Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

(MEN 808)

Module Developer:

Engr. Dr Julius Thaddaeus

 Course Content
❑ Basic metal removal processes
❑ Introduction to the mechanics of the processes
❑ Economics of simple processes
❑ Introduction to machine selection, flexibility, and
automation.
❑Organization of manufacturing, process planning,
group technology, facilities layout, and production
scheduling
 CHAPTER ONE
Basic metal removal processes
1.1 Introduction
▪ Machining, also known as the metal removal process, involves the
controlled removal of unwanted material from a workpiece to achieve the
desired shape, size, and surface finish.
▪ It is widely used in manufacturing for both creating finished products and
processing raw materials.
▪ Complex parts often require multiple machining processes in combination.
▪ While machining is commonly associated with metals, it is also applied to
materials such as wood, glass, plastics, and ceramics
 Chapter One cont.
❑ Single Point Cutter vs Multi-Point Cutter
 Chapter One cont.
1.2 Classifications
▪ Machining processes can be classified into conventional machining (macro and micro),
abrasive finishing, and non-traditional machining (NTM) as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Classification of Machining Processes

 Chapter One cont.
1.2.1 Conventional Machining
▪ Also known as traditional machining in manufacturing, this process involves the use of
cutting tools to remove excess materials from a workpiece on direct contact.
 Chapter One cont.
1.2.2 Abrasive Processes
▪ Abrasive machining is a material removal process that uses abrasives—
small, hard particles such as aluminum oxide or silicon carbide—to grind
away material from a workpiece’s surface. It is highly versatile and can be
applied to various materials, including metals, ceramics, and composites.
 Chapter One cont.
1.2.3 Nontraditional Machining
▪ These machining techniques utilize heat or force for material
removal/erosion. They more are modern with high precision.
 Chapter One cont.

1.3 Chip Formation

▪ A metal chip is a fragment or piece of metal produced during
machining or metal working processes, typically due to
material removal from a workpiece.
▪ These metal chips, produced during machining processes, are
a tangible representation of the material being removed from
the workpiece, serving as a critical indicator of the cutting
process's efficiency and effectiveness
 Chapter One cont.
▪ The type of chip produced in a particular operation depends on the
following:
o properties of material cut (i.e. ductile or brittle)
o the cutting speed
o depth of cut
o feed rate
o rake angle
o type and way of application of the cutting fluid
o surface roughness of the tool face
o coefficient of friction b/w the chip and tool interface
o Temperature of the chip on tool face
o Nature of cutting i.e. continuous or intermittent
 Chapter One cont.
▪ Types of Chips
 Chapter One cont.
▪ Types of Chips
 CHAPTER TWO
Introduction to Mechanics of Machining

2.1 Tool Terminologies and Geometry

▪ The cutting tool is the key element in machining where
metal removal is required for whatsoever reason.
▪ For best output and optimum performance with minimum
efforts and work input, the cutting tool is designed in a
specific way.
▪ There are various terms associated with the design of the
cutting tool.
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ The geometry and terminology of a single point cutting tool is given:
 Chapter Two cont.
2.2 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
▪ Orthogonal and oblique cutting are two fundamental
concepts in machining and metal cutting processes.
▪ They describe the orientation and angle at which a
cutting tool engages with a workpiece material, such as
metal or wood.
▪ The main difference between orthogonal and oblique
cutting is the angle between the cutting tool and the
workpiece
Chapter Two cont.
Chapter Two cont.
 Chapter Two cont.
2.3 Turning Forces
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ The figure above represents an oblique turning force since the principal
cutting edge ab makes an angle with the direction of feed.
▪ The cutting force is R which can be resolved into three mutually
perpendicular directions:
✓In the direction of feed of the tool, represented by Fd, also called feed
force, It remains tangential to the generated surface.
✓In the direction perpendicular to feed direction, represented by Fr, also
called the thrust force. It is in radial direction and considered due to
reaction between the tool and the workpiece
✓In the vertical direction, represented by Fc, also called the main cutting
force. It is in the direction of movement of the tool.
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ Force Circle Diagram on cutting interface
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ In this orthogonal machining process, the cutting forces have two
components. Only one in the feed direction, Fd and the other in
the direction of cutting Fc. So, all discussion in this course will
focus on only two components of forces.
▪ F is the frictional resistance of the chip acting on the tool.
▪ Force N is the reaction provided by the tool, acting in a direction normal
to the rake face of the tool
▪ Force Fs is the shear force of the metal, also called the resistance of the
metal to shear in forming the chip
▪ Force Fa is normal to the shear plane, also called the backing up force
provided by the workpiece on the chip
 Chapter Two cont.
❑Forces from Merchant Theory
▪ Friction force, 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 + 𝑭𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
▪ Normal force, 𝑵 = 𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 − 𝑭𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶
▪ Shear force, 𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ − 𝑭𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
▪ Force normal to shear plane, 𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ + 𝑭𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔∅

▪ Resultant force, 𝑹 = 𝑭𝒄 𝟐 + 𝑭𝒓 𝟐 = 𝑭𝒔 𝟐 + 𝑭𝒏 𝟐 = 𝑭𝟐 + 𝑵𝟐

▪ Coefficient of friction, 𝝁 = 𝑭
𝑵
 Chapter Two cont.
❑ Stresses
▪ Shear stress is the shear strength of work material during cutting. During metal cutting, the
chips are produced due to the plastic deformation of the metal along the shear plane.

