CHAPTER 1

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

As of March 2019, 98 nuclear power plants provide an installed electrical gener-

ating capacity of 102 GWe and account for about 20% of electricity generated in
the United States, while 448 nuclear power plants provide an installed capacity of
398 GWe worldwide. All of the nuclear power plants in the U.S. and 80∼85%
worldwide utilize light-water cooled reactors (LWRs), which may be grouped into
pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and boiling water reactors (BWRs). About
70% of LWRs operating in the U.S. and around the world are PWRs. We begin
this introductory chapter with Section 1.1 covering a brief history and the current
status of nuclear power plants (NPPs) in the United States and elsewhere. This
is followed by Sections 1.2 through 1.4 providing an introduction to the basic
operating features of the reactor core and nuclear steam supply system (NSSS)
that produce heat and steam through the self-sustaining fission process. The focus
is primarily on LWRs, which are expected to serve as the key reactor type for
the foreseeable future. Advanced reactor concepts including small and modular
reactor (SMR) designs under development are discussed in Section 1.5.

Nuclear Reactor Physics and Engineering, First Edition.

1
©
2 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

1.1 HISTORY AND CURRENT STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER

PLANTS

The development and deployment of full-scale NPPs began essentially with the
announcement in 1964 that the 625-MWe Oyster Creek power plant would be built
in Forked River, New Jersey, with an expected capital cost of ∼$100/kWe. The
capital cost would make the plant competitive with coal-fired power plants. The
plant went into commercial operation in 1969. Although there were a few smaller
NPPs that began operation earlier, the prospect of economically competitive LWR
plants made many utility companies rush to order NPPs during the next decade until
the 1978 accident at the Three Mile Island (TMI) Unit 2 plant. Approximately 300
NPP orders were cancelled during the several years following the TMI accident
due to public concerns over the safety of NPPs and the difficulty encountered in
completing construction of the plants on schedule and within the initial budget
estimates.
Approximately 100 NPPs were constructed by the 1980s and after that, no new
NPPs went into operation for two decades until 2016, when the Watts Bar Unit
2 (WB2) plant began commercial operation. The WB2 project in fact started in
1972 and was suspended in 1988 when the growth in power demand began to
decline for the Tennessee Valley Authority. Its sister unit Watts Bar Unit 1 began
operation in 1996 and was the last nuclear plant to do so in the United States
until the WB2 plant. During the decades following the TMI Unit 2 accident,
through improved operator training and by installing back-fit safety features, the
fleet of 100 NPPs provided approximately 20% of electricity in the United States
at a competitive generation cost. Beginning in the late 1970s, France adopted
the PWR technology and constructed a fleet of economically competitive NPPs
over a period of two decades, with 58 plants providing ∼75% of electricity for
the country in 2018. Several other countries, including Japan, Korea, China, and
Russia, also currently operate fleets of nuclear plants with power ratings in the
range of 500∼1200 MWe. The current fleets of NPPs operating in the United
States and elsewhere are generally known as Generation II plants, while much
smaller units, including the 60-MWe Shippingport PWR plant, 200-MWe Dresden
Unit 1 BWR plant, and 61-MWe Fermi Unit 1 sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR)
plant, are known as Generation I plants. Figure 1.1 displays the evolution of the
NPP generations.
Illustrated in Figure 1.1 are advanced LWRs including the Advanced BWR
(ABWR), System 80+, and AP600 designs classified as Generation III plants,
together with the evolutionary Generation III+ plants that offer improved safety
features and economics. Primary examples of Generation III+ plants are the 1.1-
 1.2 BASIC FEATURES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS 3

Figure 1.1 Nuclear power plant evolution. Source: [DOE02].

GWe AP1000 PWR,1 1.5-GWe ESBWR, and 1.6-GWe EPR plants, some of which
began operation in 2018. Beginning in the early 2000s, effort was initiated under
the aegis of the US Department of Energy (DOE) to develop advanced reactor
designs, labeled as Generation IV plants, that could provide enhanced safety and
economics of power generation.

