Unit 5a:

Memory, Problem Solving,

Decision Making & Language
Lesson 5.1: The Nature of Memory & Encoding
Lesson 5.2: Storage & Retrieval
Lesson 5.3: Forgetting & Biological Processes in Memory
Lesson 5.4: Problem Solving & Decision Making
Lesson 5.5: Language
Test Review
 Agenda
Unit 5 Intro ● Debrief Unit 4 Test (MC & EBQ)
● Memory Webquest

Homework:
● None! Enjoy your Thanksgiving break!
Memory WebQuest
You will have 60 min in class today complete the
Memory Webquest (in Schoology). If you do not finish
by the end of class, please complete and submit by
the end of the day.
 Lesson 5.1
The Nature of
Memory & Encoding
(Modules 2.3-2.5)
 Agenda
Lesson 5.1: The Nature of ● How was your break?! QOTD
Memory & Encoding ● Hand out Unit 5a note packet
● Lesson 5.1: The Nature of Memory
& Encoding

Homework:
● Read pages 232-236 (Module
2.6) & fill in related notes
● Complete MC Practice on Page
236-237 #’s 1-5, 7 & check
answers
Entrance ticket next class
Learning Target(s):
● Students will be able to understand different types of encoding
● Students will be able to understand different models of memory
● Students will be able to understand types of encoding strategies

Success Criteria:
● I CAN explain and provide examples of structural, phonemic, and semantic
encoding
● I CAN describe the difference between the Levels of Processing Model, the
Information Processing Model, and the Working Memory Model
● I CAN provide examples of when I have used chunking, mnemonics, the spacing
effect, and self-referent encoding
What is Cognition
✓ Thinking & Mental Processing

✓ Memory, decision making,

problem solving, language,
intelligence, creativity, etc.
Basic Processes in memory
*Encoding
Bringing in information from the
environment & processing it
*Storage
Holding information in memory over time
*Retrieval
Locating & pulling info into
consciousness from
memory
I. Encoding
A. How do we encode information?
1. Structural (visual)
Encoding what the stimulus looks like
Let’s test your structural memory
2. Phonemic (acoustic) Jackson sings
his ABCs
Encoding what the stimulus sounds like
Let’s test your phonemic memory
3. Semantic
Encoding the meaning of a stimulus
B. Enriching Encoding
1. Elaborative encoding
Encoding information by making connections
between new information and information
already in memory (even
stronger if the information
is about yourself)
C. Levels of Processing Model of Memory
The deeper we encode/process information, the
more likely we are to remember the information
D. Information Processing model
This model states that our memory is made up of
three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term
memory, and long-term memory.

Animation
of model

Working
memory
1. Sensory memory
brings in info through all 5 senses for < 1 second
(each sense has its own register)

a. Iconic memory
sensory memory of visual stimuli (~1/10 sec)

b. Echoic memory
sensory memory of auditory
stimuli (~3-4 sec)
STM Demo - Get out a scrap piece of paper and a
writing utensil
- There will be 6 rounds. In each round,
Short-Term Memory
letter will be displayed for 3 seconds.
Test
More letters are added each round.
- Once the letters disappear, do your
best to try write down the letters in
order.
- We will debrief at the end to see
which concepts of memory were on
display through this activity
2. Short-Term/Working Memory (STM)
Info selectively attended to is sent here from
sensory memory
a. Information is retained in STM through
(Maintenance) Rehearsal/ Repetition
b. Primary type of encoding
Acoustic/Phonemic
c. Capacity
7 +/- 2 items
d. Duration
~20 seconds
3. Long-Term Memory
Information that is encoded is stored in LTM
a. Capacity & Duration
Unlimited Forever
b. Primary Type of Encoding
Semantic (semantic + visual is best)
c. Consolidation
Solidifying a memory; making it more
permanent
d. Retrieval
Information is retrieved from LTM to STM
E. Working Memory Model
An integrated understanding of the working
memory that involves the processing of both
incoming sensory information and information
retrieved from long-term memory

Working
Memory Demo
1. Central Executive
A memory component that coordinates the
activities of the phonological loop and the
visuospatial sketchpad
2. Phonological loop
A memory component that briefly holds
auditory & speech based information
3. Visuospatial sketchpad
A memory component that briefly holds
information about objects’ appearance and
location in space
F. Encoding Strategies
1. Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units
(sometimes done purposefully, many times done
automatically)
2. Mnemonics
Memory aids that usually involve vivid imagery
or unusual associations
3. The Spacing Effect
Distributed practice/studying yields better
long-term retention than massed
practice/study
4. Self-referent encoding
A form of elaborative encoding that involves
making connections between new information
to be learned and personally meaningful
information

