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Unit 3. English Consonant Sounds.docx

The document provides a comprehensive overview of English consonant sounds, detailing their articulatory features, classification parameters, and allophonic variations. It covers aspects such as the action of vocal folds, place and manner of articulation, and distinctions between obstruents and sonorants. Additionally, it addresses phenomena like aspiration and devoicing that affect consonant production in English.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
2 views11 pages

Unit 3. English Consonant Sounds.docx

The document provides a comprehensive overview of English consonant sounds, detailing their articulatory features, classification parameters, and allophonic variations. It covers aspects such as the action of vocal folds, place and manner of articulation, and distinctions between obstruents and sonorants. Additionally, it addresses phenomena like aspiration and devoicing that affect consonant production in English.

Uploaded by

julia.ramil
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Unit 3.

English Consonant Sounds

1. English Consonant Sounds. Articulatory Features


1.1.Action of the vocal folds
1.2.Place of articulation
1.3.Manner of articulation
2. English Consonant Sounds. Other parameters of classification
2.1.Obstruents vs. sonorants
2.2.Fortis vs. Lenis
2.3.Single/double articulation
2.4.Primary and secondary articulation
3. Allophonic variations
3.1.Aspiration
3.2.Devoicing

1. Articulatory Parameters used to describe Consonants

1.1.Action of the vocal folds: vocal fold vibration


Some consonants sounds are voice and others are voiceless. When we produced voice
consonants the vocal folds are together and when the sound is voiceless they are open.

ACTION OF THE VOCAL CORDS


1.2.Place of articulation: where the sound is articulated
We must distinguish between active articulators, articulators that move when produce
sounds (tongue); and passive articulators, fixed articulators (pharynx). With it, we
distinguish a lot of different consonants: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar,
post-alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal, labiovelar.

Place of Active Articulator Passive Articulator Example


articulation
Bilabial Lower lip Upper lip /p, b, m/

Labio-dental Lower lip Upper front teeth /f, v/

Dental Tip of tongue Rear of upper front /θ, ð/


teeth
Alveolar Tip/ blade of Alveolar ridge /t, d, s, z, n,
tongue l/
Post-alveolar Blade / front Rear of alveolar /ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, r/
of tongue
ridge
/ front of hard palate
Palatal Front of the tongue Hard palate /j/

Velar Back of tongue Velum /k, ɡ, ŋ/

Glottal Vocal folds Vocal folds /h/

Labio-velar For /w/, there are two strictures of open /w/


approximation: 1) labial and 2) velar
1.3.Manner of articulation: degree of obstruction/constriction. Consonants are
produced with some obstruction.

Complete closure
● Plosives: complete closure -> the air is released with explosive force. /p, b, t, d,
k, ɡ /
● Affricates: complete closures (as in plosives), but followed by a fricative
release (friction-noise). /tʃ, dʒ/
The term “stops” is often used to include both plosives and affricates, as they are
both produced with a complete closure at a given point. Plosives, affricates (an even
nasals) are produced with a complete closure (but please bear in mind that they are
different and you should be aware of the differences involved in their production).
● Nasals: complete closure in the oral cavity (as in plosives), but the air coming
from the lungs is released through the nose where there is no obstruction. /m, n,
ŋ/.

Close approximation
● Fricatives: the articulators are close to each other but don’t make a complete
closure. They causes friction (noise) of the outgoing airflow /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h

Open approximants
● Approximants: open approximation -> the space between the articulators is
wide enough to allow the airstream through with no audible friction -> /r, j, w/.
w and j in terms of articulation are like vowels, but they are not classified as
vowels, because they behavior is like a consonant one.
- Post-alveolar, approximant /r/: made with the tip of the tongue
approaching the rear of the alveolar ridge (no closure).
- Palatal and labio-velar approximants (w, j): they are like a very short
vowels. In fact, they are sometimes called “semi-vowels”. However, unlike
vowels, they can occupy the margin of the syllable.
● Laterals: open approximation. Lateral consonants are made with the centre of
the tongue forming a closure with the roof of the mouth but the sides lowered.
Typically, the airstream escapes without much friction and consequently this
sound is termed a lateral approximant. /l/.