1.2 BASIC FEATURES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

In the bulk of NPPs, energy released in the fission process is deposited as heat
energy initially in fuel pins enclosed in metallic tubes. This energy is eventually
transmitted through heat conduction and convection to fluid circulating through
the reactor core which is located within a steel pressure vessel, with wall thickness
of 0.17∼0.2 m. In the case of LWRs, water is used as the circulating fluid, known
as the reactor coolant. In gas-cooled reactors, pressurized gases, e.g. helium or
carbon dioxide, may serve the role of reactor coolant, while circulating liquid
metal, e.g. sodium or lead, picks up the heat in liquid-metal cooled reactors. The
CANDU (Canadian Deuterium Uranium) reactor may be cooled either with heavy
or light water.
Once the fission energy is picked up by the reactor coolant in the PWR, the
coolant circulates through a heat exchanger, where the heat is transferred from the

1 AP1000 is a trademark or registered trademark of Westinghouse Electric Company LLC, its affiliates
and/or its subsidiaries in the United States of America and may be registered in other countries
throughout the world. All rights reserved. Unauthorized use is strictly prohibited.
4 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Figure 1.2 Overall layout of a PWR plant. Source: [NRC08].

primary loop to the secondary loop, as illustrated schematically in Figure 1.2. The
heat exchanger in the PWR is known as a steam generator, since the circulating
fluid in the secondary heat-transfer loop is allowed to boil and the resulting steam
is separated from the liquid. The steam is used to turn the steam turbines and
electrical generators, thereby producing electricity. Included in the schematics in
Figure 1.2 are a pressurizer, which is essentially an extension of the primary loop
to regulate the pressure of the primary system, and a reactor coolant pump, which
circulates the reactor coolant. The circulating fluid in the secondary heat-transfer
loop is known as feedwater and the steam that exits from the turbines is condensed
into feedwater in the condenser and associated machinery. The feedwater system
reheats the condensed steam and regulates the temperature of the feedwater before
it recirculates into the secondary side of the steam generator. The heat transferred
from the steam into the condenser is eventually rejected to the atmosphere through
a cooling pond or cooling tower in a tertiary loop, which is the final heat-transfer
loop shown in Figure 1.2.
In a PWR plant, the reactor pressure vessel (RPV), coolant pump, steam genera-
tor, and pressurizer are enclosed in a concrete containment structure, built with an
inner steel liner. The plant components located within the containment building
are collectively known as the nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), while those
located outside the containment are generally known as the balance of plant (BOP).
Particular attention is given to the reliability and integrity of NSSS components,
which are subject to specific regulations and oversight by the US Nuclear Reg-
ulatory Commission. In modern BWRs employing a direct cycle, coolant water
 1.3 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS 5

circulating in the primary loop is allowed to boil inside the reactor vessel. Steam
is separated from liquid water in the reactor vessel and is used to turn the turbo-
generators, in much the same way steam extracted from the steam generators in
PWRs is used to generate electricity. Incorporation of a direct cycle in BWRs
eliminates a heat-transfer loop and allows for simplifications in the plant system
design. Production of a significant amount of steam within the reactor core, how-
ever, requires a number of special considerations for the design and analysis of
reactor core and fuel elements in BWRs.

1.3 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS

Figure 1.3, borrowed from a PWR training manual [NRC08], presents the overall
PWR system with a focus on the engineered safety features (ESFs) [Lee11] pro-
vided to handle operational transients and accident scenarios. For the primary loop,
the charging and letdown lines connected to the cold and hot legs, respectively,
of the reactor coolant system (RCS) and the safety injection (SI) pump, reactor
coolant pump (RCP), and accumulator connected to the cold leg are indicated.
The diagram also illustrates that the accumulator discharge line has a check valve,
with an arrow pointing in the flow direction and a motor-operated valve (MOV)
in a normally open position. Note also that the discharge from the accumulator
is aided by nitrogen gas pressure. Not shown in Figure 1.3 is the boron injection
tank (BIT), through which the charging pump could be routed for the injection of
boric acid to the cold leg. Together with the pressurizer discussed earlier, Figure
1.3 illustrates that the residual heat removal (RHR) system, delivering coolant to
the cold leg, may take suction from the refueling water storage tank (RWST) or
containment sump as well as from the RCS hot leg. After the reactor is shut down,
the primary system is cooled by the RHR system, which removes the heat produced
through the decay of fission products. The RHR heat exchanger in turn dissipates
heat through the component cooling water (CCW) heat exchanger. Note also that
the CCW heat exchanger itself is cooled by the service water system. Thus, similar
to the three-level heat-transfer loop structure of the plant in the normal operating
mode, the CCW and service water systems serve as the secondary and tertiary
heat-transfer loops, respectively, for the RHR system. The two MOVs connecting
the RHR charging line to the containment sump and RCS hot leg are blackened,
indicating that they are normally in a closed position.
We note also in Figure 1.3 that, as part of the primary loop, the SI pump takes
suction from the RWST via an MOV. The valve is shown in an open position,
which is not illustrative of a normal operating mode. The charging pump takes
suction normally from the chemical and volume control (CVC) tank (labeled
VCT) but may switch to the RWST as necessary. The regenerative and letdown
heat exchangers coupled to the demineralizer provides the means to cool down the
primary coolant that is discharged from the RCS hot leg and returned to the cold
 6
CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram of a PWR plant. Source: [NRC08].

