CHAPTER-1

ANALOG SIGNAL
 An analog signal is any continuous signal for which
the time-varying feature (variable) of the signal is a
representation of some other time varying quantity,
i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.
 For example, in an analog audio signal, the
instantaneous voltage of the signal varies continuously
with the pressure of the sound waves.
DIGITAL SIGNAL
 A digital signal is a signal that is being used to
represent data as a sequence of discrete values; at any
given time it can only take on one of a finite number of
values in most digital circuits.
 The signal can have two possible values(0,1); this is
called a binary signal or logic signal.[4
Difference Between Analog And
Digital Signal
Advantages Of Digital Signal
 Easier To Design.
 Digital System Have Got Fast Response Time.
 Information Can Be Stored And Retrived Very Easily.
 More Accurate And Have Great Percision.
 Less Effected By Noise.
 Easier To Use Because Direct Display Of Data Is
Convenient To Read.
 Digital Ckt. Can Be Fabricated On IC Chips.
Applications Of Digital Signal
 Data Base Management System(DBMS) Used In
Banks, Offices, Institutes, Shops etc. Using
Computers.
 Process Monitoring And Control System In
Industries Using Computers, PLC’s, Robots.
 Digital Signal Processing And Digital
Communication.
 Entertainment Appliances Like CD/DVD Players,
LED TVs, Digital Cameras.
 Medical Instruments Like Digital X-ray Machines,
Ultra Sound Machines etc.
 Combustion Control In Modern Vechicles.
Applications Of Analog signal
CHAPTER -2
Number system & its types
 Code using symbols that refers to a set of items.
 Types of Number system
Binary number system
Decimal number system
Octal number system
Hexa -decimal number system
Binary Number System
 A number system which have two values 0 and 1 is
called binary number system.
 The base or radix is 2.
Decimal Number system
 The decimal number system contains ten distinct
symbols (0 to 9).
 The base or radix is 10.
Decimal to Binary conversion
 Technique
 Divide by two, keep track of the remainder
 First remainder is bit 0 (LSB, least-significant bit)
 Second remainder is bit 1
 Etc.
Example
12510 = ?2 2 125
2 62 1

2 31 0
15 1
2
7 1
2
2 3 1

2 1 1
0 1

12510 = 11111012
Binary to Decimal Conversion
 Technique
 Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
 The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on
the right
 Add the results
Example

1010112 => 1 x 20 = 1
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
4310
Octal Number system
 In this system, there are eight distinct symbols that
represent octal numbers(0 to 7).
 The base or radix is 8.
Hexa-decimal Number system
 This system uses 16 distinct symbols (0 to 9, A toF).
 The base or radix is 16.
Octal to Binary conversion
 Technique
 Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent binary
representation
Example
7058 = ?2

7 0 5

111 000 101

7058 = 1110001012
Binary to Octal
 Technique
 Group bits in threes, starting on right
 Convert to octal digits
Example
10110101112 = ?8

1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278
Octal to Decimal
 Technique
 Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
 The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on
the right
 Add the results
Example
7248 => 4 x 80 = 4
2 x 81 = 16
7 x 82 = 448
46810
Decimal to Octal
 Technique
 Divide by 8
 Keep track of the remainder
Example
123410 = ?8
8 1234
154 2
8
19 2
8
2 3
8
0 2

123410 = 23228
Decimal to Hexadecimal
 Technique
 Divide by 16
 Keep track of the remainder
Example
123410 = ?16
16 1234
16 77 2

16 4 13 = D
0 4

123410 = 4D216
Binary to Hexadecimal
 Technique
 Group bits in fours, starting on right
 Convert to hexadecimal digits
Example
10101110112 = ?16
10 1011 1011

2 B B

10101110112 = 2BB16
Hexadecimal to Binary
 Technique
 Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit equivalent
binary representation
Example
10AF16 = ?2
1 0 A F

0001 0000 1010 1111

10AF16 = 00010000101011112
Hexadecimal to Decimal
 Technique
 Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the “weight” of the
bit
 The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on
the right
 Add the results
Example

ABC16 => C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12

B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
274810
Binary Addition
 The binary number
system uses only two
digits 0 and 1. So , there
are four basic operations.

