Ω
A
0-1A
b b′
B
r = 1.8Ω, L = 0.45 H and C = 15 µF

Fig. 1.3 Connection Diagram.

1. Connect the circuit as per Fig. 1.3 and get it checked by your lab tutor/TA. Voltmeter
should not be connected permanently. One terminal of V should be open to measure Vab ,

1.2
 Va′b′ and VT . (Precaution: Use digital multimeter to verify the potentiometer
resistances)
2. Place the key K at open position, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
3. Switch on the 3-phase ac supply and note down the voltages Vab and Va′b′ .
4. Record the reading of the voltmeter,V as VT .
5. Close key K, shown in Fig. 1.3.
6. Record the reading of the ammeter A as I .
7. Switch off the 3-phase ac supply.
8. Replace the original connections across the terminals A-B by a resistance R = 10 ohms
and an ammeter, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Get your circuit checked by the lab tutor/TA.
9. Switch on the 3-phase ac supply and record the ammeter reading.
10. Switch off the 3-phase supply.

RL = 10 Ω, 10 W

A 0-1 A

B
Fig. 1.4 Connection Details for terminals A and B.

Laboratory Report

Your laboratory report should contain the following.

1. Objective of the experiment.
2. List of the components, instruments and equipment (if any) used.
3. Specifications of all the instruments.
4. Circuit diagrams, complete with ranges of meters, parameters of circuit components with
suitable titles for easy identification.
5. Laboratory observations in the tabular form as shown in Tables 1.1 to 1.3.

Table 1.1 Open circuit test

Vab (Volts) Va′b′ (Volts) VT (Volts)

Table 1.2 Short circuit test

Vab (Volts) Va′b′ (Volts) I (Amps)

1.3
 Table 1.3 Load test
Vab (Volts) Va′b′ (Volts) I through RL = 10 Ω (Amps)

6. Report the results in the following form.

VT − Experimental = Volts
 VT 
Z T  =  − Experimental

= Ω
 I 
VT − Estimated = Volts
Z T − Estimated = Ω

Current through resistive element RL ( = 10 ohms)

Experimental I = Amps
Estimated, Thevenin’s method I = Amps
Estimated, KVL method I = Amps

7. Your conclusions and comments on the results, including justification of any anomaly
between estimated and observed results.
8. Any precautions specific to the experiment

1.4
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 2: POWER MEASUREMENT IN A BALANCED

THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT
Brief Theory

The flow of power in ac circuit can be represented in the following terms

Apparent Power = VI Volt-Amperes

Active (or real) power = VI cos φ Watts
Reactive power = VI sin φ VAr
~~
Complex power = VI ∗

Of these, the active and reactive powers are often of basic interest and methods for measuring
their values are of importance.

Active (or real) power in ac circuits is measured with the help of wattmeter. In
balanced 3-phase circuits, theoretically it is possible to determine the total power flow from
the measurement of power flow per phase by using a single wattmeter. However, it is usually
not feasible in practice to do so, since this would necessitates opening of the star or delta
connection of the load to insert the wattmeter, which is not possible in most cases.
Furthermore, if there are several loads connected to the same supply mains, some in delta and
others in star, and we wish to measure the total power drawn by all these loads, we shall be
required to use the wattmeters on the supply lines where the possibility of per-phase power
measurement may not exist.

Real power in balanced (or unbalanced), 3-phase circuits can be measured by

employing two wattmeters in the three lines supplying the load system, irrespective of
whether the load is star or delta connected (or a combination of them). The schematic circuit
arrangement used for such a measurement is shown in Fig. 3.1. The current coil (cc) of the
wattmeters carry line current and the pressure coil (pc) of wattmeter have line voltage
impressed across it. In order to verify the possibility of 3-phase power measurement with the
help of two wattmeters, let us consider that the load is Y-connected and let the instantaneous
voltages and currents in the R, Y and B phases of the load be (vR, iR), (vY, iY)and (vB, iB)
respectively.

The total instantaneous power flow in the 3-phase load will be given by

.1
 Pi = v R i R + vY iY + v B i B

For any Y-connected load with ungrounded neutral, the sum of three phase currents must be
zero, i.e., i R + iY + i B = 0 , irrespective of whether the load is balanced or not. Therefore we
have

iY = −(i R + i B )

and hence

Pi = (v R − vY )i R + (v B − vY )i B

Examination of the circuit in Fig. 3.1 will show that the current through the current
coil (cc) of W1 is iR and the voltage across the pressure coil (pc) of W1 is vR − vY. Similarly,
the current through the cc of W2 is iB and the voltage across the p.c. of W2 is vB − vY. Hence, at
any instant,

Pi = pw1 + pw2

where pw1 and pw2 are the instantaneous power readings. The wattmeters, however, measure
the average power only, which is by definition, the real power of the circuit. Thus, we
conclude that the real power of a 3-phase circuit − balanced or unbalanced can be measured
using two wattmeters (provided I R + I Y + I B = 0 ) and is simply given by

P = W1 + W2

where, W1 and W2 are the readings of the two wattmeters.

Let us now examine in relation to a balanced system under steady state, what W1 and
W2 will actually measure. With reference to Fig. 3.2 (b), in which the load is star-connected,
W1 carries a current IR in its current coil and has a voltage of VRY across its potential coil.
Hence,
~ ~
W1 = V RY I R cos ∠VRY & I R

Similarly,
~ ~
W2 = V BY I B cos ∠VBY & I B

For a balanced system we assume

V R = VY = V B = V and I R = I Y = I B = I

Therefore

.2
 ~ ~
V RY = 3 V and ∠VRY & VR = 30°
~ ~
V BY = 3 V and ∠VBY & VB = 30°

Then

W1 = 3 VI cos(30° + θ ) and W2 = 3 VI cos(30° − θ )

and hence

W1 + W2 = 3 VI cos θ

which is the total power of the 3-phase circuit. Note that, if θ > 60° , W, will be negative. In
actual power measurement it is possible to encounter such a situation when one of the
wattmeters has a negative reading. The point to remember is that the total power in the 3-
phase circuit is obtained by ALGEBRAICALLY ADDING the two-wattmeter readings,
taking the signs of the reading into account.

It may also be worthwhile to identify the following cases:

(i) When the value of θ = 0 (signifying that load is such that current is in phase with the
voltage across each of the phases), W1 = W2 and both are positive. Such a reading
signifies that the load power factor (cos θ) is unity.
(ii) When the value of θ = 60° lag (load pf, cos 60° = 0.5 lagging), W1 = 0. Similarly, for
θ = 60° lead (corresponding to load pf =0.5 lead) W2 = 0.
(iii) When θ > 60° (i.e. load pf is less than 0.5 lag or lead) one of the wattmeter readings
is negative.

Reference to Fig. 3.2 (b), which depicts the phasor diagram for a balanced delta-
connected load system will show similar results. It is left to the students to verify the same.