 1.3 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS 7

leg via the charging line. The demineralizer and CVC system also serve to filter
out unwanted contaminants in the coolant water and maintain the desired soluble
boron concentration in the primary loop. If it becomes necessary to increase the
soluble boron concentration in an accident situation, the charging flow is switched
through the BIT before it is returned to the cold leg.
For the secondary heat-transfer loop, Figure 1.3 shows that the main feedwater
line, with a succession of hydraulic or air-operated valves (AOVs) through the
turbine and auxiliary buildings, provides feedwater to the shell of a tube-and-
shell-type steam generator so that the feedwater picks up heat from a cluster of
U-shaped tubes through which the primary coolant circulates. The main steam
line delivers hot steam from the secondary or shell side of the steam generator
to a series of high-pressure (HP) and low-pressure (LP) turbines in the turbine
building. The exhaust steam discharged from the final LP turbine is sent to the
hotwell of the steam condenser, from which the condensate and feedwater pumps
deliver the condensed water through a series of components in the condensate and
feedwater systems to the steam generator. Finally, the auxiliary feedwater (AFW)
pump takes suction from the condensate storage tank (CST). Note also a series of
main steam isolation valves (MSIVs) outside the containment but upstream of the
pipe tunnel in the auxiliary building.
Internal structures of the RPV are illustrated in Figure 1.4 including (a) fuel as-
semblies, (b) inlet and outlet coolant nozzles, (c) clustered control rod assemblies,
(d) lower and upper core plates, (e) instrumentation thimble guides, and (e) core
barrel and baffle. The number of inlet and outlet coolant nozzles depends naturally
on the number of heat-transfer loops each comprising a reactor coolant pump and
steam generator. Located inside the RPV of a PWR plant, illustrated schematically
in Figure 1.5a, is a reactor core comprising 150∼200 fuel assemblies, surrounded
by steel plates that form the flow baffle. A cylindrical barrel separates the upward
flow of coolant through the core from the inlet coolant flowing downward in the
annulus formed by the barrel and pressure vessel. The core baffle provides struc-
tural support to the fuel elements and channels the coolant water to flow primarily
through the heat-producing fuel elements. Neutron shield panels are located in
the lower portion of the vessel to attenuate high-energy gamma rays and neutrons
leaking out of the core, thereby reducing the radiation-induced embrittlement of
the vessel. Specimens to monitor radiation exposure of the vessel are also indi-
cated in Figure 1.5a. Figure 1.5b illustrates a typical PWR fuel assembly, with an
array of approximately 250 fuel rods, each consisting of a stack of UO2 pellets
loaded in zirconium-alloy tubes with a diameter of 9∼12 mm and an effective fuel
length of 3.6∼4.3 m. Other prominent structures for the fuel assembly include
the spacer grids and clustered control absorbers, usually known as the rod cluster
control (RCC) elements, inserted into the top of the fuel assembly.
A cross-section view of a set of four fuel assemblies for the AP1000 design
[Hon12,Lee11] is illustrated in Figure 1.6. The top-left and bottom-right as-
semblies indicate fuel elements with guide tubes or thimbles, while the top-right
 0306

8 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

ROD TRAVEL
HOUSING

CONTROL ROD INSTRUMENTATION

DRIVE MECHANISM PORTS

THERMAL SLEEVE
UPPER SUPPORT
PLATE
LIFTING LUG

INTERNALS CLOSURE HEAD

SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
LEDGE
HOLD-DOWN SPRING

CORE BARREL
CONTROL ROD
GUIDE TUBE
SUPPORT COLUMN
CONTROL ROD
DRIVE SHAFT

UPPER CORE
PLATE

OUTLET NOZZLE INLET NOZZLE

BAFFLE RADIAL CONTROL ROD

SUPPORT CLUSTER (WITHDRAWN)

BAFFLE

CORE SUPPORT ACCESS PORT

COLUMNS

INSTRUMENTATION REACTOR VESSEL

THIMBLE GUIDES

RADIAL SUPORT

CORE SUPPORT LOWER CORE PLATE

Figure 1.4 Cutaway view of a PWR pressure vessel illustrating key components including
Figure 3.1-4 Reactor Vessel Internals
fuel elements and supporting structures. Source: [NRC08].