0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0 = 1
1+1 = 10
Binary Subtraction
The subtraction of binary
digit depends on four
basic operation.
0-0 = 0
1-0 = 1
1–1=0
10 – 1 = 1
Binary Multiplication
 The rules for binary multiplication are:
 0x0=0
 0x1 =0
 1x0=0
 1x1= 1
Binary Division
 The rules binary division are:
 0 ÷ 1 =0
1÷1=1
CHAPTER- 3
 Binary Codes
 Binary codes are used in computers and digital
communication. These binary codes can be classified
as:
 Weighted codes
 Non- weighted codes
 Binary Codes
• Electronic digital systems use signals that have two
distinct values and circuit elements that have two
stable states.
• Digital systems represent and manipulate not only
binary numbers, but also many other discrete
elements of information.
• Any discrete element of information distinct among a
group of quantities can be represented by a binary
code.
• Binary codes merely change the symbols, not the
meaning of the elements of information that they
represent.
Weighted codes
 A weighted code is one in which each digit position
has a specific weight or value.
 Examples of weighted codes are
8421(BCD),2421,5211etc.
Binary –Coded Decimal
• Binary-Coded Decimal is a weighted code because
each decimal digit can be obtained from its code
word by assigning a fixed weight to each code-
word bit.
• The weights for the BCD bits are 8, 4, 2, and 1, and
for this reason the code is sometimes called the
8421 code.
Non – Weighted Codes
 In non-weighted codes, each digit of the code do not
have any position weight.
 Example of non –weighted codes are: ASCII CODE,
Excess -3 code, Gray code.
Gray Code
 Excess -3 code
• The code word for each decimal digit is the
corresponding BCD code word plus 00112.
 0010 = 2 in BCD
 + 00112
 = 0101 = 2 in excess-3
 Gray Code
• Gray code is a code where only one bit changes at a
time while traversing from 0 to any decimal
number in sequence.
• This is a useful property when converting analog
values into digital values, since it eliminates the
problem of misinterpreting asynchronous changes
to bits between valid values.
Parity and its types
 In computers, parity is a technique that checks
whether data has been lost or written over when it is
moved from one place in storage to another or when
it is transmitted between computers.