5. Hierarchies
 Lesson 5.2
Storage & Retrieval
(Modules 2.3-2.6)
 Agenda
Lesson 5.2: Storage & ● Entrance ticket
Retrieval ● Extra Credit Opportunity #2
● Review Lesson 5.1
● Lesson 5.2: Storage & Retrieval

Homework:
● Read pages 238-252 (Module
2.7) & fill in related notes
● Complete MC Practice on
pages 252-253 #’s 1-3, 5-6 &
check answers
Entrance ticket next class
Learning Target(s):
● Students will be able to understand ways we store memories
● Students will be able to understand different types of memories
● Students will be able to understand ways in which we retrieve information from
memory

Success Criteria:
● I CAN explain how schemas develop and how semantic networks aid in memory
● I CAN provide accurate examples of episodic, semantic, procedural, & flashbulb memories
● I CAN explain the difference between retrospective and prospective memories and
provide an example of each
● I CAN explain the difference between recall and recognition
● I CAN explain and provide examples of context dependent memory, state dependent
memory, and mood congruent memory
● I CAN describe the serial position curve and how primacy and recency effect impact
memory
Practice It!
While studying for a history test, James remembers that the
Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863 by linking it to
his understanding of the Civil War and the concept of
freedom. What type of encoding is James using?
A. Structural encoding
B. Phonemic encoding
C. Elaborative encoding
D. Episodic encoding
Practice It!
While listening to a lecture, Liam gets momentarily distracted
by his phone. A second later, the teacher asks, "What did I
just say?" Liam is able to recall the teacher's last few words
even though he wasn’t fully paying attention. Which type of
memory allowed him to do this?
A. Iconic memory
B. Echoic memory
C. Long term memory
D. Working memory
Practice It!
Maria is assembling a new bookshelf using instructions from
a manual. As she looks at the diagram showing how the
pieces fit together, she visualizes how the parts should align
and holds this image in her mind while working. Which
component of working memory is Maria primarily using?
A. Phonological loop
B. Visuospatial sketchpad
C. Central executive
D. Episodic buffer
Practice It!
Jackie meets a group of people at a concert. Shortly after
they all introduce themselves, she tries to recall each of
their names. Based on what you learned about short-term
memory, answer the following questions:
1. About how many students names will she
remember?
2. About how long will Jackie have to encode
each of their names?
3. Why does she accidentally call Pat, Matt?
II. Storage (in Long Term Memory)
A. What does our memory look like?
1. Schemas
Mental representations of
categories, people, events, etc.
based on experience
2. Semantic Networks
An integrated web of information

Note: the more

connections
we make, the
easier time we
will have
recalling info
B. Types of Long-Term Memories
1. Explicit (declarative) memories
Retention of facts and experiences that we can
consciously know and “declare”. Learned
through effortful processing
Let’s use
self-
a. Episodic memories
referent Memories of personally
encoding
to think experienced events
of some
personal b. Semantic memories
examples
of each!
Memories of facts and
general knowledge
2. Implicit (nondeclarative) memories
Learned physical skills or classically conditioned
associations (independent of conscious
recollection; encoded through automatic
processing)
a. Procedural memories
Memories of learned physical skills
Let’s use self-referent
encoding to think of
some personal
examples!
3. Flashbulb Memories
Detailed, vivid memories of emotionally significant
events (usually when we first heard the info)
Let’s use self-referent encoding to think of some
personal examples!

5 min video on FBMs

4. Retrospective vs. Prospective Memories

Let’s use self-referent encoding to think of some personal

examples of each!
III. Retrieval
A. Recall vs. Recognition
1. Recall
Retrieval of information
without any retrieval
cues

2. Recognition
Retrieval of information
based on the selection
from an array of options
 B. Retrieval Cues
Anything that aids in memory retrieval (can be
explicit or implicit)
1. Priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular
associations in memory
Let’s use a. Context-Dependent Memory
self-
referent
Remember info best in the
encoding
to think of
same/similar physical
some location or environment
personal
examples! as where info was learned.
 b. State-Dependent Memory
Remembering info. best in the
same physiological state as
Let’s use
self- when we learned the info.
referent
encoding
to think of
some
personal
examples
c. Mood-Congruency
of each! The tendency to recall
experiences that are
consistent with one’s
current good or bad mood
 How did our class do?
25
Go to Menti.com and enter
# of
20
our class code!
times
word
15
8224 2227
recalled 10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Position of word in list

C. Serial Position Curve/Effect
Better recall of items at the beginning of a list & at
the end of a “list”. "U
shaped retention curve"