and bottom-left assemblies indicate RCC assemblies with the control elements
withdrawn and inserted, respectively. The guide tubes are used to accommodate
burnable absorber elements to control both the spatial power distribution and neu-
tron reaction rates. The fuel element design features 254 fuel rods per assembly,
with a rod diameter of 9.5 mm. At the center of each assembly lies an instrumenta-
tion tube, which accommodates either fixed or movable incore detectors. It should
be noted that PWR fuel assemblies are structurally supported by a set of spacer
grids distributed over the length of fuel rods and bottom and top nozzles, allowing
for coolant flow freely moving around the fuel rods as it flows from the bottom to
 1.3 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS 9

Figure 1.5 Core and fuel assembly structure of a typical PWR plant. (a) Top view of the
reactor core, comprising fuel assemblies and other structures inside the reactor vessel and (b)
sketch of a fuel assembly illustrating fuel rods, spacer grids, rod cluster control elements, and
other components. Source: Reprinted with permission from [Tes84]. Copyright ©1984
Westinghouse Electric Corporation.

the top of the core. Any reactor physics analysis of a PWR core requires a detailed
representation of the heterogeneous structure of each fuel assembly as well as the
RCC and burnable absorber elements loaded into the guide thimbles. Methods to
represent various structures in the reactor core will be a major focus of discussion
in the subsequent chapters of the book.
The AP1000 design, as a prime example of the Generation III+ plants being
deployed in the United States and elsewhere, features a number of enhanced safety
features [Hon12,Lee11] as well as advanced fuel assembly designs accommodating
load-follow maneuver capability and improved fuel cycle characteristics. No
pumps, fans, diesel generators, chillers, or other rotating machinery are required
for the safety systems in normal operating conditions and postulated accidents.
Enhanced passive safety features include a large-volume pressurizer, obviating the
need for a power-operated relief valve (PORV), and an in-containment refueling
water storage tank (IRWST) providing gravity-driven coolant water for 72 hours
via a squib-actuated automatic depressurization system (ADS). Length of the fuel
elements is increased from traditional 3.66 m (12 ft) to 4.27 m (14 ft) with an
advanced mechanical shim (MSHIM) control system allowing for efficient control
 E-53
10 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

8.426
[214.02]
TOP GRID

.530
.245 7.936 [13.46]
FUEL ASSEMBLY
[6.22] [201.57] 11.973
DIAGONAL PITCH
TOP GRID 16 SPACES AT .496 [12.6] [304.11] AND RCCA PITCH

.495*
.058 [12.57]
[1.47]
TOP GRID ASSEMBLY WITH
1.485* ROD CLUSTER CONTROL
[37.72]

GUIDE
THIMBLE 2.970* .068
[75.44] [1.73]

.122 .040 TYP

[3.1] [1.02]
.048 TYP
[1.22] TOP AND
BOTTOM GRIDS 8.466 TYP
MID GRIDS [215.04]

FUEL ASSEMBLY WITHOUT

ROD CLUSTER CONTROL

.080 TYP
CONTROL CLUSTER ELEMENT
[2.03]
IFM GRIDS

FUEL ROD (264 PER FUEL ASSEMBLY) INSTRUMENTATION TUBE

OD = Ø.374 [9.5]
CLAD THICKNESS = .0225 [0.572]

PRIMARY DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES (NOMINAL) * GUIDE THIMBLE LOCATIONS

SECONDARY DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS AT TOP NOZZLE ADAPTER PLATE

Figure 1.6 Cross-section view of PWR fuel assemblies for the AP1000 design. Source:
[Hon12].

of power distribution and power output of the core, as discussed in Chapter Figure
16.4.2-1
The core layout otherwise maintains most of the traditional three-loop features.
Fuel Assembly Cross-Section
Four PWR plants featuring the AP1000 design started full-power operation in
2018 and 2019 in China. Four AP1000 units are also under construction in the
4.2-38
United States, with the construction expected to be completed for two Vogtle
WCAP-17524-NP March 2012
units in
Appendix E 2022, while the future for the two Summer units is unclear in 2019.
Revision 0
 1.4 BOILING WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS 11

Utility companies have been able to expedite the process of combined construction
and operating license applications with the certified design. The AP1000 design
certification process required more than two decades of development, starting with
its predecessor AP600, and a cumulative expenditure of more than $400 million
by Westinghouse Electric Company.