 TYPES OF PARITY
 Even parity
 Odd parity
EVEN PARITY
 In this method , one extra bit known as parity bit is
added to the binary information.
 The parity is added in such a way that the total
number of one’s becomes even.
ODD PARITY
 It is similar to even parity method but the total
number of one’s should be odd.
 Example of Even and Odd parity
CHAPTER- 4
Logic Gates
Logic gates are electronic digital circuit perform logic
functions. Commonly expected logic functions are
already having the corresponding logic circuits in
Integrated Circuit (I.C.) form.
Types of Logic Gates
AND Gate NAND Gate
A A
C C
B B
OR Gate NOR Gate
A A
C C
B B
NOT Gate Exclusive - OR Gate
A
A C A B=C
B
AND Gate
 The AND gate implements the Boolean AND
function where the output only is logical 1 when all
inputs are logical 1.
 The standard symbol and the truth tabel for a two
input AND gate is:
OR Gate
 The OR gate implements the Boolean OR function where
the output is logical 1 when just input is logical 1.
 The standard symbol and the truth table for a two input
OR gate is:
NOT Gate
 The NOT gate implements the Boolean NOT function
where the output is the inverse of the input.
 The standard symbol and the truth table for the NOT
gate is:
NAND Gate
 The NAND gate is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
The output is logical 1 when one of the inputs are logical 0
 The standard symbol and the truth table for the NAND
gate is:
XOR Gate
 The XOR gate produces a logic 1 output only if its two
inputs are different. If the inputs are the same, the
output is a logic 0
 The XOR symbol is a variation on the standard OR
symbol. It consists of a plus (+) sign with a circle around
it. The logic symbol, as shown here, is a variation on the
standard OR symbol.
NOR Gate
 The NOR is a combination of an OR followed by a NOT
gate. The output is logical 1 when non of the inputs are
logical 0
 The standard symbol and the truth table for the NOR gate
is:
UNIVERSAL GATES
 A universal gate is actually NAND and NOR gate. It is
simply because they can be used to construct other
gates. To build big and complex digital system, we only
use NAND and NOR gate.
NAND GATE AS UNIVERSAL
GATE
 NAND gate is used to make OR gate , NOT gate. These
gate help us in making al the gates for eg: NAND gate
as NOR gate:
NOR GATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE
 NOR gate is used for make OR gate , NOT gate . with
the help of these gate we can make any gate for ex :
NOR gate as OR gate.
Introduction to TTL logic family
 The full form of TTL is Transistor Transistor logic . The
digital ICs in the TTL family used only transistor to
perform the basic logic operations . TTL families are
used as more complex devices in digital system .
TTL CHARACTERISTICS
 Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
 based on bipolar transistors
 one of the most widely used families for small- and
medium-scale devices – rarely used for VLSI
 typically operated from 5V supply
 typical noise immunity about 1 – 1.6 V
 many forms, some optimised for speed, power, etc.
 high speed versions comparable to CMOS (~ 1.5 ns)
 low-power versions down to about 1 mW/gate
Introduction to CMOS logic family
 CMOS stands for Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor. A complementary pair uses both p or
n channel MOSFETs.
CMOS CHARACTERISTICS
 Complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS)
 most widely used family for large-scale devices
 combines high speed with low power consumption
 usually operates from a single supply of 5 – 15 V
 excellent noise immunity of about 30% of supply voltage
 can be connected to a large number of gates (about 50)