1. Primacy Effect
Better recall of info at the
beginning of a series of info
2. Recency Effect
Better recall of info at the
end of a series of information
D. Testing Effect
Enhanced memory after
retrieving rather than simply
rereading information

E. Metacognition
The awareness of our
own thoughts and
mental processes
Memory
explained
(Netflix)
(~ 20 min)
 Lesson 5.3
Forgetting &
Biological Processes
in Memory
(Modules 2.5-2.7)
Lesson 5.3: Forgetting & Agenda
● Entrance ticket
Biological Processes in ● Finish Netflix episode
Memory ● Review Lesson 5.2
● Lesson 5.3: Forgetting &
Biological Processes in Memory

Homework:
● Read pages 193-203 (Module
2.2b) & fill in related notes
● Complete MC Practice on
pages 204-205 & check
answers
Entrance ticket next class
Learning Target(s):
● Students will be able to understand how memory is a reconstructive process
● Students will be able to understand reasons why we forget
● Students will be able to understand biological processes in memory

Success Criteria:
● I CAN explain how tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, constructive memory, and the
misinformation effect impact the reliability of memory
● I CAN describe the forgetting curve and explain reasons why we forget (e.g.
encoding failure, decay, types of interference)
● I CAN differentiate between retrograde and anterograde amnesia
● I CAN list the biological processes that aid in memory
 Review of lesson 5.2
At your table groups, complete the following:
1. Explain the difference between explicit and implicit memories
2. Share 1 example for each: Episodic, Semantic, and Procedural
memory
3. Share 1 example of a Flashbulb Memory
4. Share 1 example for each: Retrospective and Prospective memory
5. Share 1 example for each: context-dependent memory,
state-dependent memory, and mood congruent memory
6. Explain the serial position curve and provide an example
IV. Forgetting & Other Memory Challenges
A. Retrieval of Incomplete Information
1. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Retrieval of incomplete information
 2. Constructive Memory
Using existing knowledge/schemas/experiences
to fill in the gaps in info during encoding and
retrieval.
Note: constructive memory is an involuntary & unconscious
process (we don’t do it on purpose & don’t know it’s happening)

Buzzfeed Mandela effect quiz

“Spill the Tea” video
a. The Misinformation Effect (Loftus)
Occurs when memory is altered by misleading
postevent information (ex: mood, framing)

Archie
Williams
(AGT)
b. Imagination Inflation
An increased tendency to falsely remember
that an item has been seen, or an action has
been performed, when it has only been
imagined

c. Source Amnesia
The inability to recall where, when, or how one
has learned knowledge that has
been acquired and retained
B. The Forgetting Curve
*most forgetting happens within the first hour
*after about 9 hrs, memory is relatively constant

a. Relearning
After forgetting, it
takes less time/
fewer trials to
relearn info
C. Why Do We Forget
1. Encoding Failure
Error is not in retrieval…. We never encoded the
information into LTM in the first place

2. Decay
The gradual erosion of memory (memories
fade: If you don’t use it, you
lose it)
3. Interference
“Competition” with other similar information

a. Retroactive interference
New (similar) information impairs the recall of
old information

b. Proactive interference
Old information prevents the learning or recall
of new (similar) information
Interference Mnemonic….keep to yourself and use
appropriately! (share from APP training)
Proactive
Old interferes with new
Retroactive
New interferes with old
D. Motivated Forgetting
1. Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the process of
pushing unwanted anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings and memories away from conscious
memory, preventing recall
E. Amnesia
1. Retrograde Amnesia
Loss of memory prior to onset
of amnesia

2. Anterograde Amnesia
Loss of memory of events occurring
after the onset of amnesia
(ie- inability to form new memories;
due to hippocampal damage)
The case of Clive Wearing (~9 min)
V. Biological Processes In Memory
A. Long-Term Potentiation
-Increase in synaptic strength
-Practice/reviewing/repetition strengthens
synaptic connections to improve memory (less
stimulation is required to release same amount
of the neurotransmitter)
V. Biological Processes In Memory
B. Structure of the Brain
1. Hippocampus (consolidation)
2. Thalamus
3. Prefrontal cortex
4. Amygdala
5. Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia
6. Association Cortex
C. Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine
2. Glutamate
D. Infantile Amnesia
The inability of adults to remember episodic
memories from before the age of three or four
1. Why? 3 min video

-Hippocampus is one of the last brain

structures to mature
-”We index much of our
explicit memory with a
command of language that
young children do not
possess” (Myers, 2024).
 Lesson 5.4
Problem Solving &
Decision Making
(Modules 2.2a & 2.2b)
 Agenda
Lesson 5.4: Problem ● Entrance ticket
Solving & Decision Making ● Review Lesson 5.3
● Lesson 5.4: Problem Solving &
Decision Making

