WORKED SOLUTIONS

Chapter 1 Cellular structure and function

Concept questions 1.1
1 Living things are characterised by their ability to move, grow, replicate or reproduce
themselves. They detect and respond to changes in their environment; take in food or matter
and process it in a variety of ways that involve controlled transformation of energy. They also
remove the waste products of their activities.
2 All parts of living things are not only made of cells, but also the non-cellular products of the
cells (such as hair and wax) that living things produce to help them live.
3 The cell theory, states:
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of an organism.
• All new cells are produced by pre-existing cells.
4
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Size is 0.1–5.0 μm Size is 5–100 μm
Nucleus is absent Nucleus is present
Membrane-bound nucleus absent Membrane-bound nucleus is present.
No membrane-bound organelles Membrane-bound organelles
One chromosome is present, but not true More than one number of chromosomes is
chromosome plastids present
5 Yes, this statement is supported by the following evidence.
• Fossil record – prokaryotic cells are found in the fossil record (3.5 billion years ago) before
eukaryotic cells (1.8 billion years ago)
• Eukaryotes are more complex than prokaryotes; for example, membrane-bound organelles
• Some structures in eukaryotes (for example. chloroplasts and mitochondria) resemble
prokaryotic organisms – called endosymbiosis theory.
HOT Challenge
6 a
Archaebacteria Eubacteria
The presence of characteristic tRNAs and ‘True’ bacteria are unicellular, prokaryotic
ribosomal RNAs organisms
The absence of peptidoglycan cell walls, Characterised by a lack of a nuclear
with in many cases, replacement by a membrane, a single circular chromosome,
largely proteinaceous coat and cell walls made of peptidoglycan

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 Ability to live in extremely hot or Lipid-containing plasma membrane made
chemically aggressive environments from glycerol ester lipids
(extremophiles), and they can be found
across Earth, wherever bacteria survive
b Methanogens and extremophiles are rarely found to be pathogens.

Activity 1.1 Can you make square soap bubbles?

1 Student answers will vary.
2 The circle is the smallest surface area that can contain the bubble’s volume. The surface area of
the cell has to be sufficient to service the volume with nutrients, gases and removal of wastes.

Investigation 1.1 Why are cells so small?

Discussion
1 The cubes are impregnated with a pH indicator and start off alkaline. As the vinegar diffuses
through the cube, the indicator changes colour to denote the lowered pH.
2 As an object increases in size, the volume of the object increases more in proportion to the
increase in surface area (assuming the increase is in three dimensions). As diffusion is limited
by the surface area it can access, it will take longer to reach the centre of a large object than that
of a small object.
3 Using the same set of axes, create a graph of time in minutes (x-axis) against the %P (y-axis) of
each cube. Comparing them all on one graph will demonstrate the differences in the trajectory
of each.
Student answers will vary.

Concept questions 1.2

1 Surface-area-to-volume ratio represents an important relationship between the surface area of
the plasma membrane surrounding a cell and the volume of its contents (cytoplasm). The ratio
has to be sufficient to enable the surface area to service the volume of the cell otherwise the cell
will die.
2 For a cell to be able to supply its volume with metabolic requirements and remove wastes, it
needs a large surface area in relation to its volume.
1
Use the formulae: ( SA sphere =  d 2 ) : ( Vsphere =  d 3 ) where d is the diameter of the sphere and
6
the overall formula is SA : V.
SA V SA : V
1
Sphere1 3.142  22 :  3.142  23 12.568 : 4.191 3:1
6

1
Sphere2 3.142  52 :  3.142  53 78.550 : 65.468 1:1
6

Sphere1 (diameter = 2 cm) has a greater surface area to volume ratio compared to Sphere2
and therefore, a greater chance of survival.