 many forms – some with tPD down to 1 ns
 power consumption depends on speed (perhaps 1 mW
CHAPTER- 5
 INTRODUCTION
 ALL the digital circuit operation depend upon only
two values that is either 1 or 0 . Where the value of 1
and 0 denoted the predefined voltage level . So ,
Boolean algebra can used for the analysis ,
simplification design of digital circuit .
 There are three operation in Boolean Algebra :
 Logical addition
 Logical multiplication
 Logical inversion
Postulates OF Boolean Algebra
 A statement that is not proved but assumed to be true
is called the postulates .
 The basic postulates of Boolean Algebra are:
 Commutative laws
 Associative laws
 Distributed laws
 Identity rule
 Complement rule
DEMORGAN’S THEOREMS
 A great mathematician named demorgan gives two
theorems of Boolean Algebra . These theorem are very
useful and powerful identities used in Boolean
Algebra.
DeMorgan’s Theorem #1
A · B = A + B
A B A•B A•B A B A+B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
EQUAL
DeMorgan’s Theorem #2
A + B = A · B
A B A+B A+B A B AxB
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
EQUAL
KARNAUGH MAPS (K-MAP)
 An n-variable k-map has two cell with each cell
corresponding to an n-variable truth table value .
 K-Map cell are labeled with the corresponding truth
table row .
 K-Map cells are arranged such that adjacent cells
correspond to truth rows that differ in only one bit
position (logical adjacency) .
KARNAUGH MAPS ( K-MAPS )
 K-Map – A tool for representing Boolean function up
to six variables .
 K-Map are tables of row and columns with entries
represent 1’s or 0’s of SOP and POS representation .
Example – 4 variable K-Map
Advantages and Disadvantages of
K-Map
Advantages :
1.Minimizes boolean expressions without the need
using various boolean theorems & computations.
2.Minimizes number of Logical gates used.
Disadvantages :
1. Become tedious for 5 variables.
2. It is not suitable for computer reduction.
CHAPTER- 6
Combinational Arithmetic Circuits
 Addition:
 Half Adder (HA).
 Full Adder (FA).
 Subtraction:
 Half Subtractor.
 Full Subtractor.
 4 bit adder/subtracter
 Adder and Subtractor IC (7484)
HALF ADDER
Adding two single-bit binary values, X, Y produces a sum S
bit and a carry out C-out bit. This operation is called half
addition and the circuit to realize it is called a half adder.
Half Adder Truth Table
S(X,Y) = S (1,2)
Inputs Outputs S = X’Y + XY’
X Y S C-out S = XY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 C-out(x, y, C-in) = S (3)
1 0 1 0 C-out = XY
1 1 0 1

X
Sum S
Y
X Half S
Y Adder C-OUT C-out
FULL ADDER
Adding two single-bit binary values, X, Y with a
carry input bit C-in produces a sum bit S and a
carry out C-out bit.
Full Adder Sum S
XY
X

C-in 00 01 11 10
0 2 6 4
Full Adder Truth Table 0 1 1
Inputs Outputs 1 3 7 5
1 1 C-in
1
X Y C-in S C-out
Y
0 0 0 0 0 S = X’Y’(C-in) + XY’(C-in)’ + XY’(C-in)’ + XY(C-in)
0 0 1 1 0 S = X  Y  (C-in)
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 Carry C-out X
XY
1 0 0 1 0 C-in 00 01 11 10
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 2 6
1
4

1 1 0 0 1 1 3 7 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C-in

S(X,Y, C-in) = S (1,2,4,7) Y

C-out = XY + X(C-in) + Y(C-in)
C-out(x, y, C-in) = S (3,5,6,7)
Full Adder Circuit Using XOR
X Y X

Y Sum S
C-in
Full
C-out C-in
Adder
X XY
Y
S
X
XC-in C-out
C-in
Y

C-in YC-in
HALF SUBTRACTOR
 Subtracting a single-bit binary value Y from anther
X (I.e. X -Y ) produces a difference bit D and a
borrow out bit B-out.
 This operation is called half subtraction and the
circuit to realize it is called a half subtractor.
 • .