CLASSIFICATION CHART

🡺 When arranged in pairs, the symbols follow the order voiceless – voiced (/p/ is
voiceless and /b/ is voiced).

2. Further parameters of classification

2.1.Obstruents vs. Sonorants


This parameter is related to manner of articulation.
● Obstruents: consonant sounds produces with a constriction of the airflow in the
oral cavity that causes noise (albeit to different degrees). Obstruents include
plosives, fricatives, and affricates.
The term “obstruent” should not be equated with “stop” (fricatives are not
“stops”, but the term obstruent does included fricatives sounds).
● Sonorants: sounds produced with a relatively free escaping of the airflow. They
do not produce noise. Sonorant sounds include approximants, laterals, nasals and
vowels.

2.2. Energy of articulation. Fortis vs. lenis


It is related to vocal fold vibration (voice/voiceless) and the energy of articulation. The
forts/lenis contrast has to do with the amount of muscular effort involved in the
production of consonants.
● Fortis: the involve more muscular effort. They are voicedless and stronger.
Vowels are shortened before a final fortis consonant (bit). This pre-fortis
shortening is most obvious in stressed monosyllables and is termed pre-fortis
clipping.
● Lenis: they involved less muscular effort. They are voiced and weaker. Lenis
consonants can undergo a process of devoicing (see allophonic variation).
Vowels have full length before a final lenis consonant (bi:d).

This fortis/lenis contrast applies in English only to the obstruents (i.e. stops and
fricatives). The sonorants (nasals and approximants) do not have this contrast.

2.3.Single/double articulation
It is related to place of articulation.
● Most consonants are produced with a single place of articulation.
● But, /w/ has two places of articulation (double articulation). This sound is
articulated at the lips (bilabial) and at the velum (velum). For both places of
articulation, the degree of constriction (manner of articulation) is the same: open
approximation.

2.4. Primary and Secondary Articulation


Mostly as a result of allophonic variations, certain consonant sounds can have a primary
and secondary articulation. For example, [t] has a primary articulation, but this
consonant sound can be labialized, that is, it can be produced with an open
approximation of the lips (lip rounding). This occurs when the sound that follows [t] is a
rounded vowel, as in two [twu:].
The lip rounding for the vowel is anticipated during the production of the consonant and
thus [t] becomes labialized [tw]. Remember that [tw] is an allophone. The symbol to
indicate labialization is [w].
In this case, the allophonic variant [tw] is produced with two simultaneous constrictions:
a primary alveolar constriction and a secondary labial constriction. But these
articulations do not have the same rank
The primary articulation (alveolar) is the main one and produces a complete closure.
The secondary articulation (lower rank) produces a close approximation.

2.4.1. Single/double Articulation ≠ Primary and Secondary Articulation


The distinction single/double articulation is NOT the same as
primary/secondary articulation. To simplify the issue, let us say that, in English:
● Single/ double articulation «relates to phonemes»
● Primary / secondary articulation «relates to allophones»

As noted earlier, in English, there is only one phoneme produced with double
articulation: /w/ → articulated at the lips (bilabial) and at the velum (velum).
However, in English, there are many consonant allophones and, in some cases, the
production of these allophones involves a primary and secondary articulation: [tw] →
primary articulation is alveolar; secondary articulation is labial.
The important differences between single/double articulation and primary/ secondary
articulation:
● In those sounds produced with a double articulation (in English /w/), the degree
of constriction is the same at both places. Put differently, the two articulations
have the same rank. In the case of /w/, the degree of constriction at the lips and
velum is identical. See figure 1.
● In those allophonic variants produced with a primary and secondary articulation,
the degree of constriction at each point of articulation varies. Put differently, the
two articulations have different ranks (secondary articulation has a lower rank).
For instance, in the case of [tw], the primary articulation (alveolar) produces a
complete closure. However, the secondary articulation (labial) produces a close
approximation. See figure 2.