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3
Move into cell across plasma membrane Move out of cell across plasma membrane
Nutrients such as glucose, amino acids Wastes such as urea
Gases such as oxygen Gases such as carbon dioxide
Water Water
Complex proteins such as hormones,
enzymes

4 The vacuole pushes the contents of the cell toward the plasma membrane. It means that the
distance materials need to diffuse when moving into or out of the cell is much less. It also has
the effect of reducing the active volume of the cytoplasm and so reducing the amount of
exchange that must occur across the plasma membrane.
5 Heart cells need fast supply of nutrients, oxygen and removal of wastes. A long narrow cell of
smaller diameter increases SA : V ratio. Adipocytes are storage cells. Diffusion of inputs into
the cell tends to be one way and the metabolic processes in the cells requiring fast exchange of
inputs and outputs is needed less.
HOT Challenge
6 a a: One large cell
b Microvilli are the protrusion of tendril-like extensions of the plasma membrane. This serves
to enlarge the surface area of the cell in relation to its volume, thereby increasing the SA:V.
Microvilli are often found in the gut of animals to increase absorption by diffusion from
lumen of the gut.
c SA = 520 micrometre2
V = 800 micrometre3
SA : V 1 : 1.5 (or 2 : 3 in round numbers)

Concept questions 1.3a

1 The cytoplasm consists of cytosol plus organelles. Thus, the watery (fluid) part of cytoplasm is
cytosol. It is often described as the ‘soup’ of the cell because it contains many dissolved
substances, yet cytosol does not by definition also contain organelles, whereas both together
form the cytoplasm.
2 The cytoplasm is found from the plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane. The cytoplasm
does not include the nucleus.
3 The nucleus controls the functioning of eukaryotic cells. DNA is the main molecule found in
the nucleus and codes for protein production. By coding for different proteins at different times
and in different cells, the nucleus can coordinate the activities of a cell.
4
<insert AWA0101>
<figure A1.1>
<reuse VICscience Biology VCE Units 1 & 2 Page 20 Figure 1.17a>

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 <end>
5 a More mitochondria means more capacity for cellular respiration that synthesises ATP, a
high-energy molecule.
b Sperm cells need to be highly motile because they move large distances quickly compared to
their relative size. Moving large distances rapidly requires a great deal of energy in the form
of ATP.
HOT Challenge
6 Chemical reactions in the cell can synthesise or catabolise molecules. Each cell’s DNA carries
the complete information to make a new cell or indeed a new organism. Thus, it is an important
component of eukaryotic cell evolution that the DNA sequence is ‘protected’ from metabolic
activities other than those that are relevant to its function.

Concept questions 1.3b

1 Ribosomes build chains of amino acids, which later are folded into proteins by other organelles.
There are more ribosomes in a protein-producing cell because there are more proteins required.
2 The endoplasmic reticulum has two main roles:
1 Production (on rough ER), folding and modification of proteins
2 Transport system both intracellular and intercellular.
3 The Golgi apparatus is an assembly point through which raw materials, such as enzymes, are
stored before being exported from the cell. It serves as a collecting and packaging centre for the

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 cell before moving substances via secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane where they are
released outside the cell.
4
Vesicle property ER vesicle Golgi apparatus vesicle
Where formed? Membrane of ER Membrane of GA
What carried? Proteins Proteins and membrane
parts
How moves around cell? Vesicles move straight to Protein cargo is modified
Golgi apparatus by motor within the Golgi apparatus
proteins along tubules and is then sent to various
where they are uncoated destinations in the cell,
and their cargo can be including the lysosomes and
further packaged within the the cell surface and moved
GA. by motor proteins.
How discharge contents? Fuse with membrane of GA Either fusing with other
and release contents. membranes or exocytosis if
contents are leaving the cell.
5 No, they do not perform the same functions. RER is involved in protein production whereas the
main role of SER is to transport proteins, synthesise lipids and assist in the manufacture of
plasma membranes.
6 Like a recycling station, complex chemical compounds are split into simpler ones. The
lysosomes produce digestive enzymes that break down the compounds. A membrane forms
around the unwanted structure and lysosomes discharge their contents into this bag. Soluble
products are absorbed into the surrounding cytoplasm, to be used as building blocks for new
compounds and organelles.
HOT Challenge
7 c: nucleic acids

Concept questions 1.3c

1 The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules (protein called tubulin) and microfilaments
(protein called actin).
2 The cell wall provides extra support and protection to cells.
3 Thylakoid membranes with chlorophyll embedded in the membranes plus stroma, containing
metabolic enzymes and multiple copies of the chloroplast genome
4 Centrioles are found in the cytoplasm of animal cells only near the nuclear envelope. Centrioles
play a role in organising microtubules that serve as the cytoskeleton. They help determine the
locations of the nucleus and other organelles within the cell.
HOT Challenge
5 a Chromoplasts enable synthesis and storage of pigments in flowers and fruits.
Leucoplasts enable storage of starch, lipids, or proteins.