Half Subtractor
Half Subtractor Truth Table
D(X,Y) = S (1,2)
Inputs Outputs D = X’Y + XY’
X Y D B-out D = XY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 B-out(x, y, C-in) = S (1)
1 0 1 0 B-out = X’Y
1 1 0 0

X Difference
D
Y
X Half D
Y Subtractor B-OUT B-out
FULL SUBTRACTOR
 Subtracting two single-bit binary values, Y, B-in
from a single-bit value X produces a difference bit
D and a borrow out B-out bit. This is called full
subtraction.
 Difference D X
XY

Full Subtractor B-in

0
0
00
2
01
1
11
6
10
4
1
Full Subtractor Truth Table 1 3 7 5
Inputs Outputs 1 1 1 B-in

X Y B-in D B-out Y
0 0 0 0 0 S = X’Y’(B-in) + XY’(B-in)’ + XY’(B-in)’ + XY(B-in)
S = X  Y  (C-in)
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 Borrow B-out X
0 1 1 0 1 XY
1 0 0 1 0 B-in 00 01 11 10
0 2 6 4
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 3 7 5
1 1 1 1 B-in
1 1 1 1 1
Y
S(X,Y, C-in) = S (1,2,4,7)
B-out = X’Y + X’(B-in) + Y(B-in)
C-out(x, y, C-in) = S (1,2,3,7)
Full Subtractor Circuit Using XOR
X

Y Difference D
X Y B-in

Full X’ X’Y
B-out B-in
Subtractor Y

X’
X’B-in
B-out
D B-in
Y

B-in YB-in
PARALLEL BINARY ADDER
 These adders are constructed by connecting two or
more full adders.
 A single full adder is used for adding two one-bit
binary numbers and an input carry.
 For the addition of binary numbers having more than
one bit, additional full adders must be used.
Block diagram of 4- bit binary
Parallel Adder
4-bit Parallel Adder
 For 4-bit binary full adder, we require four full
adders(or three full adders and one half adder).
 The carry output of the rightmost full adder becomes
the carry input of the second full adder.
 Let the two four bit binary numbers are A3 A2 A1 A0 and
B3 B2 B1 B0 and five sum bits S3 S2 S1 S0 .
 The carry output of the leftmost full adder
becomes the MSB in the sum which is represented
by S4.
CHAPTER- 7
What is a Multiplexer (MUX)?
 A MUX is a digital switch that
Multiplexer
has multiple inputs (sources) Block Diagram
and a single output
(destination).
 The select lines determine 2N 1

MUX
Inputs Output
which input is connected to (sources) (destination)

the output.
 MUX Types N
→ 2-to-1 (1 select line)
Select
→ 4-to-1 (2 select lines) Lines
→ 8-to-1 (3 select lines)
→ 16-to-1 (4 select lines)
95
4-to-1 Multiplexer (MUX)
D0

MUX
D1
Y
D2

D3

B A

B A Y

0 0 D0

0 1 D1

1 0 D2

1 1 D3

96
Multiplexers
A B C F
0 0 0 I0
0 0 1 I1
0 1 0 I2
0 1 1 I3
1 0 0 I4
1 0 1 I5
1 1 0 I6
1 1 1 I7

MSB LSB

Z = A′.B'.C'.I0 + A'.B'.C.I1 + A'.B.C'.I2 + A'.B.C.I3 +

A.B'.C'.I0 + A.B'.C.I1 + A'.B.C'.I2 + A.B.C.I3

97
What is a Demultiplexer (DEMUX)?
 A DEMUX is a digital switch Demultiplexer
with a single input (source) Block Diagram
and a multiple outputs
(destinations).

DEMUX
 The select lines determine 1 2N
Input Outputs
which output the input is (source) (destinations)

connected to.
 DEMUX Types N
→ 1-to-2 (1 select line) Select
→ 1-to-4 (2 select lines) Lines
→ 1-to-8 (3 select lines)
→ 1-to-16 (4 select lines)
98
1-to-4 De-Multiplexer (DEMUX)
D0

DEMUX
D1
X
D2

D3

B A

B A D0 D1 D2 D3

0 0 X 0 0 0

0 1 0 X 0 0

1 0 0 0 X 0

1 1 0 0 0 X

99
Decoders
A decoder has
− N inputs
− 2N outputs
A decoder selects one of 2N outputs by decoding the
binary value on the N inputs.
The decoder generates all of the minterms of the N
input variables.

