Geologic modelling

Geologic modelling, geological modelling or geomodelling is the applied science

of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crust based on
geophysical and geological observations made on and below the Earth surface. A
geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-dimensional geological map
complemented by a description of physical quantities in the domain of interest.[1]
Geomodelling is related to the concept of Shared Earth Model;[2] which is a
multidisciplinary, interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface.

Geomodelling is commonly used for managing natural resources, identifying natural

hazards, and quantifying geological processes, with main applications to oil and gas
fields, groundwater aquifers and ore deposits. For example, in the oil and gas
industry, realistic geologic models are required as input to reservoir simulator
programs, which predict the behavior of the rocks under various hydrocarbon
recovery scenarios. A reservoir can only be developed and produced once; therefore,
making a mistake by selecting a site with poor conditions for development is tragic
and wasteful. Using geological models and reservoir simulation allows reservoir
engineers to identify which recovery options offer the safest and most economic, Geological mapping software
efficient, and effective development plan for a particular reservoir. displaying a screenshot of a
structure map generated for an
Geologic modelling is a relatively recent subdiscipline of geology which integrates 8500ft deep gas & Oil reservoir in the
structural geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, paleoclimatology, and diagenesis; Earth field, Vermilion Parish, Erath,
Louisiana. The left-to-right gap, near
In 2-dimensions (2D), a geologic formation or unit is represented by a polygon, the top of the contour map indicates
which can be bounded by faults, unconformities or by its lateral extent, or crop. In a Fault line. This fault line is between
geological models a geological unit is bounded by 3-dimensional (3D) triangulated the blue/green contour lines and the
purple/red/yellow contour lines. The
or gridded surfaces. The equivalent to the mapped polygon is the fully enclosed
thin red circular contour line in the
geological unit, using a triangulated mesh. For the purpose of property or fluid
middle of the map indicates the top
modelling these volumes can be separated further into an array of cells, often
of the oil reservoir. Because gas
referred to as voxels (volumetric elements). These 3D grids are the equivalent to 2D
floats above oil, the thin red contour
grids used to express properties of single surfaces. line marks the gas/oil contact zone.

Geomodelling generally involves the following steps:[3]

1. Preliminary analysis of geological context of the domain of study.

2. Interpretation of available data and observations as point sets or polygonal lines (e.g. "fault sticks"
corresponding to faults on a vertical seismic section).
3. Construction of a structural model describing the main rock boundaries (horizons, unconformities, intrusions,
faults)[4]
4. Definition of a three-dimensional mesh honoring the structural model to support volumetric representation of
heterogeneity (see Geostatistics) and solving the Partial Differential Equations which govern physical
processes in the subsurface (e.g. seismic wave propagation, fluid transport in porous media).

Contents
Geologic modelling components
Structural framework
Rock type
Reservoir quality
Fluid saturation
Geostatistics
Mineral Deposits
Technology
Research in Geomodelling
History
Geologic modelling software
See also
References
Footnotes
External links

Geologic modelling components

Structural framework

Incorporating the spatial positions of the major formation boundaries, including the effects of faulting, folding, and erosion
(unconformities). The major stratigraphic divisions are further subdivided into layers of cells with differing geometries with
relation to the bounding surfaces (parallel to top, parallel to base, proportional). Maximum cell dimensions are dictated by the
minimum sizes of the features to be resolved (everyday example: On a digital map of a city, the location of a city park might
be adequately resolved by one big green pixel, but to define the locations of the basketball court, the baseball field, and the
pool, much smaller pixels – higher resolution – need to be used).

Rock type

Each cell in the model is assigned a rock type. In a coastal clastic environment, these might be beach sand, high water energy
marine upper shoreface sand, intermediate water energy marine lower shoreface sand, and deeper low energy marine silt and
shale. The distribution of these rock types within the model is controlled by several methods, including map boundary
polygons, rock type probability maps, or statistically emplaced based on sufficiently closely spaced well data.

Reservoir quality

Reservoir quality parameters almost always include porosity and permeability, but may include measures of clay content,
cementation factors, and other factors that affect the storage and deliverability of fluids contained in the pores of those rocks.
Geostatistical techniques are most often used to populate the cells with porosity and permeability values that are appropriate
for the rock type of each cell.

Fluid saturation

Most rock is completely saturated with groundwater. Sometimes, under the right
conditions, some of the pore space in the rock is occupied by other liquids or gases.
In the energy industry, oil and natural gas are the fluids most commonly being
modelled. The preferred methods for calculating hydrocarbon saturations in a
geologic model incorporate an estimate of pore throat size, the densities of the fluids,
and the height of the cell above the water contact, since these factors exert the
strongest influence on capillary action, which ultimately controls fluid saturations.

A 3D finite difference grid used in

Geostatistics MODFLOW for simulating
groundwater flow in an aquifer.
An important part of geologic modelling is related to geostatistics. In order to
represent the observed data, often not on regular grids, we have to use certain
interpolation techniques. The most widely used technique is kriging which uses the spatial correlation among data and
intends to construct the interpolation via semi-variograms. To reproduce more realistic spatial variability and help assess
spatial uncertainty between data, geostatistical simulation based on variograms, training images, or parametric geological
objects is often used.