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 b Algae photosynthesise producing glucose and oxygen as a by-product. Oxygen can be in
low concentrations in marine environments, so the algae is advantageous to the marine
molluscs as they provide a source of oxygen other than the water.

Investigation 1.2 Modelling the fluid mosaic

membrane
These are sample answers, student answers will depend on what they used to represent each part of
the plasma membrane.
Results:
Structure
1 Student answers will vary.
2
Structure in fluid mosaic model Representation in your model
Phospholipid Piece of plasticene with two matches
sticking out – yellow = hydrophilic head;
matchsticks are the hydrophobic tails;
Transport protein Clinker™ lolly
Hydrophilic heads Marshmallows
Hydrophobic tails Liquorice
Glycoproteins M&M™/Smarties™ and Snakes™

Function
Substance in mixture Substances that passed through holes in
tea strainer
Icing sugar and lollies Icing sugar
Elastic band No
Salt Yes
Sugar Yes
Tea leaves No
Eraser No

Discussion
1 Purpose of model is to simulate the three-dimensional structure of the plasma membrane and to
identify the various components. It allows us to see their relationship to each other as well as
relative sizes.
2 Benefits include the ability to see the different components and how they work together,
helping us to understand the roles of structures that are very small and cannot be seen in a real
cell.

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3 Limitations: scale is not indicated so the relative sizes of components are not entirely accurate;
the shape of the components is only an approximation; only major molecule types are
represented as there are hundreds of different channels and receptors on plasma membranes
4 Justification of validity: the model is not highly valid as it cannot be used to predict how the
plasma membrane will react under certain situations.

Concept questions 1.4

1 Permeable means allowing the passage of almost all materials through. Selectively permeable
means to control the passage of materials through the membrane.
2 The plasma membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol and a number of
different proteins (transport, recognition, adhesion, receptor) embedded in it.
3 Unicellular organisms often live in dynamic environments, where conditions may change
quickly. The cells in multicellular organisms are more protected from the swings of
environmental change because they are surrounded by extracellular fluid.
4 Hydrophilic (water-loving) is something that is attracted to water, while something that is
hydrophobic (water-hating), resists water.
5 (Refer to Figure 1.29 page 30 to aid description.) The fluid mosaic model describes the
structure of the plasma membrane. When viewed from the top the membrane looks like a
mosaic that includes phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins and carbohydrates. The word ‘fluid’ is
intended to demonstrate the model incorporates a fluidic nature of movement within a mosaic
structure of its jigsaw parts. Cholesterol, for example, can cluster together or move apart
depending on the temperature.
Various proteins are studded through the membrane. Membrane proteins can act as receptors,
channel proteins or enzymes to catalyse reactions. Membrane cholesterol helps to restrict the
passage of molecules by increasing the packing of phospholipids. Cholesterol can prevent
water-soluble molecules from diffusing across the membrane. Glycoproteins act in cell–cell
recognition and binding of other molecules. Membrane carbohydrates act in cell recognition
and adhesion, either cell–cell signalling or cell–pathogen interactions, and they have a
structural role as well as being a physical barrier. Thus, the structure behaves as a semi-
permeable gateway for the cell for regulation across it and as a barrier defence.
HOT Challenge
6 Ions and most polar molecules cannot diffuse across a lipid bilayer. Polar molecules or ions are
soluble in water, and thus the hydrophobic regions repel them. The charges on the polar
molecules are repelled by the non-polar hydrophobic tails in the lipids which have no charge as
they are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Activity 1.2 Observing diffusion

What did you discover?
Sample answers
1 Brown colouring seeped out of tea bag and coloured water around tea bag. Brown colour
slowly moved away from tea bag until all water in beaker was uniformly brown.
2 The tea bag contained a very high concentration of tea. The water contained no tea, so there
was a very large concentration gradient between the tea bag and the water. When the tea bag

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 was placed into the water, the brown tea colour starting diffusing from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium was achieved.