100
Decoders
W = A'.B'
Out0 W
B I0 Out1 X X = A.B'
A I1 Out2 Y Y = A'.B
Out3 Z
msb Z = A.B
Active-high outputs

A B W X Y Z
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1

101
Decoders
msb

102
Encoders
An encoder has
− 2N inputs
− N outputs
An encoder outputs the binary value of the selected (or
active) input.
An encoder performs the inverse operation of a decoder.

103
Encoders
D I0
C I1 Out0 Z
Out1 Y
B I2
A I3

A B C D Y Z
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1

104
BCD TO SEVEN SEGMENT
DECODER
 In this display device, the data which is in the BCD
format has to be changed suitably.
 For this purpose, we require a BCD to 7- segment
decoder.
 The circuit has four input lines for receiving the BCD
inputs & seven output lines i.e. a,b,c,d,e,f,g to drive a 7-
segment display.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF BCD TO 7-
SEGMENT DECODER
TRUTH TABLE OF BCD TO 7 SEVEN
SEGMENT DECODER
CHAPTER -8
What is latch ?
 A flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable
states and can be used to store state information.
 It is a sequential circuit.
 It is a temporary storage device.
FLIP FLOP
 A flip-flop is a bistable multivibrator. The circuit
can be made to change state by signals
applied to one or more control inputs and will
have one or two outputs.
 Flip Flops are sequential circuits.
 It also stores memory.
TYPES OF FLIP-FLOP
 SR flip-flop
 T flip-flop
 D flip-flop
 JK flip-flop
SR- LATCH
TRUTH TABLE OF SR-LATCH
SR FLIP FLOP
 SR Flip Flop is an arrangement of logic gates that
maintains a stable output even after the inputs are
turned off.
 This simple flip flop circuit has a set input (S) and
a reset input (R).
SR FLIP FLOP
JK FLIP FLOP
 The JK flip flop is basically a gated SR flip-flop with
the addition of a clock input circuitry that prevents the
illegal or invalid output condition that can occur when
both inputs S and R are equal to logic level “1”.
 There is no such thing as a J-K latch, only J-K flip-
flops.
 Without the edge-triggering of the clock input, the
circuit would continuously toggle between its two
output states when both J and K were held high (1),
making it an astable device instead of a bistable
device in that circumstance.
T or Toggle flip -flop
 The T or "toggle" flip-flop changes its output on
each clock edge, giving an output which is half the
frequency of the signal to the T input.
 It is useful for constructing binary counters,
frequency dividers, and general binary addition
devices.
 It can be made from a J-K flip-flop by tying both of
its inputs high.
D FLIP FLOP
 The D flip-flop tracks the input, making transitions
with match those of the input D.
 The D stands for "data"; this flip-flop stores the
value that is on the data line.
 It can be thought of as a basic memory cell. A
D flip-flop can be made from a set/reset flip-
flop by tying the set to the reset through an
inverter.
APPLICATIONS OF FLIP FLOP
 flip flop circuit mainly involves in bounce
elimination switch.
 data storage, data transfer.
 latch, registers, counters.
 frequency division, memory, etc.
APPLICATIONS OF LATCHES
 Cascading of a positive latch and negative latch
gives a negative edge-triggered flip-flop and
cascading of negative and positve latch gives a
positive edge-triggered flip-flop.
 A latch is used as a savior for scan hold timing
closure in the form of lockup latch.
 Latch is used in pipelines.
DIFFERENCE
LATCH FLIP FLOP
 Gates are the building block  Latches are the building
of the latches. block of Flip Flop.
 Latches does not have clock  Flip Flop has clock signal.
signal.  It is edge triggered.
 It is a level triggered device.  It works on the clock pulses.
 It is based on the enable
function input.
CHAPTER- 9
INTRODUCTION
 Counter is the combination of flip-flop which is used
to count the events of number of clock at input.
Depending upon the manner by mean of which the
flip-flop of counter triggered.
 There is two types of counters:
 Asynchronous Counter
 Synchronous Counter
ASYNCHRONOUS COUNTER
 Asynchronous counters are those whose output is
free from the clock signal. Because the flip flops in
asynchronous counters are supplied with different
clock signals, there may be delay in producing output.
The required number of logic gates to design
asynchronous counters is very less. So they are simple
in design.
ASYNCHRONOUS RIPPLE COUNTER
SYNCHRONOUS COUNTER
 In synchronous counters, the clock inputs of all the
flip-flops are connected together and are triggered by
the input pulses. Thus, all the flip-flops change state
simultaneously (in parallel).
3 BIT SYNCHRONOUS COUNTER
APPLICATION OF COUNTER
 DECADE COUNTER
 A decade counter is one that counts in decimal digits,
rather than binary. It counts from 0 to 9 and then
resets to zero. The counter output can be set to zero by
pulsing the reset line low. The count then increments
on each clock pulse until it reaches 1001 (decimal 9).
CIRCUIT DAIGRAM OF DECADE COUNTER
 RING COUNTER
In a computer system, the standard ring counter form is a type of counter that is
composed of a shift register, another type of counter that exists in the sequential
logic form.
UP/DOWN COUNTER
A circuit of a 3-bit synchronous up-down counter and a table of its sequence
are shown below. Similar to an asynchronous up-down counter, a
synchronous up-down counter also has an up-down control input. It is used
to control the direction of the counter through a certain sequence
RIPPLE COUNTER
A ripple counter is an asynchronous counter where only the
first flip-flop is clocked by an external clock. All subsequent
flip-flops are clocked by the output of the preceding flip-flop.
Asynchronous counters are also called ripple-counters
because of the way the clock pulse ripples it way through the
flip-flops.
CIRCUIT DAIGRAM OF RIPPLE COUNTER
CHAPTER-10
 SHIFT REGISTER
 Introduction and basic concepts including shift left
and shift right.
 (a) Serial in parallel out, serial in serial out, parallel in
serial out, parallel in parallel out
 (b)Universal shift register
 (c)Buffer register, Tristate Register
 (d)IC 7495
DEFINATION
TYPES OF SHIFT REGISTER