A simplified version of the circuit arrangement of Fig. 3.1 (a), uses only one
wattmeter in conjunction with a reversible double-pole double-throw (DPDT Fig 3.8) switch
and a two-way key Fig 3.7 for measuring W1 and W2. This is shown in Fig. 3.1 (b).
Examination of the circuit shows that when DPDT is thrown to A-B side (refer fig.3.8) and 2-
way key on W2, the p.c. of the wattmeter has a voltage VBY applied across it, while, with the
key on W1, the corresponding voltage across p.c. of wattmeter is VRY. In both cases, the
current through c.c. is IY,, hence, with reference to the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.3, it will be
readily seen that,

W2 = 3 VI cos(30° − θ )
(3.1)
W1 = 3 VI cos(30° + θ )

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A single wattmeter connection as shown in Fig. 3.6 can be used for measuring reactive
power. With reference to the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.3, it can be seen that the c.c. of the
wattmeter carried a current of IY = (I) (Fig. 3.6) while the voltage across the p.c. of the
wattmeter is VBR (when DPDT is on A’, B’) or VRB when DPDT is on A, B). Hence the
wattmeter measures either 3 VI cos(90° − θ ) or 3 VI cos(90° + θ ) . In other words, reading
of the wattmeter gives ± 3 VI sin θ . To get the total VAR of the circuit we have only to
multiply the wattmeter reading by a factor of √3.

Laboratory Work

You are given balanced ac 50 Hz, 230 V supply. This implies that rms line-to-line
voltage is 230 volts. In the first and second parts of your experiment, the load consists of a
bank of three lamps. Use 300 W lamp loads for Parts 1, 2 and 3. Each lamp is connected to a
pair of terminals as shown in Fig. 3.4 (a).

Part 1

Connect the lamps in star as shown in Fig. 3.4 (b), and connect the wattmeter as per
circuit diagram of Fig. 3.1 (b), together with an ac ammeter and an ac voltmeter. Figure out
how the ammeter and voltmeter will be connected and draw an appropriate modification of
the circuit diagram of Fig. 3.1 (b) to accommodate them in circuit. GET YOUR
INSTRUCTOR TO CHECK THE CIRCUIT BEFORE SWITCHING ON. Now switch on the
3-phase supply and note down W1, W2, V and I. Switch off supply show that (W1 + W2 ) gives
the total power.

It is interesting to note that W1 and W2 may be used in estimating the power factor of
the load provided that the voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal. Thus, with reference
to expression (3.1)

W2 = 3 VI cos(30° − θ ), W1 = 3 VI cos(30° + θ )

Therefore

W2 − W1 = 3 VI sin θ and W2 + W1 = 3 VI cosθ

Hence,

W2 − W1
tan θ = 3
W1 + W2
From the above expression we get

 W2 − W1 
θ = tan −1  3 
 W1 + W2 

and hence the power factor cosθ can be calculated.

.4
Measurement of Reactive Volt-Ampere (VAr) in 3-Phase Circuits

From the forgoing discussions, it is seen that

W2 − W1 = 3 VI sin θ

where, V and I are ‘phase’ quantities. But, by definition, VI sin θ is the VAR per phase. For
3-phase, therefore, the total reactive volt-ampere is given by 3 VI sin θ . Thus
3 (W2 − W1 ) , will give the value of total volt-ampere reactive for a balanced 3-phase circuit.

An alternative method of measuring this quantity is provided when the wattmeter is

connected as shown in Fig. 3.6. With DPDT (Fig 3.8) thrown on the A, B or the A’, B’ side
to get a deflection on the wattmeter.

Part 2

Connect the lamps in delta as per schematic diagram of Fig. 3.4 ©, without disturbing
other parts of the circuit. Get the circuit checked by your instructor. Switch on the 3-phase
supply. Note down W1, W2, V and I. Switch off the supply.

Part 3

Connect each lamp in series with an inductance of value 0.45 H (or two capacitances,
each 15 µF, in series) provided. Connect the three series combinations in delta as shown in
Fig. 3.5. Connect wattmeter as shown in Fig. 3.1 (b), together with a n ammeter and
voltmeter, as you did in Parts 1 and 2 above. You must get your circuit checked by the
instructor before switching on the supply. Now switch on the supply. Note down W1, W2
taking care to see whether the readings are +ve or −ve, and also V and I. Switch off the
supply.

Modify the wattmeter p.c. connection only as per Fig. 3.6. Get the circuit checked,
and switch on. Note down the wattmeter reading. Also note the inductor (or capacitor) values
used in the circuit.

Report

Determine, for each case, the total active power flow in the circuit in watts, and the
circuit power factor. Also calculate the reactive volt-ampere of the circuit in each case. Verify
the results with the measured values. Estimate the line and phase currents for each case and
cross check with appropriate measured values. Draw the phasor diagram for each case. From
the given voltage-power characteristics of the lamps (this is displayed in the laboratory),
verify that two-wattmeter method of power measurement yields the real and reactive powers
in the circuit in each case.

.5
 cc W1
M L
R
com pc 300
3-phase 3-phase ∆- or
ac Y Y-connected
supply load
com pc
300
B
M L
cc
W2

(a) Schematic diagram used for unbalanced load.

0-2.5A
R A

3-phase cc 3-phase ∆- or
M L
ac Y Y-connected
supply com 300 load
0-300 V V pc

B
A B
W1
W2
B’ A’ 2-way key
DPDT

(b) Schematic circuit used only with Balanced Load.

Fig. 3.1 Alternate circuit arrangements for 2-wattmeter method of measuring power in 3-
phase ac Circuits.

~ ~
IR VRY
R′
R
~
VR
~ Z
IY ~
IR
Y Z
~
~ Z VBY
IB Y′ ~
IB θ
B B′ ~
~ ~ VY
VB IY
(a) Star-connected load.

.6
 ~
IR
R R′ ~
VRY
~
IB ~
~ I BR
IY ~ ~ ~
Y I BR I RY ~ IR
I RY
Z Z
~ θ
~ VBR
IB Z ~
B ~ VYB
Y′ I YB
B′ ~ 30°
I YB ~
IY

(b) Delta-connected load.

Fig. 3.2 Phasor diagrams of power measurement by 2-wattmeter method.

~ ~ ~
V R = VY = V B = V
~
VR ~ ~
R VYR = VYB = 3V
~
IR
ZR
~
Y ~ VYB
ZY IY
θ
ZB ~ ~
VB ~ VY
B IB

~
VYR
Fig. 3.3 Phasor diagram with star-connected load for power measurement using one
wattmeter only for balanced load.

Lamp 1 Lamp 2 Lamp 3

a a′ b b′ c c′

(a) Three-phase lamp board.

c′ a
Lamp 1
a′ Lamp 3 Lamp 1
c′
Lamp 3 b′ Lamp 2 c a′

c b′ Lamp 2
b b
(b) Lamp in 3-phase star. (c) Lamp in 3-phase delta.
Fig. 3.4. Lamp board and its 3-phase connections.

.7
 a a′ b b′ c c′

R′ Y′ B′
OR

a a′ b b′ c c′

R′ Y′ B′

Fig. 3.5 Delta-connection of lamp-inductance OR lamp-capacitance combinations.

0-2.5A
R A R′
W
3-phase cc 3-phase
M L Y′
ac Y ∆-connected
supply com 300 balanced
0-300 V V pc
load
B B′

DPDT
Fig. 3.6 Circuit diagram for measurement of reactive power in balanced 3-phase circuit.

.8
 com 300 volts

Fig. 3.7 2 Way Key Fig. 3.8 DPDT Switch

NOTE: (1) Always connect A with A’ and B with B’ contacts of DPDT

(2) Com and 300 volts corresponds to the potential coil ends of the wattmeter.
(3) In case 2 way key, shown in Fig.3.7, is not provided, keep the wire from the
terminal A’ of the DPDT switch floating.