1.4 BOILING WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS

The schematic diagram in Figure 1.7 presents the overall BWR plant layout
[NRC08,Lee11] starting with the reactor vessel on the far left of the figure.
The main difference between the BWR layout and that of the PWR system in
Figure 1.3 is the obvious lack of the steam generator and presence of the steam-
separation equipment located in the upper region of the reactor vessel. Primary
coolant pumps, which are called recirculation pumps in BWR plants, are illus-
trated, together with the control rod drives located at the bottom of the vessel. The
control rods, in the shape of cruciform blades, are inserted through the bottom head
of the vessel to accommodate the presence of the steam separation equipment in
the upper region of the vessel. An equally important reason for the bottom-entry
control blades is to control the axial power distribution, which has to be shaped
and controlled allowing for sharp variations in the coolant density due to boiling
in the fuel region. The coolant water cleanup system, featuring a filtration and
demineralization system, cleanup pumps, and heat exchangers, is coupled to the
recirculation pumps. The BOP structure for BWR plants is fairly similar to that
of PWR plants, with one obvious difference due to the use of a direct steam cycle,
which does not require steam generators. This implies that the steam is radioac-
tive, and hence access to the turbine room has to be limited during operation. The
connections between multiple stages of HP and LP turbines are indicated in Figure
1.7. We also note the MSIVs and safety relief valves in the steam line. A number
of AOVs as well as MOVs are noted in various flow paths. The RHR system
serves as a normal shutdown cooling system and is cooled by the service water
system in the RHR heat exchanger. As an alternate feedwater delivery system,
reactor core isolation cooling pumps take suction from the condensate storage
tank and deliver feedwater in case of core isolation transients, involving the loss
of feedwater coupled with the closure of main steam-isolation valves. The RHR
system also provides the vessel head spray to the steam dome in the upper region
of the reactor vessel above the steam-separation equipment.
The BWR containment structure is illustrated in Figure 1.8 for the Mark I
system employed in Units 1 through 5 of the ill-fated Fukushima Daiichi NPPs.
Noteworthy in the figure is the primary containment building in the shape of an
inverted light bulb, known as the drywell, which houses the steel RPV with a
wall thickness of 0.15∼0.18 m. The RPV is connected through relief valves to the
pressure-suppression pool or wetwell in the shape of a torus as it is often called. The
 To HPCI Primary
Containment 24KV
12
880 MWe
to Grid
Moisture Separator/Reheater (2)
Flow HO
Restrictor AO AO HO

CIV CIV
MSIV MSIV SV CV

HO HP LP LP
MO Turbine Turbine Generator
BPV Turbine
(4)
To River
or Tower
From
Sound
SJAE

RCIC Circulating Water

Pump Pump (2)

{
STM.
To
Suppression Condensate To Offgas System
Pool Storage Makeup
Tank Water

Condensate
Reactor Demineralizers (8)
SRV Vessel Condensate SJAE
(11) Pump (2) Cond.

MO
Startup
Recirc.
Line
CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

4 Lines

Heater Drains MO
Core HPCI

Primary
Containment
Ext. Ext. Ext.
Ext. Stm. Stm. Stm.
Stm.

Recirculation Control Recirculation

Pump Rod Drives Pump

RWCU RHX
Pump
(2)
High Pressure
Feedwater Heater Feedwater Pump (2) Low Pressure Feedwater
Heaters Condensate
Booster Pump (2)
NRHX

F/D F/D Reject Water

to CST
S/U Bypass
0102

Figure 1.7 Schematic diagram of a BWR plant.

Figure Abbreviations:
1.7-1 Simplified BWRBPV = bypass
Primary valve, CV
and Auxiliary = control valve, CBP = condensate booster pump.
Systems
CP = condensate pump, F/D = filter demineralizer, HTX = heat exchanger, SRV = safety relief valve, SV = stop valve. Source: [NRC08].
 1234

1.4 BOILING WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS 13

Refueling
floor

Used fuel
Secondary pool
containment

Reactor
Primary pressure vessel
containment

Suppression pool

Figure 1.8 Cutaway view of Mark I BWR containment structure. Source: Adapted from
[NRC08].
!"#$%&'1.10-1'()%*'+',-./)".0&./

drywell consists of a 50-mm thick steel shell surrounded by 0.6∼1.8 m of reinforced

concrete. When it becomes necessary to control the steam pressure within the
reactor vessel, steam is discharged from the RPV to the wetwell, where steam is
condensed, as part of the ADS. The drywell, wetwell, and other NSSS components
are housed in a concrete structure serving as the secondary containment.
A cutaway view of BWR reactor vessel internal structures is presented in Figure
1.9, where two stages of steam-separation equipment above the core are clearly
illustrated, together with the core spray and sparger lines. The core shroud, which
provides the same function as the PWR core barrel, separates the downward flow
of coolant in the downcomer from the upward coolant water flow through the core.
In the direct-cycle BWR plant illustrated, feedwater is delivered directly to the
feedwater sparger located above the core, mixed with recirculating water through
jet pumps, and pumped to the fuel region of the core via the recirculation pumps
14 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