Mineral Deposits
Geologists involved in mining and mineral exploration use geologic modelling to determine the geometry and placement of
mineral deposits in the subsurface of the earth. Geologic models help define the volume and concentration of minerals, to
which economic constraints are applied to determine the economic value of the mineralization. Mineral deposits that are
deemed to be economic may be developed into a mine.

Technology
Geomodelling and CAD share a lot of common technologies. Software is usually implemented using object-oriented
programming technologies in C++, Java or C# on one or multiple computer platforms. The graphical user interface generally
consists of one or several 3D and 2D graphics windows to visualize spatial data, interpretations and modelling output. Such
visualization is generally achieved by exploiting graphics hardware. User interaction is mostly performed through mouse and
keyboard, although 3D pointing devices and immersive environments may be used in some specific cases. GIS (Geographic
Information System) is also a widely used tool to manipulate geological data.

Geometric objects are represented with parametric curves and surfaces or discrete models such as polygonal meshes.[4][5]

Research in Geomodelling
Problems pertaining to Geomodelling cover:[6][7]

Defining an appropriate Ontology to describe geological objects at

various scales of interest,
Integrating diverse types of observations into 3D geomodels: geological
mapping data, borehole data and interpretations, seismic images and
interpretations, potential field data, well test data, etc.,
Better accounting for geological processes during model building, Gravity Highs

Characterizing uncertainty about the geomodels to help assess risk.

Therefore, Geomodelling has a close connection to Geostatistics and
Inverse problem theory,
Applying of the recent developed Multiple Point Geostatistical Simulations (MPS) for integrating different
data sources,[8]
Automated geometry optimization and topology conservation[9]

History
In the 70's, geomodelling mainly consisted of automatic 2D cartographic techniques such as contouring, implemented as
FORTRAN routines communicating directly with plotting hardware. The advent of workstations with 3D graphics
capabilities during the 80's gave birth to a new generation of geomodelling software with graphical user interface which
became mature during the 90's.[10][11][12]

Since its inception, geomodelling has been mainly motivated and supported by oil and gas industry.

Geologic modelling software

Software developers have built several packages for geologic modelling purposes. Such software can display, edit, digitise
and automatically calculate the parameters required by engineers, geologists and surveyors. Current software is mainly
developed and commercialized by oil and gas or mining industry software vendors:

Geologic modelling and visualisation

IRAP RMS Suite

GeoticMine
Geomodeller3D
DecisionSpace Geosciences Suite
Dassault Systèmes GEOVIA provides Surpac, GEMS and Minex for geologic modeling
GSI3D
 Mira Geoscience provides GOCAD Mining Suite (https://mirageoscience.com/mining-industry-software/goca
d-mining-suite/), a 3D geological modelling software that compiles, models, and analyzes for valid
interpretation that honours all data.
Seequent provides Leapfrog 3D (http://www.leapfrog3d.com/) geological modeling & Geosoft GM-SYS and
VOXI 3D modelling software.
Maptek provides Vulcan, 3D modular software visualisation for geological modelling and mine planning
Micromine is a comprehensive and easy to use exploration and mine design solution, which offers
integrated tools for modelling, estimation, design, optimisation and scheduling.
Promine
Petrel
Rockworks
SGS Genesis
Move
SKUA-GOCAD
Datamine Software provides Studio EM and Studio RM for geological modelling
BGS Groundhog Desktop free-to-use software developed by the GeoAnalytics and Modelling directorate of
British Geological Survey.

Groundwater modelling

FEFLOW
FEHM
MODFLOW

GMS
Visual MODFLOW

ZOOMQ3D

Moreover, industry Consortia or companies are specifically working at improving standardization and interoperability of earth
science databases and geomodelling software:

Standardization: GeoSciML by the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience
Information, of the International Union of Geological Sciences.
Standardization: RESQML(tm) by Energistics
Interoperability: OpenSpirit, by TIBCO(r)

See also
Numerical modeling (geology)
Petroleum engineering
Seismic to simulation