3. Allophonic Variation
Phonemes can have different realizations (allophones), mostly as a result of the
influence exerted by neighbouring sounds. When it comes to English consonant sounds,
there are multiple instances of allophonic variation. Allophones can appear in
complementary distribution or free variation. Allophonic variants (in complementary
distribution) can be result of phenomena / processes such as:

Labialization
Palatalization Processes that involve a primary and
Velarization secondary articulation
Glottalization
Nasalization
Aspiration
Devoicing Processes related to vocal fold vibration

→ Please note that there are many other types of allophonic variations. But, for the
purpose of this course, we will take into account the ones mentioned in this document,
paying particular attention to aspiration and devoicing.

Processes that involve a primary and secondary articulation


● Labialization adds lip-rounding to a consonant and is shown phonetically with
the diacritic [w] after the symbol. Labialization occurs when consonant sounds
are followed by a rounded vowel or by [w]. Examples: Door [dwɔː] Switch
[swwɪtʃ]

● Palatalization adds to the main articulation the raising of the front of the tongue
towards the hard palate. It is shown by [j] placed after the symbol. Plosives, for
instance, are palatalized when followed by [j]. Example: pure [pjjʊər]
● Velarization adds to the main articulation the raising of the back of the tongue
towards the velum. It is shown by [~] written through the symbol. In RP, the
voiced, alveolar, lateral [l] is sometimes velarized [ɫ] – in other words, it is
produced with an open approximation of the back of the tongue towards the
velum.

- [l] (“clear”) occurs before vowels and [j]

- [ɫ] (“dark”) occurs before consonants (except for [j]) or before a pause.
● Glottalization adds reinforcing glottal stop and is shown by [ʔ] before the
symbol. In RP, glottalization often occurs when [p t k] (and sometimes also [tʃ])
are found in syllable-final position and they are followed by another consonant.
Example: sleepwalker [ˈsliːʔpˌwɔːkə].
Glottalization is not the same as glottal replacement (or «glottalling»). Glottal
replacement refers to the process whereby [ʔ] replaces [t] altogether (sometimes,
it also happens with [p k]). Example: sleepwalker [ˈsliːʔˌwɔːkə]
● Nasalization adds nasal resonance through lowering the soft palate. It is shown
by the diacritic [~] placed above the symbol. In English, vowels preceding nasal
consonants are regularly nasalized. Example: strong man [strɒ̃ŋ mæ̃n].

3.1.Processes related to vocal fold vibration


3.1.1. Aspiration
Symbolized phonetically by [h], it occurs when fortis (voiceless) plosives [p t k] are
initial in a stressed syllable. Aspiration means that there is a delay in the onset of vocal
fold vibration for the vowel after the release of the plosive. Put differently, when [p t k]
are aspirated, they are produced with a strong expulsion of air and this makes the
following vowel «partially voiceless», as if produced with an initial whisper.
● In English, aspiration occurs when [p t k] are located at the beginning of a
stressed syllable. Example: Paper [ˈpheɪpə] – the first [p] is aspirated because it
is located at the beginning of a stressed syllable.
● Note that the presence of [s] before [p t k] blocks aspiration irrespective of
whether the syllable is stressed or not. Example: Spain [ˈspeɪn]
→Note that the diacritic [h] is placed after the plosive affected by aspiration.
3.1.2. Devoicing
Symbolized phonetically by [⸰]), it is a phenomenon which involves the partial or total
loss of voicing of originally voiced sounds in certain contexts. In English, this
phenomenon can affect the following sounds:

a. Voiced obstruents (plosives, fricatives and affricates)


- Voiced Plosives: [b d ɡ]
- Voiced Fricatives [v ð z ʒ]
- Voiced Affricates [dʒ]
b. Voiced approximants [j w r] and laterals [l]

Devoicing of obstruents (plosives, fricatives and affricates)


It occurs when these sounds are located before or after a pause or when they are in
contact with a voiceless sound:

If that is the case, then: How do we distinguish between words such as “dip” and “tip”.
Aspiration is the key.

Devoicing of approximants /j w r / and laterals /l/


It occurs when these sounds are preceded by [p t k] (voiceless plosives) at the beginning
of a stressed syllable. Examples:
→ Note that, as in the case of aspiration, when [p], [t] and [k] are preceded by [s], there
is no devoicing of [j], [w], [r] and [l]. Thus, for example, the [r] in pray is devoiced, but
the [r] in spray is not.

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