997-2

HEAD SPRAY
COOLING NOZZLE

REACTOR VESSEL HEAD

VESSEL HEAD STUD

DYER ASSEMBLY
LIFTING LUGS
VESSEL HEAD NUT

STEAM DRYER ASSEMBLY

STEAM OUTLET NOZZLE

STEAM DRYER AND
SHROUD HEAD ALIGNMENT
AND GUIDE RODS
SHROUD HEAD
LIFTING LUGS STEAM SEPARATOR AND
STANDPIPE ASSEMBLY
DYER SEAL SKIRT

FEEDWATER INLET
CORE SPRAY
SUPPLY HEADER FEEDWATER SPARGER

SHROUD HEAD VESSEL WALL

SHROUD HEAD
HOLD-DOWN BOLTS TOP GUIDE
SHROUD HEAD
FLOOR SUPPORT LEGS SHROUD HEAD ALIGNMENT
PINS
JET PUMP INLET ELBOW
AND NOZZLE ASSEMBLY CORE SPRAY SPARGER
JET PUMP RISER BRACE ARM FUEL ASSEMBLY
IN-CORE FLUX MONITOR
CONTROL ROD
ASSEMBLY
JET PUMP MIXER FUEL SUPPORT
RECIRCULATING WATER
CORE SHROUD
INLET NOZZLE
CORE PLATE
JET PUMP INLET RISER
JET PUMP DIFFUSER CORE DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE TAP & LIQUID
CONTROL INLET NOZZLE

RECIRCULATING WATER
OUTLET NOZZLE
VESSEL SUPPORT SKIRT
CONTROL ROD
GUIDE TUBE
VESSEL SUPPORT
RING GIRDER

IN-CORE FLUX MONITOR

HOUSING CONTROL ROD DRIVE HOUSING
SUPPORT STRUCTURE
CONTROL ROD
DRIVE HOUSING

Figure 2.1-1 Reactor Vessel Cutaway

2.1-17
Figure 1.9 Cutaway view of a BWR pressure vessel illustrating detailed coolant flow and
core spray arrangement. Source: [NRC08].
 1.4 BOILING WATER REACTOR SYSTEMS 15

located within the drywell. Steam is separated from liquid in the upper region of
the reactor vessel and delivered to steam turbines. Exhaust steam is condensed
in the condenser and returned via the feedwater system to the core, closing the
feedwater-steam loop for the BWR plant. The funnel-shaped jet pumps pick up the
downward flow of liquid, separated from steam in the steam separator and dryer
assemblies and mixed with the feedwater delivered through the feedwater sparger
and recirculating flow. The recirculation pumps located outside the RPV deliver
the mixed flow of coolant through the downcomer and eventually upward through
the core. The control rod drive and incore flux monitoring mechanisms are located
under the reactor vessel.
In BWR plants, reactivity control is primarily achieved via control blades in
the form of a cross, often known as the cruciform control blades, with the wings
loaded with tubes of neutron absorbers. A typical arrangement for the cruciform
blade inserted in the wide-wide (W-W) gap of a cluster of 2×2 BWR bundles, as
they are often called, is presented in Figure 1.10. The diagonal opposite of the
W-W corner is the narrow-narrow (N-N) corner, where an incore instrumentation
tube marked R is located. Illustrated also are the Zircaloy channel box and tie rods
introduced for structural support and water rods introduced for power distribution
and reactivity control purposes. Coolant boiling takes place within the channel box
in a BWR core, and flow outside the box in the N-N and W-W gaps is essentially
single-phase liquid. With a combination of two-phase flow within the channel box
and single-phase flow outside the box, the average coolant density in a BWR core
is maintained similar to that in a PWR core.
BWR designs evolved over the years from the plant layout illustrated in Figure
1.7 to the ABWR design where the recirculation pumps are located inside the re-
actor vessel, thereby reducing the likelihood of loss of coolant accidents (LOCAs).
The ABWR subsequently evolved into the 600-MWe Simplified BWR (SBWR)
design that eliminated the recirculation pumps altogether, relying entirely on nat-
ural circulation cooling for normal and emergency operations. The Economic
SBWR (ESBWR) [GEH14], with key safety features illustrated in Figure 1.11,
increases the power rating to 1550 MWe (4500 MWt), with natural circulation
cooling of the core achieved through the installation of a tall chimney and asso-
ciated increase in the RPV height, combined with a decrease in the active fuel
length from the conventional 3.67 m (12 ft) to 3.0 m. The increase in power output
is obtained by increasing the number of fuel assemblies from 800 and 872 for
the BWR/6 and SBWR designs, respectively, to 1132 for the ESBWR. A large
inventory of water and steam in the RPV, combined with passive safety features,
eliminates safety-grade pumps and AC power for managing postulated accidents.
The ESBWR safety-grade system [GEH14,Lee11] consists of the emergency core
cooling system (ECCS) and passive containment cooling system (PCCS). The
ECCS comprises the ADS and gravity-driven cooling system (GDCS), while the
PCCS relies on isolation and passive containment cooling condensers. Rejection
of a full load subject to a turbine trip is allowed without the need to shut down
 0299