Observations:

(a) Measurement of Active Power

V I W1 W2 Total power
(V) (A) (Watts) (Watts) (W1+W2)
Watts
Part-1
Part-2
Part-3

(b) Measurement of Reactive Power

V I Wattmeter Reactive
reading power
(V) (A)
(VAr)

.9
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 3: DETERMINATION OF SELF AND MUTUAL

INDUCTANCES OF COILS

Objective: To determine experimentally the self and mutual inductance of a given pair
of magnetically coupled coils, and to estimate there from the value of the coupling coefficient
K for the coil. Also determine the polarity of the coils.

Brief Theory

Measurement of self and mutual inductance of a two coil electrical circuit with mutual
coupling can be made with reasonable accuracy using static ac tests, provided

a. The test is conducted at the proper level of current and frequency on the two windings
b. The level of magnetization can be suitably maintained while the test is conducted −
preferably at unsaturated conditions of the magnetic circuit and
c. The effect of power loss due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the magnetic circuit is
suitably accounted for.

Let us consider the schematic circuit of Fig. 4.1, together with a voltmeter, an ammeter and a
wattmeter, as shown in Fig.4.1.

Coil 1 Coil 2
cc
A C
A
pc
V1 V2
V1 or V2

B D
Fig. 4.1. Schematic circuit arrangement.

Let voltage V1, at a known frequency f1, be applied across the terminals A-B of coil 1, such
that the current flow through the coil does not saturate the magnetic circuit. (While
performing the experiment we shall see how this is ascertained). If we connect the voltmeter
and the potential coil of the wattmeter in parallel, by temporarily connecting the terminals A-
B, we can get the voltmeter reading V1, wattmeter reading W1, besides the ammeter reading
I1. With the circuit otherwise undisturbed, let us now remove the contacts of the

.1
voltmeter/wattmeter potential coil combination from AB, instead let us now connect it to
terminals C-D. We shall obtain new voltmeter reading V2 and wattmeter reading W2. By
knowing the value of resistance of coil 1 (say R1), it is possible for us to calculate,

′ 2
W1 = W1 − I 2 R1

and we shall find that

′
W1 W2
≈
V1 V2

Analysis of the nature of power flow shows that W1’,in fact, is the power fed to account for
the hysteresis and eddy current losses of the magnetic circuit responsible for magnetic
linkage of the two coils.

We shall see later (while studying transformers) that the circuit under reference can be
represented by an equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 4.2, where the actual coil 1 is replaced by a
resistance R1 (of the coil), with an equivalent resistance R2 parallel to L1, such that the power
consumed by R2 accounts for the hysteresis and eddy current losses of the magnetic circuit.
Taking this to be the equivalent circuit of coil 1 we can readily draw the phasor diagram
~ ~
showing phasor relationship between V1 and I 1 and determine therefrom the component of
~
current I M through the pure inductance L1. This is shown in Fig. 4.3.

R1 ~
~ IM
+ ~ + IL +
I1
~ ~ R2 ~
V1 V1′ V2
L1 L2

Fig. 4.2 Circuit equivalent of Fig. 4.1 with supply in coil 1 only.

~
V1′
~ ~
IL I 1 R1
α1
90°
~
V1
θ1

~
~ I1
IM
~ ~ ~ ~
Fig. 4.3 Phasor diagram showing phasor relationship of V1 , I 1 , I M and I L .

.2
 It will be readily seen that,

W1
cos θ 1 =
V1 ⋅ I 1
′
V1 = (V1 − I1 R1 cos θ )2 + (I1 R1 sinθ )2
I 1 R1 sin θ 1
α 1 = tan −1
V1 − I 1 R1 cos θ 1

since IM will be 90° lagging below V1’, magnitude of IM is given by

I M = I 1 sin (θ1 + α 1 )

It is now possible to obtain the values of L1 and M. These are given by

′
1 V1 1 V2
L1 = ⋅ and M = ⋅
2πf I M 2πf I M
The value of L2 (and M) can be experimentally obtained by repeating the test with voltage
now applied across the terminals C-D of coil 2 and with terminals A-B of coil 1 kept open
circuited. The only precaution to be observed is to choose a proper value of applied voltage to
coil 2, which should be equal to V2 measured in the earlier test. This is to ensure that the flux
level in the magnetic circuit remains the same for both the tests.

Laboratory Work

Part I: Experimental determination of L1 and M

1. Choose the coil with higher voltage rating, as coil 1. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig.
4.4 and set the variac to zero output voltage. Get the connections verified by your
instructor.
2. Switch on the ac supply.
3. With the voltmeter kept connected across terminals A-B of the coil 1, increase the applied
voltage to coil 1 gradually to 180 V.
0-0.5 cc
M L A C
A com
com 30
pc
220 V V V pc
ac supply
N 30
Variac B D
Fig. 4.4 Circuit Diagram for Tests Part 1.
(a) Increase the voltage in steps of 10 V up to 230 V and record the ammeter readings.
(b) Plot V-I. This should come out to be a straight line.

.3
4 Turn the variac control fully in anticlockwise direction to reduce the applied voltage to
zero.
5 Now slowly increase the applied voltage by clockwise rotation of variac control, and set
the voltage to V1 = 200 V.
6 With wattmeter potential coil connected in parallel to the voltmeter, connect the terminals
of the combination across A-B. Record I1, V11 and W11, respectively.
7 Withdraw the contact of the voltmeter/wattmeter pressure coil combination from
terminals A-B without disturbing the voltage setting on variac, connect them to terminals
C-D of coil 2. Record V21 and W21, respectively.
8 Turn the variac regulating handle to set the voltage to zero. Switch off supply.
9 Open the connections from across terminals A-B of coil 1 and transfer the original
connections to terminals C-D.
10 Get the connections checked by your instructor after ensuring that the variac handle is
turned fully anti-clockwise (zero voltage position).
11 Switch on ac supply and slowly turn the variac handle to set the applied voltage V22
(equal to V21 measured in step 7).
12 Record the values of V22, I2 and W22, respectively.
13 Follow the procedure laid down in step 7 to obtain values of V12 and W12. Turn the variac
handle to zero voltage and switch off. Disconnect.
14 Given that the resistances of the two coils are (these are indicated on the coil):
R1 for coil 1 = 3.9 Ω
R2 for coil 2 = 1.2 Ω
Follow the procedure outlined in the ‘Theory’ to calculate self inductances ( L1, L2) and
the mutual inductance, M. Note that M obtained from the two tests are, for all practical
purposes, equal.
15 The value of the coefficient of coupling, K, is given by:
M
K=
L1 ⋅ L2

Part II: Determination of Polarities

1 Connect coil 1 and coil 2 in series by joining B and C.

2 Set the circuit through a lamp-board in series as shown in Fig. 4.5. Get the circuit verified
by your instructor.
3 Switch on the supply and note the intensity of glow of the lamp.
4 Switch off.
5 Interchange connections between terminals C and D only. This will cause the terminal B
to be connected to D and the supply (through the lamp board in series) to be across A and
C. check that this is the case.
6 Switch on and note the intensity of glow of the lamp. Note in which case the intensity of
glow is more.
Switch off and disconnect.

.4
 Lamp Board
15 W
A C

220 V, 50 Hz,
ac supply

B D

Fig. 4.5 Circuit for checking polarity.

