DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

Dr Anita Kumari
Assistant Prof. (Guest faculty)
L.S.College
B.R.A.B.U., Muzaffarpur

Nucleic acids were first isolated by Friedrich Miescher

(1869) from pus cells.term was coined by Altman.Fisher
(1880s) discovered the presence of purine and pyrimidine
bases in nucleic acids. Watson and Crick (1953) worked out
the first correct double helix model from the X-ray photo-
graphs of Wilkins and Franklin. Wilkins, Watson and Crick
were awarded Nobel Prize for the same in 1962. Watson and
Crick proposed that DNA consisted of a double helix with
two chains having sugar phosphate on the outside and
nitrogen bases on the inner side.
The nitrogen bases of the two chains formed
complementary pairs with purine of one and pyrimidine of
the other held together by hydrogen bonds (A-T, C-G).
Complementary base pairing between the two
polynucleotide chains is considered to be hall mark of their
proposition. It is of course based on early finding of
Chargaff that A = T and С = G Their second big proposal
was that the two chains are antiparallel with 5’→ 3′ orien-
tation of one and 3’→ 5’orientation of the other.
The two chains are twisted helically just as a rope ladder
with rigid steps twisted into a spiral. Each turn of the spiral
contains 10 nucleotides. This double helix or duplex model
of DNA with antiparallel polynucleotide chains having
complementary bases has an implicit mechanism of its
replication and copying.
Here both the polynucleotide chains function as templates
forming two double helices, each with one parent chain and
one new but complementary strand. The phenomenon is
called semi conservative replication. In vitro synthesis of
DNA has been carried out by Kornberg in 1959.
Chargaff’s Rules:
Chargaff (1950) made observations on the bases and other
components of DNA. These observations or generalizations
are called Chargaff’s base equivalence rule.
(i) Purine and pyrimidine base pairs are in equal amount,
that is, adenine + guanine = thymine + cytosine. [A + G] =
[T + C], i.e., [A+G] / [T+C] = 1
(ii) Molar amount of adenine is always equal to the molar
amount of thymine. Similarly, molar concentration of
guanine is equalled by molar concentration of cytosine.
[A] = [T], i.e., [A] / [T] = 1; [G] = [C], i.e., [G] / [C] = 1
(iii) Sugar deoxyribose and phosphate occur in equimolar
proportions.
(iv) A-T base pairs are rarely equal to С—G base pairs.
(v) The ratio of [A+T] / [G+C] is variable but constant for a
species (Table 6.2). It can be used to identify the source of
DNA. The ratio is low in primitive organisms and higher in
advanced ones.

Structure of DNA:
DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a helically twisted double
chain polydeoxyribonucleotide macromolecule which
constitutes the genetic material of all organisms with the
exception of rhinoviruses. In prokaryotes it occurs in
nucleoid and plasmids. This DNA is usually circular. In
eukaryotes, most of the DNA is found in chromatin of
nucleus.
It is negatively charged due to phosphate groups. It is a long
chain polymer of generally several hundred thousands of
deoxyribonucleotides.
A DNA molecule has two un-branched complementary
strands. They are spirally coiled. The two spiral strands of
DNA are collectively called DNA duplex . Due to spiral
twisting, the DNA duplex comes to have two types of
alternate grooves, major (22 Å) and minor (12 Å).
In DNA, one turn of the spiral has about 10 nucleotides on
each strand of DNA. It occupies a distance of about 3.4 nm
(34 Å or 3.4×10-9 m) so that adjacent nucleotides or their
bases are separated by a space of about 0.34 nm (0.34×10-
9 m or 3.4 Å).