▪ On the shear plane

𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒏 𝑭𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
Normal stress, 𝝈𝒔 = = =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝑩𝒘 𝒕𝒐 𝒘

𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅

Shear stress, 𝝉𝒔 = = =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝑩𝒘 𝒕𝒐 𝒘

▪ On the tool rake face

▪𝝈 = 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
=
𝑵
𝒕𝒄 𝒘

▪𝝉 = 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
=
𝑭
𝒕𝒄 𝒘
 Chapter Two cont.
2.4 Cutting Parameters
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ Chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
=
𝑡
𝑡𝑐
Where, t = dept of cut in shaping and planning (feed, s, turning)

𝑟 ×cos 𝛼
Shear Angle, tan ∅ =
1− 𝑟×sin 𝛼

▪ Velocity ratio,
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑟. 𝑉𝑐
sin ∅
But, 𝑟 =
cos(∅−𝛼)

where, r = velocity ratio

𝑉𝑐 = cutting velocity
𝑉𝑓 = velocity of chip flow
𝑉𝑐 × sin ∅
Thus, 𝑉𝑓 =
cos ∅−𝛼

𝑉𝑐 ×cos 𝛼
𝑉𝑠 =
cos ∅−𝛼
 Chapter Two cont.
❑Energy of Cutting Process
▪ Work done, W = 𝐹𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐
where, 𝐹𝑐 = Cutting force
𝑉𝑐 = Cutting velocity
▪ Horse power required for cutting in kW,
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑡
𝑊
=
60×75×1.36
Where, 𝑃𝑜 = Gross horse power of the motor in kW
𝑃𝑡 = Tare horse power (horse power consumed while running idle)
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ Overall efficiency of machine tool,

𝑃𝑐
η𝑜 =
𝑃𝑜

Where, 𝐹𝑐 − 𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑐 − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛

❑ Stress and Strain in the Chip

▪ Shear Stress
Shear stress is the shear strength of work material during cutting.
During metal cutting, the chips are produced due to the plastic
deformation of the metal along the shear plane.
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ Shear stress acting along the shear plane is given as:
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑠
𝜏= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑠
Where, 𝐴𝑠 = area of the shear plane
𝑡𝑜 × 𝜔
𝐴𝑠 =
sin ∅

𝑡𝑜 = original chip thickness (cut depth); 𝜔: width

(feed)
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ Shear Strain (𝜀):

∆𝑠 𝐴𝐶
𝜀= =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
 Chapter Two cont.
1. The dynamometer recorded the following: feed force 200kg, cutting force
300kg. The rake angle of the tool used was 10. The chip thickness ratio
0.35. Find.
▪ Shear angle
▪ Shear force
▪ Co-efficient of friction at the chip tool interface and the friction
angle
▪ Compressive force at the shear
 Chapter Two cont.
Solution
▪ Shear angle
𝑟.cos 𝛼
tan ∅ = = 0.367
1−𝑟.sin 𝛼
Thus, ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.367 = 20.15o
▪ Shear force
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 . cos ∅ − 𝐹𝑑 . sin ∅ = 84kg
▪ Normal force
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑐 . sin ∅ + 𝐹𝑑 . cos ∅ = 288kg
 Chapter Two cont.
▪ Coefficient of friction
𝐹𝑐 .tan 𝛼+𝐹𝑑
μ= = 0.952
𝐹𝑐 −𝐹𝑑 .tan 𝛼