Homework:
● Multiple Choice Practice
(Lessons 5.1-5.3) & check your
answers
Learning Target(s):
● Students will be able to understand ways in which we organize memories
● Students will be able to understand barriers to problem solving
● Students will be able to understand approaches to problem solving and biases in
thinking/decision making

Success Criteria:
● I CAN explain how schemas and prototypes help to organize memory
● I CAN describe how functional fixedness, fixation, and mental sets impair problem
solving ability
● I CAN explain and provide examples of how algorithms and heuristics affect
decision making
● I CAN explain why humans naturally have biases in thinking
VI. Problem Solving & Decision Making
A. Organizing Thoughts
1. Concepts
A mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas or people
2. Prototypes
A mental image or best example of a category.
Matching new items to a prototype provides a
quick and easy method for sorting items into
categories
3. Schemas
Mental representations of categories, people,
events, etc. Allows us to organize & interpret
information.
a. Assimilation
Interpreting new information in terms of our
existing schemas
b. Accommodation
Adapting our current schemas (understanding)
to incorporate new information
Practice It! Assimilation vs. Accommodation
1. A student who understands arithmetic learns algebra, which
requires abstract reasoning with variables, something they are
unfamiliar with.
2. A child sees a dolphin and recognizes it as a type of fish.
3. Molly watches a movie with her favorite actor, Adam Sandler, and
loves it, just like all of the others.
4. Annie watches a movie with her favorite actor, Adam Sandler, and
learns that not all of his movies are ‘hits’.
5. An employee learns a new software tool similar to one they
already use and incorporates it into their workflow without much
adjustment
6. A new parent who believes strict discipline is the best approach
reads about authoritative parenting and starts utilizing those
philosophies in their parenting.
B. Barriers to Problem Solving
1. Functional Fixedness
The tendency to perceive an item only in terms
of its most common use; the inability to use
objects in different ways

How many uses of a paperclip can you think of?

2. Fixation
Focusing on only one aspect of a
problem; inability to see a
problem from another
perspective
a. Mental Set
Persistence in using problem-
solving strategies that have
worked in the past. This is a
barrier when it prevents you from
seeing other ways of solving a
problem.
If you liked those, here are 20 more Rebus puzzles!
A man left home. He turned right and ran
straight ahead. Then he turned left. After a
while, he turned left again, running faster
than ever. Then he turned left once more
and decided to go home. In the distance
he could see two masked men waiting for
him. Who were they?!
Can you solve the bridge riddle? (3:50)
C. Approaches to Problem Solving & Decision
Making (Helpful Strategies & Pitfalls)
1. Algorithms
A methodical, step-by-step process for trying
all possible solutions to a problem. (can be very
time consuming; if a solution exists, you are
guaranteed to find the solution)

Big Bang Theory:

the friendship
algorithm
 2. Heuristics
a "rule of thumb" or "mental shortcut" used in
problem solving or decision making. (much
quicker, but may cause us to make errors or
overlook the solution)