Laboratory Report

Your laboratory report should follow the pattern, set in earlier experiments. Since you
are already acquainted with it, you should devise your own method of recording and labeling
the experimental data and results.

Note that this experiment has some precautions. Identify them and record them
appropriately. Try to comment on the procedure followed and give your comments by
answering the following questions:

1. In determining the voltage-current characteristics, why do we choose the coil with higher
voltage rating as coil 1?
2. Why do we plot the V/I characteristic for increasing values of the applied voltage?
3. How do we recognize that the series connection, yielding lesser glow of the lamp, is the
coil configuration for series addition?
4. Why do we perform tests on the coils connected in series with currents equal to I1
measured in step 6 of part 1 of tests?
5. If the two coils were not magnetically coupled by an iron core (or core of some other high
permeance material) the wattmeter readings W21 and W21 would have been zero. Can you
reason why they show finite values when magnetic core is present?

.5
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 4: TO STUDY THE WINDINGS OF A

TRANSFORMER AND ASSEMBLING A SMALL TRANSFORMER
Design Inputs

Given Data:

Primary voltage (E): 230 V Supply frequency (f) = 50 Hz.

Maximum allowable flux density (Bm) = 1.0 T Primary turns (N1) = 1200

Basic Equation

The voltage equation of the transformer is

E = 4.44 Bm Ai fN t

where Ai is the cross- sectional area of the iron (CRGO) core.

Design

1. From the given data calculate Ai.

2. Draw the magnetic circuit and the flux path. Ai is the core area perpendicular to the flux
path.
3. The stamping dimensions are shown in Fig. 5.1. Calculate the depth (di) of the core
required.

The iron core is made up of number of laminations which are stacked together to form
the core. Each lamination is electrically insulated on the outer surfaces to minimize eddy
current flow in the core. Cross section of the stamping is as shown in Fig. 5.2. It is given that

d il
= 0.87
d el

4. Calculate the depth of the core stack.

5. Measure the stack depth in the given transformer and compare with the calculated value.
6. You have to get 6 V at the secondary side. How many secondary turns (NS) are required?

.1
 6.5 cm 1.6 cm

8.6 cm 3.1 cm

1.55 cm

D = 0.5 cm
Fig. 5.1 Enameled CRGO Core.

Enamel
CRGO d il d e1
Insulation

Fig. 5.2 Formation of the core.

Measurement

Connect the primary winding to the variac and adjust the voltage to 230 V. Measure
the secondary side output.

Assembly

1. Open the transformer core clamping screws and very carefully remove the stampings. Use
the tools given to you. Avoid excessive force on the laminations. Note the manner in
which the core is assembled (interleaved). After you finish, you should have a set of E-
shaped and a set of l-shaped stampings (such constructions are called E-l cores).

.2
2. Wind another secondary of NS turns besides the existing secondary winding. Make sure
both ends of the new winding are brought out. Mark the Start (S1 and S2) and finish (F1
and F2) of both the secondary windings. Note the sense (Clockwise or Counter-
clockwise) in which both secondary windings are wound.
3. Fit the back again, using the tools given. Be careful not to hammer the laminations too
hard.

NOTE: Scratch the wires thoroughly to remove insulation, before connecting them.

Testing

1. Connect the primary to the variac and adjust the variac output to 230 V as shown in Fig.
5.3. Note the voltage of the two secondary windings with a multimeter.
2. Connect the secondary windings in series (you will have four combinations) and measure
the total output voltage.
3. Readings may be tabulated as shown in Table 5.1.
Interpret the results.

Table 5.1 Tabulate the results in the following format

Connection Measurement between Multimeter reading (V)

S1 and S2 F1 and F2
S1 and F2 S2 and F1
F1 and S2 S1 and F2
F1 and F2 S1 and S2

220 V V
ac supply
N
Variac

Fig. 5.3 Transformer testing circuit.

.3
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 5: DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

PARAMETERS OF A SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER AND
EVALUATION OF ITS PERFORMANCE
Aim

To determine the parameters of the equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer by

conducting open and short circuit tests and calculate the efficiency as well as regulation of
the transformer are then evaluated at given load conditions.

Theory

Fig. 6.1 shows an equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer 1,1′ and 2,2′ denote
the terminals of the primary and secondary windings, respectively. The resistances and
reactances in the circuit are defined below:

R1 Primary winding resistance

R2 Secondary winding resistance
XL1 Primary winding leakage reactance
XL2 Secondary winding leakage reactance
RM1 Resistance representing hysteresis and eddy current losses, referred to
the primary winding
XM1 Magnetizing reactance referred to primary winding
N1 Number of turns in the primary winding
N2 Number of turns in the secondary winding

RM1 is a fictitious resistance representing core losses at the rated frequency and
applied voltage. The relationship between the magnetic flux in transformer core and the
MMF, which establishes it, is nonlinear and is given by the B-H characteristics of the core
material. The nonlinearity gives rise to odd harmonics in the magnetizing current. The
predominant harmonic is the third. Its magnitude can be as much as 40 % of that of the
fundamental. XM1 is a reactance to represent the relationship between the fundamental
component of the magnetizing current and the magnetic flux.

.1
 X L1 Ideal X L2
R1 Transformer R2
1 2

X M1 RM 1

1′ 2′
N1 : N 2
Fig. 6.1 An equivalent circuit of a transformer.

The transformer equivalent circuit parameters are determined through an open circuit
test and a short circuit test involving respectively measurement of impedance at one part of
the transformer with the other part open and short circuited. Note that:

The open circuit test should be performed at the rated voltage and the short circuit test
preferably at the rated current of the transformer. Both tests should be performed at the
rated frequency.

.2
 The equivalent resistance R1eq and the equivalent leakage reactance X1eq of the
transformer windings, both referred to the primary winding, are given by

2
N 
R1eq = R1 +  1  R2 (6.1)
 N2 
2
N 
X 1eq = X L1 +  1  X L 2 (6.2)
 N2 

Noting in Fig. 6.1 that XM1 and RM1 can be moved to be across points 1,1′ without causing
significant error, the equivalent circuit of Fig. 6.1 can be reduced to that shown in Fig. 6.2.
The equivalent circuit of Figs. 6.3 (a and b) are approximations to the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 6.2 and hold good for conditions of open and short circuit tests, respectively. The open
and short circuit impedances, ZOC and ZSC, respectively, can be measured by measuring the
applied voltage, input current and power drawn by the transformer under conditions of open
and short circuit tests.

Laboratory Work

The experiment is to be performed on a 500 VA, 230/115 V, single phase, 50 Hz transformer.

X 1eq Ideal
R1eq Transformer
1 2

X M1 RM 1

1′ 2′
N1 : N 2
Fig. 6.2 Simplified equivalent circuit of transformer.
R1eq X 1eq
1 1

Z OC ⇒ X M 1 RM 1

1′ 1′
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.3 (a) Open-circuit impedance and (b) Short-circuit impedance.

.3
Open Circuit Test

Warning: Do not switch ON the circuit till your instructor has checked it.