Thus, φ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.952 = 43.59o

2. A seamless tube 3cm outside diameter is reduced in length on a lathe with the help of a
single point cutting tool. The cutting speed is 40m/min and the depth of cut is 0.125mm.
The length of the continuous chip, for the revolution of the tube on measurement comes
to be 17.77cm. The cutting force is 200kg and the feed force is 75kg. The rake angle of
the tool is 35o
Chapter Two cont.
 Chapter Two cont.
3. During the machining of AISI-1025 steel, with 0-10-6-6-8-90-1 mm. ORS shaped tool
the following observations were taken:
▪ Feed: 0.5mm
▪ Depth of cut: 2mm
▪ Cutting speed: 40m/min
▪ Shear angle: 20o
▪ The power consumed while machining: 3kW
▪ The power consumed while running idle: 0.5kW
Calculate:
▪ The cutting force
▪ Chip thickness ratio
▪ Normal pressure on the chip
▪ Chip thickness
 CHAPTER THREE
Economic of Simple Processes
1.1 Introduction
▪ Design and operation of a manufacturing system must be based on economic
considerations. It is always desirable to perform a machining operation at
minimum possible cost but satisfying all requirements of the machined
components.
▪ In real life, a component undergoes many kinds of operations like drilling, milling,
etc. However, to understand the procedure, a simple case of single pass turning has
been described here. Although more practical case is of multipass turning.
▪ The procedure is to develop a model (or equation) for the given kind of problem,
differentiate it with respect to feed rate or cutting speed, and then solve it to
evaluate optimum cutting parameters (feed or speed)
 Chapter Three cont.
▪It is not enough to suggest a feasible procedure to
manufacture the desired component, but the procedure
should also be economically justified and there are
several variables that affect the economics of a
machining operation. These variables are:
▪tool material and tool geometry,
▪machine tool capacity (power, force, size, etc.), and
▪cutting conditions (speed, feed and depth of cut).
 Chapter Three cont.
▪ In general, the lowest cost per component consideration leads to lower
production rate. Sometimes, optimization process may give the machining
conditions which may be beyond the capabilities of the available machine tool.
Hence, in selecting the economic operating conditions, machine tool capacities
must be taken into account.
▪ If the selected conditions are not available on the machine tool proposed for a
particular operation, it is necessary to either change the operating conditions or
review the machine tool selection by cost comparison.
▪ One should not select the machine tool of the capacity higher than the desired
one. The capacity limits of a machine tool include feed, speed, power and
maximum allowable cutting force (or thrust force). Further, there may be feed
and speed constraints to achieve the desired surface finish on the component
 Chapter Three cont.
▪ A component usually requires more than one pass of cutting for completion. For
simplicity of analysis, we will analyze only a simple case of single pass turning
operation.
❑ Cost per Component, Production Rate, and Profit Rate Criteria
▪ The machining cost per component is made up of a number of different
costs. The total cost (C) of making one component (excluding material
cost) is given by
 Chapter Three cont.
(Fixed charges are not taken into account because they will not
affect optimization.)
Where, C1 = non-productive cost per component (cost of loading
and unloading the component, idle time costs and
other non-cutting time costs),
C2 = cost of machining time,
C3 = tool changing time cost,
C4 = tool cost per component,
T = tool life,
Tac = actual cutting time;
 Chapter Three cont.
𝑇𝑎𝑐
= number of tool (or cutting edge) changes per component,
𝑇

Tc = machining time,
Td = time required to change a cutting edge,
Tl = sum of all non-productive times,
x = cost rate including labor and overhead cost rates, and
y = tool cost per cutting edge.
For a brazed tool tip, the cost / cutting edge

-------------------- (3)
 Chapter Three cont.

▪For the throw away tips,

-(4)
▪ From Eq 1, it is evident that cost per component can be
reduced by decreasing the loading time, unloading time,
idle time and tool changing time (by employing improved
fixtures, jigs, inspection gauges, tool holder, etc.).
 Chapter Three cont.
Improved tool materials and tool geometry which give longer tool life values
and hence would reduce the number of tool replacements and grinding costs.
Increasing the cutting speed has opposing effects on the cost per component
because C2 decreases while the total tool costs (C3+ C4) increase (Eq 1). The
production rate is inversely proportional to the production time per
component.
The total production time per component (Tt) is given by:

-------- (5)
 Chapter Three cont.
▪ As for minimum cost, decrease in Tl and Td will increase the production
rate. Increase in cutting speed will reduce Tc but it will increase the tool
changing time per component (tool life decreases at higher cutting speed); a
minimum time per component (TT) (or maximum production rate) will
therefore result.
▪ The profit rate (Pr) is expressed by:

------- (6)
 Chapter Three cont.
▪ where, I is income per component excluding material cost and C
is cost per component excluding material cost.
▪ Using Eqs. (10.1), (10.5) and (10.6), profit rate can be written as:
 Chapter Three cont.
▪ The variables which reduce the cost per component and increase the
production rate will increase the profit rate. In general, the speed for
maximum profit rate will differ from those for minimum cost per
component and maximum production rate.
▪ The generalized tool life equation for a turning operation is given by:

------ (8)
 Chapter Three cont.
where,
T = tool life in minutes,
V = cutting speed in m/min,
f = feed in m/rev,
d = depth of cut in m, and
K, A, B = constants.
1/n, 1/n1, 1/n2 are exponents of speed, feed and depth of cut,
respectively.
▪ In the following analysis, it is assumed that machine tool, tool and work material
have been selected. The three criteria discussed above will be applied only to a
single pass turning operations.
 CHAPTER FOUR
Introduction to Machine Selection

1.1 Introduction
 Chapter Four cont.

1.1 Introduction
 CHAPTER FIVE
Organization of Manufacturing

1.1 Introduction
 Chapter Five cont.

1.1 Introduction
Thank you for
listening