A deoxyribonucleotide of DNA is formed by cross-linking of

three chemicals ortho- phosphoric acid (H3PO4),
deoxyribose sugar (C5H10O4) and a nitrogen base. Four types
of nitrogen bases occur in DNA. They belong to two groups,
purines (9-membered double rings with nitrogen at 1,3,7
and 9 positions) and pyrimidines (six membered rings with
nitrogen at 1 and 3 positions). DNA has two types of purines
(adenine or A and guanine or G) and two types of
pyrimidines (cytosine or С and thymine or T).
Depending upon the type of nitrogen base, DNA has four
kinds of deoxyribonucleotides —
deoxy adenosine 5- monophosphate (d AMP),
deoxy guaninosine 5-monophosphate (d GMP),
deoxy thymidine 5-monophosphate (d TMP) and
deoxy cytidine 5- monophosphate (d CMP).
The back bone of a DNA chain or strand is built up of
alternate deoxyribose sugar and phosphoric acid groups.
The phosphate group is connected to carbon 5′ of the sugar
residue of its own nucleotide and carbon У of the sugar
residue of the next nucleotide by (3 ‘—5’) phosphodiester
bonds. -H of phosphate and -OH of sugar are eliminated as
H20 during each ester formation.
Phosphate group provides acidity to the nucleic acids
because at least one of its side group is free to dissociate.
Nitrogen bases lie at right angles to the longitudinal axis of
DNA chains. They are attached to carbon atom 1 of the
sugars by N-glycosidic bonds. Pyrimidine (C or T) is
attached to deoxyribose by its N-atom at 1 position while a
purine (A or G) does so by N-atom at 9 position.
The two DNA chains are antiparallel that is, they run
parallel but in opposite directions. In one chain the
direction is 5’→ У while in the opposite one it is 3′ →5′. The
two chains are held together by hydrogen bonds between
their bases. Adenine (A), a purine of one chain lies exactly
opposite thymine (T), a pyramidine of the other chain.
Similarly, cytosine (C, a pyrimidine) lies opposite guanine
(G a purine). This allows a sort of lock and key arrangement
between large sized purine and small sized pyrimidine.
It is strengthened by the appearance of hydrogen bonds
between the two. Three hydrogen bonds occur between
cytosine and guanine (C = G) at positions 1’-1’, 2′- 6′ and 6′-
2′. There are two such hydrogen bonds between adenine
and thymine (A=T) which are formed at positions 1’-3′ and
6′-4′. Hydrogen bonds occur between hydrogen of one base
and oxygen or nitrogen of the other base. Since specific and
different nitrogen bases occur on the two DNA chains, the
latter are complementary.
Thus the sequence of say AAGCTCAG of one chain would
have a complementary sequence of TTCGAGTC on the other
chain. In other words, the two DNA chains are not identical
but complementary to each other. It is because of specific
base pairing with a purine lying opposite a pyrimidine. This
makes the two chains 2 nm thick.
A purine- purine base pair will make it thicker while a
pyrimidine- pyrimidine base pair will make it narrower
than 2 nm. Further, A and С or G and T do not pair because
they fail to form hydrogen bonds between them. 5′ end of
each chain bears phosphate radical while the 3′ end
possesses a sugar residue (З’-ОН).

Sense and Antisense Strands:

Both the strands of DNA do not take part in controlling

heredity and metabolism. Only one of them does so. The
DNA strand which functions as template for RNA synthesis
is known as template strand, minus (-) strand or antisense
strand.
Its complementary strand is named nontemplate strand,
plus (+) strand, sense and coding strand. The latter name is
given because by convention DNA genetic code is written
according to its sequence.

Functions of DNA:
1. Genetic Information (Genetic Blue Print):
DNA is the genetic material which carries all the hereditary
information. The genetic information is coded in the
arrangement of its nitrogen bases.
2. Replication:
DNA has unique property of replication or production of
carbon copies (Autocatalytic function). This is essential for
transfer of genetic information from one cell to its
daughters and from one generation to the next.
3. Chromosomes:
DNA occurs inside chromosomes. This is essential for
equitable distribution of DNA during cell division.
4. Recombination’s:
During meiosis, crossing over gives rise to new combination
of genes called recombinations.
5. Mutations:
Changes in sequence of nitrogen bases due to addition,
deletion or wrong replication give rise to mutations.
Mutations are the fountain head of all variations and
evolution.
6. Transcription:
DNA gives rise to RNAs through the process of
transcription. It is heterocatalytic activity of DNA.
7. Cellular Metabolism:
It controls the metabolic reactions of the cells through the
help of specific RNAs, synthesis of specific proteins,
enzymes and hormones.
8. Differentiation:
Due to differential functioning of some specific regions of
DNA or genes, different parts of the organisms get
differentiated in shape, size and functions.
9. Development:
DNA controls development of an organism through working
of an internal genetic clock with or without the help of
extrinsic information.
10. DNA Finger Printing:
Hypervariable microsatellite DNA sequences of each indi-
vidual are distinct. They are used in identification of
individuals and deciphering their relationships. The
mechanism is called DNA finger printing.
11. Gene Therapy:
Defective heredity can be rectified by incorporating correct
genes in place of defective ones.