Concept questions 1.5a

1 Diffusion is the passive net movement of molecules from a higher concentration to a lower
concentration.
2 The rate of diffusion is increased when the concentration gradient is steeper, when heat is
applied, when molecules are smaller and when movement occurs through a gaseous medium.
3 Carrier proteins and channel proteins assist in facilitated diffusion by providing a way for
charged particles and relatively large molecules to pass through the phospholipid bilayer.
Carrier proteins do this by binding to specific molecules, channel proteins form narrow
passageways.
4 Passive in this context refers to movement across a membrane that does not require energy.
5 At low solute concentration, facilitated diffusion is faster than simple diffusion. This is because
simple diffusion does not rely on any proteins embedded in the plasma membrane whereas with
facilitated diffusion the solute is specific to the carrier protein which aids it in moving across
the membrane.
HOT Challenge
6 Research should include: Water crosses plasma membranes in two ways: by diffusion through
the lipid bilayer and through water channels called aquaporins. A single human aquaporin
channel can facilitate water transport at a rate of about 3 billion water molecules per second.
Such solute-free water transport appears to be in both directions, according to the present
osmotic gradient.

Concept questions 1.5b

1 Water is the solvent and salt the solute.
2 Plant cells do not burst when placed in a hypotonic solution as the cell wall is strong enough to
resist the pressure. It also prevents more water from entering the cell once the cell is turgid.
3 Saline solution is isotonic to the contents of red blood cells. Hence, there is no net movement of
water into or out of the red blood cell by osmosis. Therefore, the cells can be stored safely in
saline solution. When red blood cells are placed in pure water, water moves into the cells and
the cells rupture.
4 Plants wilt when their cells lose turgor. You can restore a plant’s shape and form by soaking it
in cold water, so the cells take up water by osmosis and become fully turgid again.
5 If the fluids inside and outside a cell are of equal solute concentration, the external solution is
said to be isotonic (‘iso’ = same) to the cells. When cells are surrounded by a solution that
contains a lower solute concentration than their cytoplasm, the external solution is said to be
hypotonic (‘hypo’ = lower) to the cells. The reverse applies if the cells are surrounded by a
solution of higher solute concentration; the external solution is hypertonic (‘hyper’ = higher) to
the cells.
HOT Challenge
6 Haemolysis: If the plasma surrounding blood cells becomes hypotonic, the blood cells will
swell and burst.

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 Crenation: If the plasma surrounding blood cells becomes hypertonic, water will move out of
the cells and they will shrivel.
Haemolysis can occur by the action of hemolysins, toxins that are produced by certain
pathogenic bacteria or fungi. Another cause is intense physical exercise. After exposure to a
hypotonic solution due to the rapid influx of water through osmosis, haemolysis occurs.
Crenation can occur after exposure to a hypertonic solution due to a rapid removal of water
from the blood.
After exposure to a hypertonic solution, due to the loss of water through osmosis, crenation
occurs.
Osmosis is a function of a water gradient. Water molecules move to an area of low water
concentration.

Concept question 1.6

1 Active transport cannot occur without an input of energy to move the substance against its
concentration gradient. Simple diffusion, on the other hand, is a passive process, requiring no
energy input to move the substance along its concentration gradient.
2 Substances such as glucose and ions can enter a cell using facilitated diffusion, which is a
passive process. However, when such substances are moved against the concentration gradient,
the molecules bind to carrier proteins, which must be connected to a source of energy
(mitochondria).
3 In endocytosis, the plasma membrane extends around a substance, engulfing it and forming an
endocytic vesicle. This is then drawn into the cytoplasm.
In exocytosis, for instance in a cell that secretes enzymes, membrane-bound vesicles form
around the enzymes and move through the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane, fusing with it
and releasing the enzymes to the exterior of the cell.
4 Large white blood cells called phagocytes protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells.
HOT Challenge
5 Pinocytosis is the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the
plasma membrane. Gymnosperms are seed-producing plants, which includes pine trees. Pine
tree sap is especially viscous, with a lower concentration of water. Too high a water content
would cause the sap to freeze in alpine regions, the habitat the pine tree is adapted to.
Pinocytosis is more properly a kind of fluid endocytosis, in which small particles suspended in
extracellular fluid are brought into the cell through an invagination of the plasma membrane,
resulting in a suspension of the particles within a small vesicle inside the cell. This path for
movement of substances can be followed rather than a solute intake via water that is in lower
concentration.

