Unit 3. English Consonant Sounds.docx
Unit 3. English Consonant Sounds.docx
Complete closure
● Plosives: complete closure -> the air is released with explosive force. /p, b, t, d,
k, ɡ /
● Affricates: complete closures (as in plosives), but followed by a fricative
release (friction-noise). /tʃ, dʒ/
The term “stops” is often used to include both plosives and affricates, as they are
both produced with a complete closure at a given point. Plosives, affricates (an even
nasals) are produced with a complete closure (but please bear in mind that they are
different and you should be aware of the differences involved in their production).
● Nasals: complete closure in the oral cavity (as in plosives), but the air coming
from the lungs is released through the nose where there is no obstruction. /m, n,
ŋ/.
Close approximation
● Fricatives: the articulators are close to each other but don’t make a complete
closure. They causes friction (noise) of the outgoing airflow /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h
Open approximants
● Approximants: open approximation -> the space between the articulators is
wide enough to allow the airstream through with no audible friction -> /r, j, w/.
w and j in terms of articulation are like vowels, but they are not classified as
vowels, because they behavior is like a consonant one.
- Post-alveolar, approximant /r/: made with the tip of the tongue
approaching the rear of the alveolar ridge (no closure).
- Palatal and labio-velar approximants (w, j): they are like a very short
vowels. In fact, they are sometimes called “semi-vowels”. However, unlike
vowels, they can occupy the margin of the syllable.
● Laterals: open approximation. Lateral consonants are made with the centre of
the tongue forming a closure with the roof of the mouth but the sides lowered.
Typically, the airstream escapes without much friction and consequently this
sound is termed a lateral approximant. /l/.
CLASSIFICATION CHART
🡺 When arranged in pairs, the symbols follow the order voiceless – voiced (/p/ is
voiceless and /b/ is voiced).
This fortis/lenis contrast applies in English only to the obstruents (i.e. stops and
fricatives). The sonorants (nasals and approximants) do not have this contrast.
2.3.Single/double articulation
It is related to place of articulation.
● Most consonants are produced with a single place of articulation.
● But, /w/ has two places of articulation (double articulation). This sound is
articulated at the lips (bilabial) and at the velum (velum). For both places of
articulation, the degree of constriction (manner of articulation) is the same: open
approximation.
As noted earlier, in English, there is only one phoneme produced with double
articulation: /w/ → articulated at the lips (bilabial) and at the velum (velum).
However, in English, there are many consonant allophones and, in some cases, the
production of these allophones involves a primary and secondary articulation: [tw] →
primary articulation is alveolar; secondary articulation is labial.
The important differences between single/double articulation and primary/ secondary
articulation:
● In those sounds produced with a double articulation (in English /w/), the degree
of constriction is the same at both places. Put differently, the two articulations
have the same rank. In the case of /w/, the degree of constriction at the lips and
velum is identical. See figure 1.
● In those allophonic variants produced with a primary and secondary articulation,
the degree of constriction at each point of articulation varies. Put differently, the
two articulations have different ranks (secondary articulation has a lower rank).
For instance, in the case of [tw], the primary articulation (alveolar) produces a
complete closure. However, the secondary articulation (labial) produces a close
approximation. See figure 2.
3. Allophonic Variation
Phonemes can have different realizations (allophones), mostly as a result of the
influence exerted by neighbouring sounds. When it comes to English consonant sounds,
there are multiple instances of allophonic variation. Allophones can appear in
complementary distribution or free variation. Allophonic variants (in complementary
distribution) can be result of phenomena / processes such as:
Labialization
Palatalization Processes that involve a primary and
Velarization secondary articulation
Glottalization
Nasalization
Aspiration
Devoicing Processes related to vocal fold vibration
→ Please note that there are many other types of allophonic variations. But, for the
purpose of this course, we will take into account the ones mentioned in this document,
paying particular attention to aspiration and devoicing.
● Palatalization adds to the main articulation the raising of the front of the tongue
towards the hard palate. It is shown by [j] placed after the symbol. Plosives, for
instance, are palatalized when followed by [j]. Example: pure [pjjʊər]
● Velarization adds to the main articulation the raising of the back of the tongue
towards the velum. It is shown by [~] written through the symbol. In RP, the
voiced, alveolar, lateral [l] is sometimes velarized [ɫ] – in other words, it is
produced with an open approximation of the back of the tongue towards the
velum.
- [ɫ] (“dark”) occurs before consonants (except for [j]) or before a pause.
● Glottalization adds reinforcing glottal stop and is shown by [ʔ] before the
symbol. In RP, glottalization often occurs when [p t k] (and sometimes also [tʃ])
are found in syllable-final position and they are followed by another consonant.
Example: sleepwalker [ˈsliːʔpˌwɔːkə].
Glottalization is not the same as glottal replacement (or «glottalling»). Glottal
replacement refers to the process whereby [ʔ] replaces [t] altogether (sometimes,
it also happens with [p k]). Example: sleepwalker [ˈsliːʔˌwɔːkə]
● Nasalization adds nasal resonance through lowering the soft palate. It is shown
by the diacritic [~] placed above the symbol. In English, vowels preceding nasal
consonants are regularly nasalized. Example: strong man [strɒ̃ŋ mæ̃n].
If that is the case, then: How do we distinguish between words such as “dip” and “tip”.
Aspiration is the key.