 SERIAL IN SERIAL OUT (SISO)

 SERIAL IN PARALLEL OUT (SIPO)
 PARALLEL IN SERIAL OUT (PISO)
 PARALLEL IN PARALLEL OUT (PIPO)
BUFFER REGISTER
Buffer registers are a type of registers used to store a binary
word. These can be constructed using a series of flip-flops as
each flip-flop can store a single bit.
CONTROLLED BUFFEER REGISTER
Buffer registers offer no means of control over the inputs which in turn
leads to uncontrolled outputs. In order to overcome this drawback one
can resort to controlled buffer registers.
 Tri-state switches are used to control the operation of
loading and/or retrieval of the data to/from the buffer
register. Here one has to pull the LD or WR control line
(blue line) low in order to store the data into the register,
while RD control line (red line) should be made low to read
the data.
BIDIRECTIONAL SHIFT REGISTER
Bidirectional shift registers are the storage devices which are capable of
shifting the data either right or left depending on the mode selected.

n-bit bidirectional shift register with serial data loading and retrieval capacity.
Initially all the flip-flops in the register are reset by driving their clear pins high.
Next R/LÌ… control line is made either low or high in order to opt for either left-
shift or right-shift of the data bits, respectively.
TRISTATE BUFFER
A tri-state buffer is similar to a buffer, but it adds an additional
"enable" input that controls whether the primary input is passed to its
output or not. If the "enable" inputs signal is true, the tri-state buffer
behaves like a normal buffer. If the "enable" input signal is false, the tri-
state buffer passes a high impedance (or hi-Z) signal, which effectively
disconnects its output from the circuit
APPLICATIONS OF SHIFT REGISTER
 (A) TIME DELAY
 (B) SERIAL/PARALLEL DATA CONVERSION
 (C) RING COUNTERS
 (D)UNIVERSAL ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER
CHAPTER- 11
WHAT IS A/D CONVERTER?
 An electronic integrated circuit which
transforms a signal from analog (continuous)
to digital (discrete) form.
 Analog signals are directly measurable
quantities.
 Digital signals only have two states. For
digital computer, we refer to binary states, 0
and 1.
WHY A/D CONVERTER IS NEEDED
 Microprocessors can only perform complex
processing on digitized signals.
 When signals are in digital form they are less
susceptible to the deleterious effects of
additive noise.
 ADC Provides a link between the analog
world of transducers and the digital world of
signal processing and data handling.
APPLICATION OF A/D CONVERTERS
 ADC are used virtually everywhere where an
analog signal has to be processed, stored, or
transported in digital form.
 Some examples of ADC usage are digital volt
meters, cell phone, thermocouples, and
digital oscilloscope.
TYPES OF A/D CONVERTERS
 Dual Slope A/D Converter
 Successive Approximation A/D Converter
 Staircase ramp or Single Slope A/D Converter
 Parallel comparator A/D Converter
DUAL SLOPE A/D CONVERTER
 Fundamental components
 Integrator
 Electronically Controlled Switches
 Counter
 Clock
 Control Logic
 Comparator
Block diagram of A/D Converter
How does it work
 A dual-slope A/D (DS-ADC) integrates an unknown
input voltage (VIN) for a fixed amount of time (TINT),
then "de-integrates" (TDEINT) using a known
reference voltage (VREF) for a variable amount of
time.
 The key advantage of this architecture over the
single-slope is that the final conversion result is
insensitive to errors in the component values. That
is, any error introduced by a component value during
the integrate cycle will be cancelled out during the
de-integrate phase.
Waveform of DS-ADC
DS –ADC ADV. & DISADVANTAGES
 ADVANTAGES
 Conversion result is insensitive
to errors in the component
values.
 Fewer adverse affects from
“noise”
 High Accuracy
 DISADVANTAGES
 Slow
 Accuracy is dependent on the use of precision external
components
 Cost
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION A/D
CONVERTER
 Uses a n-bit DAC to compare DAC and original
analog results.
 Uses Successive Approximation Register (SAR)
supplies an approximate digital code to DAC of Vin.
 Comparison changes digital output to bring it closer
to the input value.
 Uses Closed-Loop Feedback Conversion.
PROCESS OF SA-ADC
 MSB initialized as 1
 Convert digital value to analog using DAC
 Compares guess to analog input
 Is Vin>VDAC
• Set bit 1
• If no, bit is 0 and test
next bit
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SA-ADC
ADVANTAGES OF SA-ADC
Advantages
 Capable of high speed and reliable .
 Medium accuracy compared to other ADC types.
 Good tradeoff between speed and cost.
 Capable of outputting the binary number in serial.
DISADVANTAGES OF SA-ADC
Disadvantages
 ADC’s will be slower
 Speed limited to ~5Msps
COUNTER TYPE ADC
THE COUNTER TYPE ADC IS THE BASIC TYPE OF ADC WHICH
IS ALSO CALLED AS DIGITAL RAMP TYPE ADC OR STAIR CASE
APPROXIMATION ADC. THIS CIRCUIT CONSISTS OF N BIT
COUNTER, DAC AND OP-AMP COMPARATOR AS SHOWN IN
BELOW FIGURE.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
OF COUNTER TYPE ADC
Advantages
• Simple to understand and operate.
• Cost is less because of less complexity in design.

Disadvantages
• Speed is less because every time the counter has to start from ZERO.
• There may be clash or aliasing effect if the next input is sampled
before completion of one operation ost is less because of less
complexity in design.
What is a DAC?
 A digital to analog converter (DAC) converts a digital
signal to an analog voltage or current output.

100101…
DAC
Types of DACs
 Many types of DACs available.
 Usually switches, resistors, and op-amps used to
implement conversion
 Two Types:
 Binary Weighted Resistor
 R-2R Ladder
Binary Weighted Resistor
 Utilizes a summing op-amp circuit
 Weighted resistors are used to distinguish each bit
from the most significant to the least significant
 Transistors are used to switch between Vref and ground
(bit high or low)
 Binary Weighted Resistor
 Assume IdealOp-amp
Vref
 No current int op-amp
R
 Virtual ground at
inverting input 2R I Rf

 Vout= -IRf 4R
- Vout
+
2nR
 Binary Weighted
V
Resistor
Voltages V1 through Vn are either ref
Vref if corresponding bit is high or V1
ground if corresponding bit is low R
V2 2R I Rf
V1 is most significant bit
V3 4R
Vn is least significant bit - Vout
+
Vn 2n-1R

MSB

LSB
 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout = − IRf = − Rf  + + +  n -1 
 R 2R 4R 2 R
Binary Weighted Resistor
If Rf=R/2
 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout = − IRf = − + + +  n 
2 4 8 2 
For example, a 4-Bit converter yields

 1 1 1 1
Vout = −Vref  b3 + b2 + b1 + b0 
 2 4 8 16 
Where b3 corresponds to Bit-3, b2 to Bit-2, etc.
Binary Weighted Resistor
Advantages
 Simple Construction/Analysis
 Fast Conversion
Disadvantages
 Requires large range of resistors (2000:1 for 12-bit
DAC) with necessary high precision for low resistors
 Requires low switch resistances in transistors
 Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit
resolution.
R-2R Ladder
Each bit corresponds
Vref to a switch:

If the bit is high,

the corresponding
switch is connected to
the inverting input of
the op-amp.