Branching out: Scientists create an artificial cell that

makes its own energy by photosynthesising
1 Two major steps forward that have been achieved with this artificial cell are that they can
produce their own chemical energy and can synthesise parts of their own construction.
2 The point in trying to create an artificial cell is to understand how a cell works which could lead
onto producing artificial organs, and other body tissue to fight disease.
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3 The cell membrane holds the whole cell together, so it forms an independent unit. The cell
membrane can control what enters and leaves the cell.
4 Can two membrane proteins produce enough energy to drive gene expression, and if so, did
protocells use this energy to evolve into modern-day cells?
5 Scientists could use this work to deliver drugs and create supersmart sensors.

Chapter review
Remembering
1 a = iv; b = iii; c = vi; d = v; e = i; f = ii
2 Solute: component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent.
Solution: a homogeneous mixture of solvent and solute molecules.
Solute concentration: the amount of solute/particles that are dissolved in a solution.
Concentration gradient: difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas
Equilibrium: when there are equal amounts of solute and solvent in all areas of the solution
3 Glucose diffuses across membranes through facilitated diffusion, down the concentration
gradient. On the other hand, in the intestine and renal proximal tubule (kidney), glucose is
transported against a concentration gradient by a secondary active transport mechanism.
4 Plant cells may become plasmolysed during drought or when living in an aquatic environment
where evaporation exceeds rainfall, causing solutes in the water to become more concentrated.
5 A hypotonic solution contains little solute and a high concentration of water. The animal cell
will have a relatively high solute concentration and a low concentration of water. Hence, water
will move into the animal cell, resulting in rupture of the cell.
6 Endocytosis is the movement of material into the cell by the plasma membrane engulfing the
material and enclosing it in a vesicle that then moves into the cytoplasm.
In exocytosis, vesicles form inside the cell and contain material that is to be secreted from the
cell. These vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents to the extracellular
environment. Student diagrams will be similar to Figure 1.41 and Figure 1.45.
7 Turgor is important to plants because it keeps all the cells fully swollen, maintaining the shape
and structure of the plant. Turgor enables plants to display their leaves fully for photosynthesis
and it also enables stomata to open for gas exchange.
8 a All cells have hereditary material and arise from pre-existing cells. They sense and respond
to their surroundings. Cells use proteins to control chemical reactions. They enclose their
contents within a plasma membrane and contain cytoplasm and ribosomes.
b i Prokaryotic cells have a circular chromosome within a nucleoid, and small circular
plasmids within the cytoplasm.
ii Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles including a nucleus with rod-shaped
chromosomes.

Applying
9 These cells would require a lot of instant energy; for example, sperm cells. Mitochondria are
the cell’s energy-producing organelles so the presence of large numbers of them implies a need
for lots of energy.