References
Bolduc, A.M., Riverin, M-N., Lefebvre, R., Fallara, F. et Paradis, S.J., 2006. Eskers: À la recherche de l'or
bleu. La Science au Québec : http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/archives/quebec/capque0606f.html
Faure, Stéphane, Godey, Stéphanie, Fallara, Francine and Trépanier, Sylvain. (2011). Seismic Architecture
of the Archean North American Mantle and Its Relationship to Diamondiferous Kimberlite Fields. Economic
Geology, March–April 2011, v. 106, p. 223–240.
http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.org/content/106/2/223.abstract
Fallara, Francine, Legault, Marc and Rabeau, Olivier (2006). 3-D Integrated Geological Modeling in the
Abitibi Subprovince (Québec, Canada): Techniques and Applications. Exploration and Mining Geology, Vol.
15, Nos. 1–2, pp. 27–41. http://web.cim.org/geosoc/docs/pdf/EMG15_3_Fallara_etal.pdf
Berg, R.C., Mathers, S.J., Kessler, H., and Keefer, D. A., 2011. Synopsis of Current Three-dimensional
Geological Mapping and Modeling in Geological Survey Organization, Champaign, Illinois: Illinois State
 Geological Survey, Circular 578.
https://web.archive.org/web/20111009122101/http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/circulars/c578.pdf
Turner, A. K.; Gable, C. (2007). "A review of geological modelling. In: Three-dimensional geologic mapping
for groundwater applications, Workshop extended abstracts," (https://web.archive.org/web/2008112105065
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Kessler, H., Mathers, S., Napier, B., Terrington, R. & Sobisch, H.-G. (2007). "The present and future
construction and delivery of 3D geological models at the British Geological Survey" (http://gsa.confex.com/g
sa/2007AM/finalprogram/abstract_128361.htm). (GSA Denver Annual Meeting. Poster)
Wycisk,P., Gossel W., Schlesier, D. & Neumann, C. (2007). "Integrated 3D modelling of subsurface geology
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p://www.kwra.or.kr/pds/download.php3?file_name=Wycisk%20et%20al..pdf) (PDF). International
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Kessler, H., Mathers, S., Lelliott, M., Hughes, A. & MacDonald, D. (2007). "Rigorous 3D geological models
as the basis for groundwater modelling. In: Three-dimensional geologic mapping for groundwater
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uiuc.edu/research/3DWorkshop/2007/pdf-files/kessler.pdf) (PDF). Denver, Colorado. Archived from the
original (http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/research/3DWorkshop/2007/pdf-files/kessler.pdf) (PDF) on 2008-12-03.
Merritt, J.E., Monaghan, A., Entwisle, D., Hughes, A., Campbell, D. & Browne, M. (August 2007). "3D
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Footnotes
1. Mallet, J. L. (2008). Numerical Earth Models (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304120742/http://bookshop.
eage.org/Webshop/product_details.aspx?prod_code=AA0136). European Association of Geoscientists and
Engineers (EAGE Publications bv). ISBN 978-90-73781-63-4. Archived from the original (http://bookshop.ea
ge.org/Webshop/product_details.aspx?prod_code=AA0136) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-08-20.
2. Fanchi, John R. (August 2002). Shared Earth Modeling : Methodologies for Integrated Reservoir Simulations
(https://books.google.com/books?id=T4tMLx1KDi8C). Gulf Professional Publishing (Elsevier imprint). pp. xi–
306. ISBN 978-0-7506-7522-2.
3. Chen, Shang-Ying; Hsieh, Bieng-Zih; Hsu, Kuo-Chin; Chang, Yi-Fei; Liu, Jia-Wei; Fan, Kai-Chun; Chiang,
Li-Wei; Han, Yin-Lung (January 2021). "Well spacing of the doublet at the Huangtsuishan geothermal site,
Taiwan" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0375650520302601). Geothermics. 89: 101968.
doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101968 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geothermics.2020.101968).
4. Caumon, G., Collon-Drouaillet, P., Le Carlier de Veslud, C., Sausse, J. and Viseur, S. (2009), Surface-based
3D modeling of geological structures, Mathematical Geosciences, 41(9):927–945
5. Mallet, J.-L., Geomodeling, Applied Geostatistics Series. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514460-4
6. Caumon, G., Towards stochastic time-varying geological modeling (2010), Mathematical Geosciences,
42(5):(555-569)
7. Perrin, M., Zhu, B., Rainaud, J.F. and Schneider, S. (2005), Knowledge-driven applications for geological
modeling, "Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering", 47(1–2):89–104
8. Tahmasebi, P., Hezarkhani, A., Sahimi, M., 2012, Multiple-point geostatistical modeling based on the cross-
correlation functions (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10596-012-9287-1), Computational Geosciences,
16(3):779-79742
9. M.R. Alvers, H.J. Götze, B. Lahmeyer, C. Plonka and S. Schmidt, 2013, Advances in 3D Potential Field
Modeling (http://www.earthdoc.org/publication/publicationdetails/?publication=68364) EarthDoc, 75th EAGE
Conference & Exhibition incorporating SPE EUROPEC 2013
10. Dynamic Graphics History (http://www.dgi.com/dynamicgraphics/dgimain.html) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110725233528/http://www.dgi.com/dynamicgraphics/dgimain.html) 2011-07-25 at the Wayback
Machine
11. Origin of the Gocad software (http://www.gocad.org/w4/index.php/gocad/origin)
12. J. L. Mallet, P. Jacquemin, and N. Cheimanoff (1989). GOCAD project: Geometric modeling of complex
geological surfaces, SEG Expanded Abstracts 8, 126, doi:10.1190/1.1889515 (https://doi.org/10.1190%2F1.
1889515)

External links
Geological Modelling at the British Geological Survey (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/services/3Dgeology/home.html)

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