If the bit is low, the

corresponding switch
Bit: 0 0 0 0
Vout is connected to ground.
4-Bit Converter
R-2R Ladder
Results:
Vref V1 V2 V3 1 1 1
V3 = Vref , V2 = Vref , V1 = Vref
8 4 2

 Vref Vref Vref Vref 

Vout = − R b3 + b2 + b1 + b0 
 2R 4R 8R 16 R 

Where b3 corresponds to bit 3,

b2 to bit 2, etc.
Vout
If bit n is set, bn=1

If bit n is clear, bn=0

R-2R Ladder
For a 4-Bit R-2R Ladder

 1 1 1 1
Vout = −Vref  b3 + b2 + b1 + b0 
 2 4 8 16 
For general n-Bit R-2R Ladder or Binary Weighted Resister DAC

n
1
Vout = −Vref  bn −i i
i =1 2
R-2R Ladder
Advantages
 Only two resistor values (R and 2R)
 Does not require high precision resistors
Disadvantage
 Lower conversion speed than binary weighted DAC
APPLICATIONS
 Digital Motor Control
 Computer Printers
 Sound Equipment (e.g. CD/MP3 Players, etc.)
 Electronic Cruise Control
 Digital Thermostat
CHAPTER-12
Memory Organization
 It provides spaces for storing instruction and data,
space for intermediate results and spaces for final
results.
 Memory is primarily of two types;
 (a) INTERNAL MEMORY: Primary/Main Memory And
Cache Memory.
 (b) EXTERNAL MEMORY: Secondary Storage.
INTERNAL MEMORY
 PRIMARY
Primary memory is computer memory that a processor or computer accesses first
or directly. It allows a processor to access running execution applications and
services that are temporarily stored in a specific memory location. Primary
memory is also known as primary storage or main memory

 CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that
provides high-speed data access to a processor and stores frequently used
computer programs, applications and data. It is the fastest memory in a
computer
EXTERNAL MEMORY
 The storage capacity of the main memory or the
primary memory of the computer is limited.
Sometimes we have to store millions or billions bytes
of data and primary memory of this computer is not
able to store this data. Therefore, we require additional
memory called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.
WHAT IS MEMORY?
• The ability to store and retrive the digital information in
a microcomputer system is called MEMORY.
• In past years, magnetic tape is used as memory element .
But now days, with advancement in semi-conductor
technology, semiconductor or memories of different types
and sizes are used
 MEMORY

MAGNETIC
MEMORY

SEMICONDUCTOR
MEMORY

1.MAGNETIC TAPE
1.RAM 2.FLOPPY DISK
2.ROM
3.HARD DISK
4.OPTICAL DISC
5.MAGNETIC BUBBLE MEMORY
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY
semiconductor memories are small in size, have low
cost, high speed of operation, high reliability and
memory size can be expanded according to their
requirements.
 ROM

Bipolar Rom MOS

WHAT IS ROM?
Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of storage medium that
permanently stores data on personal computers (PCs) and other
electronic devices. It contains the programming needed to start a
PC, which is essential for boot-up; it performs major input/output
tasks and holds programs or software instructions.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ROM
Address Bus Data Bus
A0-A10 ROM D0-D7

CE-CHIP ENABLE
OE-OUTPUT ENABLE
CONTROL BUS
TYPES OF ROM:-
1. Programmable Read Only
Memory[PROM]
2. Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory [EROM]
3. Electrical Erasable Programmable Memory
[EEPROM]
WHAT IS RAM?
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the hardware in a computing device
where the operating system (OS), application programs and data in
current use are kept so they can be quickly reached by the device's
processor. RAM is the main memory in a computer, and this type of
memory is volatile and all information that was stored in RAM is lost
when computer is turned off.
TYPES OF RAM
1.STATIC RAM 2.DYNAMIC RAM
SRAM (Static RAM) is random Dynamic RAM (DRAM), which
access memory (RAM) that stores bits in cells consisting of
retains data bits in its a capacitor and a transistor
memory as long as power is
being supplied.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC RAM