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10 Vegetable produce sitting in air dehydrates as water evaporates from its surface. Water has
moved to the surface from an area of high concentration inside the produce to an area of low
water concentration on the surface. By spraying a fine mist of water over the vegetables, water
particles move from an area of high water concentration now on the outside to an area of low
concentration inside. This maintains the turgidity of cells for a longer period, causing the
produce to look fresh and feel firm. The produce rehydrates and looks fresh and new.
11 a For diffusion to occur, there must be a higher concentration of wastes in the dialysis tube
than in the surroundings. Wastes must therefore be constantly removed from the
surroundings to maintain a concentration gradient.
b If the surrounding solution was not changed, the concentration gradient would become
smaller and smaller until diffusion would no longer occur and the same amount of wastes
would leave the dialysis tubing as would enter it; that is, equilibrium would be reached.
Analysing
12 a Eukaryote cell, because it has membrane-bound organelles.
b Electron microscope, because of the high level of detail. Some of these organelles could not
be seen by a light microscope.
c A cell is three-dimensional; other organelles may be present in a different area of the cell not
shown by this slice through the cell.
d i Nucleus
ii Chloroplast
13 Student answers will vary. Presence of cell wall and chloroplasts = plant cell; absence of cell
wall = animal cell. You can predict the function of a cell from its structure, for example, many
ribosomes and ER would suggest the cell produces a lot of proteins; many mitochondria
suggests and active cell such as a muscle cell; presence of chloroplasts suggests a
photosynthetic cell.
14 The size and shape of the cells may be different; larger cells with a smaller SA:V have a slower
rate of osmosis. One cell may be surrounded by a cell wall, so it expands more slowly.
Temperature is another factor; higher temperatures will speed up the rate of diffusion.
15 Students should discuss three steps to equilibrium, step 1 is the situation immediately after the
two components are mixed. The water is the solvent, the cordial is the solute. Step 2 is the
movement of particles throughout the mixture through a combination of collisions of particles
with each other and the sides of the container to diffuse throughout the mixture with kinetic
energy. The particles will move along a concentration gradient from areas of high concentration
of solute (cordial) to areas of lower concentration. Net movement is the combination of
dispersive movement to produce step 3, which is equilibrium throughout the drinking cup of all
particles being spread evenly.
16 Sugar particles have moved along a concentration gradient from higher concentration to lower
concentration of sugar in the living cells. Therefore, the net effect is a decrease of sugar
concentration on the outside of the cells.
17 a
<insert AWA0102>
b The eggs placed in the 1.0 M concentration of salt gained water because the concentration of
the solution inside the cell was greater than that on the outside. In this hypotonic solution,
water is able to move by osmosis into the cell.

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 Eggs placed in the 1.5 M salt concentration did not gain weight because the solution was of
equal osmotic pressure to that of the egg; therefore, there was no net movement of water into
or out of the cell.
Eggs placed in the 2.0 M salt concentration lost weight because the solution inside the cell
was more dilute than the salt solution on the outside; therefore, there was a net movement of
water out of the cell.
18 Sodium ions through active transport requiring energy are pumped out of the cell against a
concentration gradient.
Evaluating
19 This feature is usually not observed in bacteria. It is more commonly associated with
eukaryotes. Also, DNA is not usually packaged in a membrane envelope unless the cell is
eukaryotic.
20 Mitochondria are too small to be seen with a light microscope. You would need to use an
electron microscope to see them.
21 By maximising their surface area through the folding and stacking of internal membranes, a
greater number of chemical reactions can occur at the same time. Organelles also facilitate the
synthesis of complex molecules and the entry and exit of substances. Membrane-bound
organelles enable a cell to carry out hundreds of different chemical reactions simultaneously,
without one reaction interfering with another. This is important when reactions are
incompatible. Organelles also separate chemical reactions in time, such as when substances are
stored and then later used in other reactions.
22 When the soil surrounding a tree has a higher salt concentration than that of the root tissue,
reverse osmosis can occur. In this case, water tends to move from the root tissue into the
surrounding soil. This causes a lack of water available for photosynthesis, causing smaller
yields of citrus fruit. So, a small amount of fresh water would be better than saline soils.
Reflecting
23 Responses will vary. Issues can include high pressure due to depth, lack of sunlight, large size
of cells, low temperature, potential lack of movement in surrounding water. Adaptations may
include suspension feeding, construction of shells called tests from surrounding debris, provide
habitat structures for diverse species as their protist shape only takes up a small space of the
test.
24 The formation of vesicles in endocytosis does remove parts of the plasma membrane but this is
counterbalanced by exocytosis when arriving secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane
to release their contents. Overall, the plasma membrane size is maintained. Students should
realise that a membrane is a very dynamic and fluid structure.
Creating
25 a Student models will vary.
b Goods manufactured = proteins produced by ribosomes
Business plans = DNA in nucleus of cells
Photocopying room = nucleus where DNA and RNA are made
Manufacturing area = cytoplasm or ribosomes

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 Warehouse = endoplasmic reticulum for movement within the factory or Golgi apparatus for
movement out of the factory
Management offices = nucleus
Assembly workers = ribosomes
Warehouse packers = endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus
Doors = plasma membrane channels
Hallways = channels in endoplasmic reticulum
Power source = mitochondria
c Answers will vary; for example, a factory does not keep any of its product to use itself,
whereas a cell will use some of the protein it produces itself.

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