Set up the circuit of Fig. 6.4. Note that the secondary terminals 2,2’ are left open. Use
a 1 A range for ammeter and the current coil of wattmeter, and 300 V range for the potential
coil of wattmeter. Adjust the applied voltage to transformer to 230 V using the variac. Note
down the meter readings. Let VOC, IOC and WOC be the applied voltage, primary current and
input power, respectively. Then

RM 1 = (VOC ) WOC
2
(6.3)
X M 1 = VOC (I OC )2 − (WOC VOC )
2
(6.4)

Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Wattmeter Reading

(Voc) Volts (Ioc) A (Woc) Watts

Short Circuit Test

Warning: Do not switch ON the circuit till your instructor has checked it.

Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 6.5. Here, the secondary terminals are shorted. Use
appropriate range for current coil of wattmeter, 2.5 A range for ammeter and 150 V range for
the potential coil of the wattmeter. It is very important to note that for this test only a low
voltage is to be applied to the primary of the transformer. This is done by setting variac
output to zero initially and increasing it very slowly. If normal voltage is applied to the
transformer under short circuit condition, a very large current will flow through it causing
damage to the windings, the ammeter and the wattmeter. So you have to be careful and make
sure to use small voltage (maximum of 18 V) supply to the transformer for the test. Measure
the voltage from the dial of the variac/voltmeter.
Adjust the variac to obtain the full load current through the transformer primary. Let
VSC, ISC, WSC, be the applied voltage, primary short circuit current and input power,
respectively. Then,
R1eq = WSC (I SC )
2
(6.5)
(VSC I SC ) − (R1eq )
2 2
X 1eq = (6.6)
0-1 A WOC
cc

I
M L 1 2
A
com 300
pc
230 V, 50 Hz V VOC V
ac supply
N
Variac 1′ 2′

Fig. 6.4 Set-up for open-circuit test.

5.4
 0-2.5 A WSC
cc
I SC M L 1 2
A
com 150
pc
24 V, 50 Hz V VSC
ac supply
N
Variac 1′ 2′
Fig. 6.5 Set-up for short-circuit test.

Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Wattmeter Reading

(Vsc) Volts (Isc) A (Wsc) Watts

Note:
In practice, Open Circuit (OC) test for a transformer is done by applying voltage on
High Voltage (HV) side of the transformer and Short Circuit (SC) test is performed by
applying voltage on Low Voltage (LV) side of the transformer. However, in this
experiment, both the OC and SC Tests are performed by applying voltage on HV side of
the transformer.

Transformer Performance Evaluation

(a) Efficiency

Using the results of the experiment calculate the efficiency of the transformer when it
is supplying full load at 0.8 pf lagging when the rated voltage of 230 V is applied to the
primary. Under these conditions, the primary current is I1 = (500/230) A, (neglecting the
magnetizing and core loss components of current), and the copper loss is (I1)2R1eq. Iron loss is
WOC and is given by the open circuit test. The efficiency is then given by the expression

(500)(0.8) [(500)(0.8) + (500 230)2 R1eq + WOC ] (6.7)

Calculate also the efficiency when the transformer is supplying half of full load at 0.6 power
factor lagging at the rated applied voltage.

(b) Regulation

Calculate the regulation of the transformer for the two conditions given above. Note
that regulation is a measure of the voltage drop that takes place in the transformer. Percentage
regulation is approximately given by the formula

 (I 1 R1eq cos θ + I 1 X 1eq sin θ )

% Regulation =   × 100 (6.8)
 V1rated 

5.5
Load Test

Load test on a transformer can be done using the circuit shown in Fig. 6.6. This
involves actually loading the transformer and measuring its input and output quantities to
determine the performance measures such as voltage regulation and efficiency at various
loads, and load power factors. Note that this is not a convenient way of determining
transformer performance. The reasons are that

(a) In practice arranging loading equipment which can absorb the power output of the
transformer may be difficult, especially in the case of large transformers, and arranging
the absorption to take place at stipulated power factors is even more difficult.
(b) The calculation of efficiency by determining input and output powers is bound to be
inaccurate since losses would be obtained as the difference between two large and nearly
equal numbers. In any case we will perform a load test here at unity power factor to just
show the results arrived at, by using the results of the open circuit and the short circuit
tests, agree with the actual values.

The experiment setup is shown in Fig. 6.6. Keeping the load switch open, the
transformer is switched ON to the mains and the rated voltage applied to the primary. The no
load readings of the meters in the primary and secondary sides are taken. Then the
transformer is gradually loaded after closing the load switch by putting ON the lamps one by
one. Make sure that when you start all the lamps should be OFF. Gradually switch ON the
lamps till the rated winding current of the transformer is obtained. For each load, the readings
of all the meters on the primary and secondary sides are noted. From the readings, the losses,
efficiency and regulation of the transformer are calculated. Draw the plots of efficiency and
regulation against load current.

The earlier results for efficiency and regulation using the transformer parameters
obtained through open circuit and short circuit test are also drawn on the same graph-sheets
and compare the two sets of results.
200 W
200 W
100 W

0-5 A
40 W

cc cc 0-2 A
M L 2 1 M L
A A
com 150 com 300
120 V, pc pc
50 Hz V
ac
supply N
Variac 2′ 1′ Load
Fig. 6.6 Set-up for load test.
Load Test Observations:

Sl. Lamp Load V1 I1 W1 V2 I2 W2

No. (Watts) (Volts) (Ampere) (Watts) (Volts) (Ampere) (Watts)

5.6
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 6: TO DETERMINE THE NO-LOAD AND LOAD

CHARACTERISTICS OF A D.C. GENERATOR RUNNING AT
CONSTANT SPEED, BOTH FOR SEPARATELY EXCITED AND
SHUNT EXCITED MODES OF OPERATION

Brief Theory

In studying the behavior of a d.c. generator, it is usually sufficient to determine

experimentally
i. The no-load characteristic
ii. Load characteristic

of the machine at its rated speed. The no-load (or magnetization) characteristic is a plot of the
potential difference across the armature terminals against the field current, with no current
flowing in the armature circuit and with the armature rotating at a constant speed (usually the
rated speed unless some other speed is deliberately chosen). For this test, the machine is
operated in the separately excited mode, with the field current supplied form an external
source. It is easy to see that this characteristic helps us in knowing about the magnetic circuit
of the machine. A typical no-load characteristic, shown in Fig. 7.1, will be readily identified
as a part of the hysteresis loop. This suggests an important precaution in the experimental
determination of the no-load characteristic. Never reduce the field current when you are
determining the no-load characteristic by increasing the current in the field and vice versa.
We already know that the EMF induced in a D.C. machine is given by:
 2p  1
=E   × Z × × φ Nvolts
 2a  60
where, p – no. of poles, a – no. of parallel paths, Z – no of armature conductors, φ - flux per
pole and N- speed of armature in rpm.
Since the no-load characteristic essentially gives us a plot of E against φ, N should be kept
constant. This is another important precaution in the determination of the no-load
characteristic of the machine.
A d.c. machine, in its shunt excited mode, derives its field excitation from its own armature.
This leads to certain basic conditions that the machine must satisfy before self excitation is
possible. These are:
I. Existence of residual magnetism in field
II. Direction of rotation and connection of field winding to armature should be such that
the excitation derived by the field should aid the residual magnetism.
III. The field circuit resistance should be less than a certain critical value corresponding to
each value of operating speed of the machine

6.1
IV. The speed of the machine must be more than a certain minimum value, called critical
speed of the machine, for which the resistance of the shunt field winding (without any
external resistance included in field circuit) becomes the critical field resistance.