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
 a. Availability Heuristic
A mental shortcut in decision making based on
how readily (quickly) relevant instances come to
mind (based on headlines, recent experiences,
etc.)
 b. Representative Heuristic
A mental shortcut where someone makes a
decision based on how something fits their
schema or prototype of a concept.
3. Overconfidence
the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of
our beliefs, judgments, abilities that may lead to
poor decision making &/or decreased
performance
4. Hindsight bias
The tendency, upon learning an outcome of an
event to overestimate one’s ability to have
foreseen the outcome
5. Belief Perseverance
"clinging" to one's initial beliefs after the basis
on which they were formed has been
discredited.
6. Confirmation Bias
The tendency to only seek information, recall
information, or interpret info in ways that is
likely to support one's decisions and beliefs.
7. Gambler’s Fallacy
The belief that the odds of a chance event
increase if the event hasn't occurred recently.
(Random events will correct themselves)
8. Sunken-Cost Fallacy
Our tendency to continue with an endeavor
we've invested money, effort, or time into—even
if the current costs outweigh the benefits
9. Framing effect
Decision making can be affected by how
choices are structured. (i.e. wording of
questions)
Practice It!
An employer who believes a job applicant is a 'best fit' will
likely place emphasis on those qualities that support
their belief rather than those qualities that may suggest
them being a 'poor fit.' Which psychological concept
explains this unconscious tendency?
A. Belief perseverance
B. Framing
C. Sunken-Cost Fallacy
D. Confirmation bias
E. Gambler’s Fallacy
Practice It!
Keisha is told that her new geometry instructor will be
flexible, nurturing, and soft-spoken. When she arrives to
class on the first day, Keisha is somewhat surprised to
discover that her instructor is a man. Most likely Keisha
applied the __________________________ to her
version of her new instructor.
A. representative heuristic
B. availability heuristic
C. confirmation bias
D. framing
E. sunken-cost fallacy
Practice It!
People are more concerned about a medical procedure
when told it has a 10% death rate than they are when told
it has a 90% survival rate. Which psychological concept
explains the difference in concern?
A. Belief perseverance
B. Framing
C. Sunken-Cost Fallacy
D. Confirmation bias
E. Gambler’s Fallacy
Practice It!
Barrett's parents are divorced and several of his friends'
parents are divorced as well. In a class discussion about
marriage and compatibility, Barrett shares his opinion
that the divorce rate is on the rise and that most
marriages will not remain intact over time. It is likely that
Barrett's opinion is influenced by
A. representative heuristic
B. availability heuristic
C. confirmation bias
D. framing
E. sunken-cost fallacy
Practice It!
Tom believes he performed poorly on his last three
history exams because of bad luck. As a result, he
believes he is due for a good score on the next exam and
does not study because he is sure he will perform well.
The error in his thinking is most likely attributed to
A. confirmation bias.
B. sunken-cost fallacy.
C. framing.
D. gambler’s fallacy.
E. availability heuristic.
Lesson 5.5
Language
(Module 3.5)
 Agenda
Lesson 5.5: Language ● Review Lesson 5.4
● Lesson 5.5: Language

Homework:
● Continue distributed practice
Learning Target(s):
● Students will be able to understand the fundamentals of language
● Students will be able to understand the milestones of language development

Success Criteria:
● I CAN provide examples of phonemes, morphemes, semantics and syntax in the
English language
● I CAN provide examples of language children can produce during each stage of
development
● I CAN differentiate between overextension, underextension, and overregularization
● I CAN explain why the critical period is so important to language development
Talk About It!
✓ Recall (or look back in your notes)...What is cognition? What
are some types of cognitive processes?
✓ What do you think language has to do with these cognitive
processes?
✓ Other than the words themselves, what are other ways we
communicate our thoughts?
✓ If you are bi-/multilingual, what do you think makes your
cognitive processes different than those who are
monolingual?
✓ If you are learning a new language, what contributes to your
success in learning the language? to your struggles?
VII. Language
A. Fundamentals of Language
1. Symbols
a. Phonemes
Smallest elements of sound

Ex: cat = c/a/t

that = th/a/t
 a. Morphemes
smallest unit of language that provides meaning

prefix + base word + suffix

ex: cat (1 morpheme)
vs. cat-s (2 morphemes)
ex: un-friend-ed
(3 morphemes)
 2. Rules
a. Grammar
A system of rules that enables us to
communicate with and understand others.
Ex: I vs. we good vs. well red shoe vs. shoe red
*Semantics
A language’s set of rules for deriving
meaning of words and phrases
*Syntax
Rules about how words are combined &
arranged to make sentences
Ex: ‘The red shoe’ not ‘The shoe red’
B. Milestones In Language Development
1. Cooing (1.5-3 months)
Giggling & gurgling

Annie at 4 mos
2. Babbling (6-10 months)
Repeating syllables over and over

A & M sign Chase at 10 months

 3. One-Word Stage (12-18 Months)
Names & object

Gleeba
Dad & baby convo

4. Telegraphic Speech (18-24 months)

Subject + verb (very obvious communication)

5. Subject-verb-objects (2yrs +)
Simple sentences
D. Developing An Understanding of Language
1. Overextension
Incorrectly using a word to describe a wider set
of objects or actions Ex: Every meal = snack
2. Underextension
Incorrectly using a word to describe a narrower
set of objects or actions
Ex: They aren’t shoes, they are sandals
3. Overregularization
Oveneralizing grammatical rules
Ex: I goed to the store.
E. Critical Period of Language Development
1. Critical period
An optimal period early in life when exposure to
certain stimuli or experiences produces normal
development.

MIT article
Genie documentary (12 min)
 Agenda
● Unit 5a Test Info
Unit 5a Review Day
● Review for Unit 5 Test:
- Practice MC
- Application packet
- Kahoot
- I Have, Who Has
- TutorBot
- Other resources in the
Assessment Prep Google Folder

Homework:
● Study for test
Learning Target(s):
● Students will be able to review Unit 5a concepts to prepare for the
upcoming assessment

Success Criteria:
● I CAN use distributed practice to review concepts and practice
application for the Unit 5a assessment