In the present experiment, we shall determine the critical field resistance at rated speed and
the critical speed of the machine, both experimentally as well as analytically.
The load characteristic, more commonly known as the external characteristic of the generator,
is a plot between the terminal voltage and load current, when the machine speed is kept
constant (usually at its rated speed) and the armature is electrically loaded. Typical shapes of
this characteristic for (a) separately excited mode with fixed excitation and (b) for shunt
excited mode are shown in Fig. 7.2. This characteristic gives us important information about
the mode of variation of terminal voltage of the generator with increase in current supplied.
It is known from the study of d.c. generators that the EMF induced in the machine will not
usually remain constant but will decrease with increasing value of the armature current, even
if the field excitation and speed are kept constant. This is because of the effective
demagnetization associated with armature reaction. Armature reaction effects are manifested
both in the separately excited and the shunt excited machines. A second effect, which causes
drop in the terminal voltage with load in both types of machines, is due to armature resistance
drop (apart from the voltage drop in the carbon brushes, which is neglected in this
experiment).
An additional cause of the change in terminal voltage with load, typical of shunt machines
alone, is that the field excitation in such a machine is a function of the terminal voltage itself
(which reduces with the increase in the load current). This is responsible for imparting the
peculiarity in the shape of the external characteristic of the shunt machines, not observed in
case of the separately excited machines. Fig. 7.3 depicts these changes.

Laboratory Work

The experimental setup consists of two identical d.c. machines, mechanically coupled to each
other. Each machine is rated for ¼ H.P. (≈ 190 watts), thus signifying that when running as a
generator at its rated speed it can deliver to an electrical load of 190 watts at rated voltage.
While working as a motor it can deliver rated mechanical power at rated speed for which the
armature will require an input power of 190 watts from the supply.
Note the name plate details of each machine. Each machine can function on separately
excited or shunt excited mode. The armature and field terminals are brought out on the
terminal board of each machine.
In this experiment, we shall use one of the d.c. machines as the prime mover and the other as
the d.c. generator. We shall be concerned with the behavior of the latter and use the former to
maintain a constant speed.

Part I : Experimental determination of the no-load (magnetization) characteristic of

separately excited d.c. generator:

1. Set up the circuit as per circuit diagram of Fig. 7.4 (switch Off all the loads).
2. Set the rheostat RM to MAX. position and set RFG so that it produces zero field
current.

6.2
 3. Before switching on, get your circuit checked by the instructor.
4. Switch On the d.c. supply. Gradually cut out the resistance RM from the motor circuit.
The speed of the set will increase. By controlling RM, adjust the speed to the rated
speed of the machine.
5. By controlling the value of RFG, increase the value of If in steps. TAKING CARE
THAT THROUGH RM the speed of the set remains constant. Record E for each value
of If, in suitable tabular form. Plot E vs. If. Switch off the d.c. supply.
6. Extend the initial linear part of the E/If curve plotted. The slope of this straight line
gives you the value of critical field resistance of the machine at the rated speed.

Part II : Load test – Determination of external characteristic. (Separately excited)

7. Connect the circuit as per Fig. 7.6(a).

8. Set RM to max. RFM to zero, get your circuit checked by the instructor.
9. Switch On the circuit and control RM to attain rated speed.
10. Control RFG to obtain rated voltage across generator terminals at no-load.
11. Switch On the load (lamps) in steps, and for each load setting, adjust the speed to the
original value by controlling RM or RFM as the case may be. Record the value of VM,
IM, VG and IG for each load setting. Switch Off the d.c. supply.
12. Refer to the curves in Fig. 7.7 to read the efficiency ηm of the drive motor for each
value of IM. The motor output in watts (which equals the generator input) is then
given by (VMIMηm). The efficiency of the generator is given by ηg= (VGIG/VMIM. ηm).
Plot the ηg vs. IG characteristic for the generator, at its rated speed.
13. Plot VG against IG (including VG at IG = 0). This gives the load characteristic of the
separately excited d.c. generator at the rated speed.

Part III : Determination of no-load terminal voltage of shunt generator and its critical speed.

14. Modify the circuit to conform to the circuit diagram of Fig. 7.5. Switch Off all the
loads. Set RM to maximum resistance position and RFM to zero resistance position. Get
your circuit checked before switching on the d.c. supply.
15. Set RFG to maximum resistance position.
16. Switch On the d.c. supply. The set will start rotating at a slow speed. Now, gradually
cut out resistance RM. The speed of the set will increase. Cut RM till the set attains its
rated speed. If you cannot attain the rated speed even after RM is fully cut out, slowly
increase RFM till the rated speed is attained.
17. Stop controlling RM or RFM (as the case may be). Note that the reading of the
voltmeter across the generator armature is very small. With the set running at its rated
speed, slowly cut the resistance RFG till the voltmeter reading begins to increase. Stop
controlling RFG. Switch Off the d.c. supply. Isolate the terminals C-FF and measure
the resistance. Compare the result with that obtained as critical field resistance in Part
I.
18. Now reset the resistance RM to max., RFM to zero and RFG to zero value. Reconnect C
to A and FF to AA through the ammeter as before in Fig. 7.5.

6.3
 19. Switch On the d.c. supply and repeat step 16 above. You should observe a substantial
reading in the voltmeter. Slowly increase the resistance of the field circuit by
controlling RFG, till the rated terminal voltage is read on the C-FF and measure the
resistance.
20. Take the plot of E/If obtained in Part I. Mark the rated voltage point on the curve and
join it to the origin. Determine the slope of the straight line. Compare its value with
the value of the field circuit resistance measured in step 19.
21. Reset RM to max., RFM to zero and RFG to zero. Reconnect C to A and FF to AA
through the ammeter as before to reassemble circuit diagram of Fig. 7.5.
22. Switch On the d.c. supply. VERY SLOWLY cut out the resistance RM keeping an eye
on the voltmeter. Stop controlling RM as soon as the voltmeter reading begins to
increase fast. Measure the speed of the set. This is the value of the critical speed.
Switch off the d.c. supply.
23. Verify the value of critical speed from the knowledge of the value of the field
resistance and the E/If characteristic you determined in Part I.

Part IV: Load test – Determination of External Characteristics (Shunt gen.)

24. Reconnect the generator circuit of the machine as per Fig. 7.6(b) and repeat steps 8
through 13. The plot of VG against Ig (including VG at IG = 0) gives the external
characteristic of d.c. shunt generator at its rated speed.

Report
In your report you should include, besides the usual information already known from
previous report writing, all plots discussed in the lab. Work together with important
precautions and report your comments/observations based on comparisons already outlined.

6.4
 N1(rpm)
N1>N2
N2(rpm)

E (Volts)

If(Amps)

Fig 7.1: No-Load characteristics of D.C. Generator

E (No-load emf)

(a)Seperately Excited
Mode with If constant.
V (Volts) (b)Shunt Excited
Mode.

I(Amps)

Fig 7.2: Load Characteristics of D.C. Generator Operating at Constant Speed

1
1 Drop due to demagnetisation
effect of armature reaction
(common to (a) & (b))
2

3
2 Drop due to effect of armature
V (Volts) resistance
(common to (a) & (b))

3 Additional drop in shunt mode

only due to change in If with I
I(Amps)

Fig 7.3: Identification of Causes Leading to the Shape of Load Characteristics in D.C.
Generator

6.5
 RFG

0-1 A A RM A

+ F A F
220V, d.c. FF M G V
supply
FF
-
RFM AA AA A

Motor Generator

Fig 7.4: Circuit Diagram for No-Load Test of Separately Excited D.C. Generator

A C
F RM RFG
A B
+
F
220V, d.c. FF M G V
supply
FF
- RFM AA A
AA

Motor Generator

Fig 7.5 Circuit Diagram for Shunt Excited D.C. Generator.

6.6
 RFG

0-2A 0-2A
AM AG

F R
M A A F 40W 60W 100W
+
220V, d.c. FF VM M G VG
supply
FF
- RFM AA AA 0-1A A

Motor Generator

Fig 7.6 (a): Circuit Diagram for Load Test on Separately Excited D.C. Generator

0-2A
0-2A F AG
AM C
RM RFG
A B 40W 60W 100W
+ A
F
220V, d.c. FF M G VG
supply VM
FF
- RFM AA A
AA 0-1A

Motor Generator

Fig 7.6(b): Circuit Diagram for Load Test on Shunt Excited D.C. Generator

6.7
Fig 7.7: Efficiency Curves

6.8
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 7: TO STUDY

(a) LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF A DC SHUNT MOTOR AND
(b) THE SPEED CONROL METHODS FOR A SEPERATELY
EXCITED DC MOTOR

Brief Theory

One of the unique features of a dc motor, which has helped it maintain its supremacy
over other electric drive systems for specific applications in industry, is its ability to provide
smooth, wide range of speed control with relative ease. As we already know, the basic
equations governing the steady-state operation of a dc motor are given by

V − E = I a Ra (8.1)
where, E, the back induced emf, is of the form

Z×p
E = φN = Kφω (8.2)
 60 × a 
where ‘N’ and ‘ω’ are the rotor speed in rpm and rad/sec, respectively and, the constant ‘K’,
is given by
Z× p
K = .
 2πa 
With no shaft load applied on the motor, the torque developed is only for overcoming the
rotational losses. Since the shunt motor operates at essentially a constant flux, a small
armature current, Ia, is only required as compared with the rated current of the machine to
meet the rotational losses. When a load demanding rated torque is applied to the motor shaft,
the applied load torque causes the motor to assume that value of speed, which yields an
armature current Ia, sufficient to overcome the load torque and the rotational losses. Hence,
the relation between speed-torque is an important characteristic of the d.c. motor.

Various schemes available for the speed control of d.c. motor can also be deduced
from the relation given in (8.2).
V and E, in (8.1) are of the same order, so that, on a first degree of approximation, V ≈ E and
thus
V ≈ Kφω

7.1
This gives
V
ω∝ (8.3)
φ

Expression (8.3) suggests that there can be two alternative strategies for achieving
speed control:

1) By controlling the voltage applied across the armature terminals of the machine.
2) By controlling the field flux of the machine.

Let us consider the practical implications of the above alternatives. Equation (8.3) shows that

(a) The speed (for a given torque supplied by the motor) changes linearly with applied
voltage. Since the torque developed by the motor is given by T = KφIa, a motor working
with a constant field excitation and delivering a constant torque will draw a constant
current Ia whose value will be independent of the value of the applied voltage V. This
points to the fact that armature voltage control leads to
• smooth linear control of motor speed
• control of speed without directly affecting the torque developed by the motor.

(b) The speed of the motor will change in inverse proportion to the field flux or field
excitation. Also, in motors, working with constant armature voltage, controlling of field
flux will tend to change the torque developed by the motor at a given value of armature
current, thus suggesting that field control leads to
• non-linear inverse speed control of motor speed
• changed value of torque production for a given armature current.

(c) Although dc machines are designed to operate with given maximum values of armature
voltage and field excitation, there exists a minimum permissible value of field current,
below which the armature current of the machine may attain dangerously high values
during normal operation.
Speed (rad/s)

ω0 Load TL − ω
P1
ω1 Motor TM − ω

ω0 = the no-load speed

ω1 = the operating speed of
the motor load combination

Torque (N-m)
TM = TL
Fig. 8.1. Operating point of motor-load combination.

7.2
 The speed of operation of a motor driving a load is determined by point of
intersection between the motor and the load torque/speed characteristics. This is shown in
Fig. 8.1 (point P1). Control of armature voltage effectively changes the motor torque − speed
characteristics without changing their slopes as shown in Figs. 8.2 (a) and (b). Control of
field excitation, on the other hand, renders changes in the slopes of the characteristics as
shown in Figs. 8.3 (a) and (b). It can, therefore, be seen that, while armature voltage control
will invariably lead to proportional control of speed of the motor-load combination, field
control, under certain specific load conditions, may NOT yield the expected results (see Fig.
8.4).
ω V1 > V2 > V3 ω V1 > V2 > V3

V1

V2 V1
V2
V3
V3

a) Shunt Motor
Torque (N-m) b) Series Motor.
Torque (N-m)

Fig. 8.2. Variation of characteristics of dc motor with armature voltages at constant field currents.

ω φ1 > φ 2 > φ 3 ω

φ1 > φ 2 > φ 3

φ1
φ2 φ1
φ3 φ3 φ2
Torque (N-m) Torque (N-m)
a) Shunt Motor b) Series Motor.
Fig. 8.3. Variation of characteristics of dc motor with field fluxes at constant armature voltage.
ω Load TL − ω
P1
P2 P4 (V1 , φ1 ) V1 > V2 > V3
P3 P5 φ1 > φ 2 > φ 3
(V2 , φ1 )
(V3 , φ1 )
(V2 , φ 2 )
(V2 , φ 3 )
Torque (N-m)

Fig. 8.4. Determination of operating points of motor-load combination with armature voltage and
field excitation controls.

7.3
 Thus, armature voltage control strategy is superior to the field control methodology.
However, realization of armature voltage control in practice is more expensive.

Part - A: Experimental Determination of the Load Characteristics of a D.C. Shunt

Motor

As in the case of expt. 7, the experimental setup consists of two identical d.c.
machines, mechanically coupled to each other. Note the name plate details of each machine.
Each machine can function on separately excited or shunt excited mode. The armature and
field terminals are brought out on the terminal board of each machine. In this experiment, we
shall use one of the d.c. machines as the d.c. motor and the other one as the load on the first
machine. We will be evaluating the speed-torque characteristics and speed control strategies
for the first machine and the second one acts as a d.c. generator through which the first
machine is loaded. Electrical load is connected to the second machine (d.c. generator).

Laboratory Work

1. Connect the circuit as per Fig. 8.5. Set RM to maximum resistance position and RFM to
zero resistance position. Switch Off all the lamps. Get the circuit checked by the
instructor.
2. Switch On the dc supply and gradually reduce RM so that the voltmeter VM reads around
200 Volts. Adjust RFM so that ammeter Am1 reads a suitable value. Let this value be IFM.
Record the speed of the motor, IFM, VM, IM and the voltage VG across the generator
terminals.
3. Keeping the values of VM and IFM constant, load the generator in steps using lamps and
record the new values of speed, VG, IG and IM.
4. Switch Off all the lamps. Reduce RM so that the voltmeter VM reads around 220V. Adjust
RFM so that the current in the motor field is maintained to the original value (IFM). Record
the speed of the motor, IFM, VM, IM and the voltage VG across the generator terminals.
5. Repeat step no. 3 and record the observations in a separate table.
6. Now set IFM to some other suitable value and VM = 220 V and take another set of
readings.
7. Procedure to plot torque-speed characteristics

Input to the generator = VG I G + I A2 R A + I F2 RF + Mechanical loss

where I A = I G + VG R F , RF = 550 Ω, RA = 45.2 Ω, Mechanical loss = 60 W
Power developed by the motor = Input to the generator + 60 W
Developed torque = Power developed ω M N - m

8. Plot the torque -speed characteristics for each set of observations and label them suitably
by indicating the values of VM and IFM.
9. Also plot speed–input current (IM) characteristics for each set of observations. A typical
characteristic is shown in Fig. 8.6.

7.4
 0-2 A 0-2 A
RM

100 W
+ AG

40 W
60 W
AM
F F
A A
220 V FF +
VM M G VG
dc supply
RFM
0-1 A AM1 AA AA
FF

Test Motor Loading Generator

Fig.8.5. Circuit diagram for obtaining speed-torque characteristics.

Speed (rpm) V1 > V2

I F1 > I F 2

(V1 , I F1 )
(V2 , I F1 )
(V1 , I F 2 )
Torque (N-m)
Fig.8.6. Torque-Speed characteristics of dc shunt (or separately excited) motor.

NOTE: Take as many readings (with different combinations of load) as possible. This will
help in plotting the graph.

Part -B: Speed Control of a Separately Excited D.C. Motor

Laboratory Work

Set up the circuit as per Fig. 8.7. Get your connections checked by the instructor. Now
switch On the dc 220 V supply and control resistance RF1 to set he field circuit current to a
specific value.

7.5
 220 V
Bridge Rectifier
ac supply 0-1 A
+
+ AF
F
A
RF1
220 V
V M dc supply
Rev For AA FF

Switch ‘S’

Fig. 8.7. The circuit arrangement.

Ensure that the variac is set to yield zero voltage across its output terminals. Close the
switch. Switch On the 1-phase ac supply. Note that the dc motor does not rotate. Now
gradually increase the applied voltage to the armature of the machine till the voltmeter V
reads the rated voltage of the motor. The motor will start and run up to a suitable value of
speed. Read speed of motor, applied voltage across motor armature and field current (reading
of ammeter AF, 0 − 1 A). Keeping field current constant at the value originally set, vary the
applied voltage in steps by controlling the variac. For each step setting, record the magnitude
of applied voltage, across motor armature, and the motor speed.

When the reading of voltmeter V is zero, reverse the polarity of the applied voltage by
closing the switch in the reverse direction. Now, increase the applied voltage to armature in
steps as before, till the voltmeter V reads the rated voltage of the motor, and, for each step
setting, record the reading of voltmeter V and the speed. Make sure that the field excitation
remains constant all through this part of the experiment. Note the reversal of direction of
rotation. Repeat your experiment for two additional settings of the field excitation.

Reset the variac so that the voltmeter V reads zero voltage. Reset the switch to
original closed position (Forward). Adjust the resistance RF1 so that the value of field
excitation (reading of ammeter AF) is maximum. Control the variac handle so that the applied
voltage across motor armature is 150 volts. (This is read by voltmeter V). Keeping this
voltage constant, gradually control the field resistance RF1 such that the field excitation is
reduced in steps. For each step setting, record the value of the field current and motor speed.
In this part of the test, take the precaution to ensure that the motor speed does not exceed
2000 rpm.

Repeat the experiment for two new settings of armature applied voltage, e.g., 190 V
and 220 V.

7.6
Laboratory Report

1. Record all your observations in appropriate tabular form, to include all relevant
information pertaining to each test.
2. Plot V − ω characteristics of the three settings of field excitation chosen, on the same
graph sheet and label each curve suitably.
3. Plot IF − ω characteristics for the three settings of armature applied voltage on the same
graph sheet and clearly specify each curve. Record your conclusions about the speed
control methodologies based on the above characteristics.
4. Also mention all precautions pertinent to this experiment.

7.7
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO 203)

EXPERIMENT NO. 8: DETERMINATION OF LOAD

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE-PHASE CAPACITOR RUN
INDUCTION MOTOR
Brief Theory
Single-phase ac induction motors are generally built in the fractional- horse power
range and are found in numerous applications at home, offices etc. These motors usually
consist of a distributed stator winding and a squirrel-cage rotor. The a.c. voltage applied to
the stator winding creates a field distribution. Since there is a single coil carrying an
alternating current, air-gap flux is fixed in space, but alternating in magnitude. So, unlike
poly phase induction motor, single phase motors do not have a starting torque. Hence, it is
necessary to provide a circuit to start rotation of the motor.
For small motors of a few watts, the starting is achieved by means of a single turn of
heavy copper wire around one corner of the pole (known as shaded pole construction). The
current induced in the single turn is out of phase with the supply current and, hence, causes
an out-of-phase component in the magnetic field, which develops torque to start the motor.
Starting torque in such construction is very low and efficiency is also less. Such shaded-pole
motors are typically used in low-power applications with low starting torque requirement,
such as desk fans and record players. Larger size motors are provided with a second stator
winding which is fed with an out-of-phase current to create a rotating magnetic field. The
out-of-phase current may be derived by feeding the winding through a capacitor, or it may be
derived from the winding having different values of inductance and resistance from the main
winding. In some designs the second winding is disconnected once the motor achieves certain
speed. In other design, the second winding is continuously kept energised during running,
which improves running torque. This experiment is on a capacitor run induction motor.
Like in the case of d.c motors, torque-speed characteristics is an important
characteristics in the case of single phase induction motors also. Load torque, TL , is given by

Win
TL = N - m where
ωm
where ω m = 2πn 60 , n is the speed in r.p.m. and Win is the input power supplied to the d.c.
generator, which is used for loading the induction motor.

8.1
Laboratory Work

1. Connect the circuit as per Fig. 9.1. Ensure that the variac control knob is in zero position.
Switch Off all the lamps. Get your circuit checked by the instructor.
2. Switch On the 230 V, 50 Hz, single phase A.C. supply and gradually increase the applied
voltage to the motor to 230 V. Measure the input voltage VM, input current IM, input
power (read by the wattmeter) W, terminal voltage VG, load current IG and the speed
(since all the switches are open, load current of the generator is zero). Record the
observations.
3. Load the D.C. generator in steps using lamps and, for each load setting, adjust the variac
so that the input voltage to the motor is 230 V. Record all the meter readings and the
speed.
4. Plot load torque TL (N-m) versus speed, n (rpm) and percentage efficiency versus TL
characteristics.

Calculation:-
Input power supplied by the motor to the D.C. Generator

Win = VG I G + I G2 R A + Mechanical Loss (W)

Take R A = 160 Ω, Mech. Loss = 60 W.

Win
a) Load torque, TL = N - m where ω m = 2πn 60 and
ωm
Win ∗ 100
b) % Efficiency =
Input Power to the Motor

0-1 A
+ + AG
15 W
25 W
0-1 A cc 40 W
M L 220 V F
AM
com 300 dc supply A
230 V, pc +
50 Hz VG
M G
ac
VM
supply N
AA
Variac FF Load
Motor
Generator
Fig. 9.1 Schematic Circuit diagram for load test of induction motor.

NOTE: Take as much reading (with different combinations of load) as possible, this will help
in plotting the graph.

8.2