16 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

C R

D F C

H
W Q
J
W
G
WATER

T I
L

M 18 TUBES/WING

O W
P
E FUEL ROD
W WATER RODS
S
TIE RODS

DIM. IDENT. A B C D E F G H I J
DIM. INCHES 12.0 5.215 0.2725 0.323 0.120 0.153 0.140 0.636 0.032 0.410

DIM. IDENT. K L M N O P Q R S T
DIM. INCHES 4.094 0.591 1.562 0.046 0.220 0.027 0.483 1.062 0.380 0.531

Figure 1.10 BWR fuel bundle cluster illustrating the W-W and N-N gaps. Source:
[NRC08].
Figure 2.2-7 Core Cell Cross Section

the reactor, allowing for quick power recovery from secondary-system malfunc-
tions. A noteworthy feature of the ESBWR is the basemat internal melt arrest
and coolability (BiMAC) core catcher installed below the RPV to protect the plant
in accidents resulting in containment failures. The electro-hydraulic fine-motion
control rod drive (FMCRD) system also improves the controllability and reliability
of the ESBWR plant. The ESBWR design was docketed in December 2005 for
review by the NRC and received the design certification in 2014.
 26A6642AD Rev. 10
ESBWR Design Control Document/Tier 2

1.5 ADVANCED REACTOR DESIGNS 17

Figure 1.11 Schematic diagram of the ESBWR safety system. Abbreviations: DPV
Figure 1.1-2. Safety System Configuration (not to scale)
= depressurization valve, IC = isolation condenser, SRV = safety relief valve, GDCS =
gravity-driven cooling system, PCC = passive containment cooling. Source: [GEH14].

Legend for figure:

DPV Depressurization Valve GDCS Gravity-Driven Cooling System
1.5 IC Isolation Condenser
ADVANCED PCC
REACTOR DESIGNS Passive Containment Cooling
RPV Reactor Pressure Vessel SLCS Standby Liquid Control System
SRV Safety Relief Valve
In spite of the excellent safety records of LWR plants, both PWR and BWR,
the Fukushima accidents in 2011 indicated the need to develop new reactor and
plant designs that reflect lessons learned from the current generation of power
reactors. These advanced reactor designs1.1-5 cover a number of different features
that may be classified as evolutionary in nature as well as those representing more
radical changes and providing enhanced passive safety characteristics receiving
additional attention after the Fukushima accidents. Several power plants featuring
evolutionary LWR designs include the OPR-1000/System 80+ and General Electric
ABWR that have been operating in Korea and Japan, respectively, for a number
of years, together with the AP1000 and ESBWR designs discussed in Sections 1.3
and 1.4, respectively.
18 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Together with the evolutionary Generation III+ designs, the Generation IV initia-
tive promotes innovative designs that will facilitate improved safety and high sus-
tainability, including (i) increased economic competitiveness, (ii) enhanced safety
and reliability, (iii) minimizing radioactive waste generation, and (iv) increasing
nuclear proliferation resistance. Under the leadership of the US DOE, a multi-
national study was performed to develop the Generation IV roadmap [DOE02]
and to select the six most promising systems for detailed design and development.
The DOE has selected [GIF14,TRP14] to focus on the very-high-temperature gas-
cooled reactor (VHTR), SFR, and molten-salt-cooled reactor (MSR) designs for
development in the U.S. among the six designs included in the roadmap.
The SFR, operating with neutron energies around 0.1 MeV, offers the best po-
tential for transmuting the entire transuranic elements, not just plutonium, from
the used LWR fuel inventory. The SFR design evolved from the 19-MWe Experi-
mental Breeder Reactor Unit 2 that operated for 30 years (1964–1994) at Argonne
National Laboratory in Idaho. Two SFRs, 0.25-GWe Phénix and 1.2-GWe Super-
phénix, operated in France for 1973–2009 and 1986–1998, respectively. Several
modular SFR plant designs, including the S-PRISM design [Boa99], were also
proposed. The pool-type SFR plant illustrated in Figure 1.12 features a flat core
immersed in a large pool of molten sodium, serving as the primary coolant, and
an intermediate heat exchanger. The intermediate heat exchanger would provide
a barrier between the radioactive sodium pool and the steam cycle employed for
power generation. Fuel elements as illustrated in Figure 1.13 are structured in
hexagonal arrays to allow tight coupling with a small sodium coolant volume
fraction to retain a fast neutron flux spectrum with an average neutron energy of
∼0.1 MeV. The design includes two driver regions surrounded by the reflector
and shield regions, together with the primary control and secondary shutdown
systems. The core is configured in a flat pancake structure to enhance the axial
neutron leakage. Gas expansion modules are located near the periphery of the core
to promote neutron leakage and help avoid the potential for a positive sodium void
coefficient, discussed further in Chapter 14.
Figure 1.14 illustrates a dual-purpose VHTR design with hexagonal fuel blocks,
with a He-water steam generator providing high-temperature steam and hydrogen
in a co-generation plant. The VHTR design has the capacity to heat the He coolant
to temperatures in excess of 1100 K, suitable for the generation of hydrogen via
dissociation of water. The graphite-moderated gas-cooled core layout in Figure
1.15 features central and side reflectors surrounding the hexagonal fuel blocks. The
VHTR design offers additional safety measures associated with multiple pyrolytic
carbon coatings in the 1-mm diameter tristructural-isotropic (TRISO) particles that
form the basic building block for the core. The prismatic fuel block comprises fuel
pin cells or compacts, which are packed with TRISO fuel particles as illustrated
in Figure 1.16. The VHTR was demonstrated successfully in the 0.33-GWe Fort
St. Vrain plant, featuring a prestressed concrete reactor pressure vessel (PCRV),
which operated during 1979–1989. In the alternate pebble bed reactor (PBR)
extend to electricity production, given the proven
capability of sodium reactors to utilize almost all of the
Two fuel options exist for the SFR: (1) MOX and (2)
energy in the natural uranium versus the 1% utilized in
mixed uranium-plutonium-zirconium metal alloy
thermal spectrum systems.
(metal). The experience with MOX fuel is considerably
A range of plant size options are available for the SFR, more extensive than with metal.
ranging from modular systems of a few hundred MWe to
SFRs require a closed fuel cycle to enable their advanta-
large monolithic reactors of 1500–1700 MWe. Sodium-
geous actinide management and fuel utilization features.
core outlet temperatures are typically 530–550ºC. The
There are two primary fuel cycle technology options: (1)
primary coolant system can either be arranged in a pool
an advanced aqueous process, and (2) the pyroprocess,
layout (a common approach, where all primary system
which derives from the term, pyrometallurgical process.
components are housed in a single vessel), or in a
Both processes have similar objectives: (1) recovery and
compact loop layout, favored in Japan. For both options,
recycle of 99.9% of the actinides, (2) inherently low
there is a relatively large thermal inertia of the primary
decontamination factor of the product, making it highly
coolant. A large margin to coolant boiling is achieved
radioactive, and (3) never separating plutonium at any
by design, and is an important safety feature of these
stage.1.5
These fuel cycleREACTOR
ADVANCED technologies must be adaptable
DESIGNS 19
systems. Another major safety feature is that the pri-

A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems

003N4516 Rev. 2
Figure 1.12 Sodium-cooled fast reactor
Non-Proprietary plant.– Source:
Information [DOE02].
Class I (Public)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Zone 1 Driver 54

Zone 2 Driver 45

Control 6

Secondary Shutdown 1

Gas Exp. Module 3

Reflector 42

Shield 102

Total 253

Baseline Core Summary

Figure 1.13 Top view of the reactor core of a SFR plant. Source: [Pet16].
Cycle length (months) 18
Conversion ratio 0.76
Average fuel burnup (MWd/kg) ~70
Peak fuel burnup (MWd/kg) ~100
Average power density (MW/m3) ~200
Avg. total neutron flux (1015 n/cm2-s) ~2
Avg. fast neutron flux (1015 n/cm2-s) ~2
Peak total neutron flux (1015 n/cm2-s) ~4
Peak fast neutron flux (1015 n/cm2-s) ~3
Irradiation Volumes
Active core height (baseline core) 40 in
Irradiation volume per assembly (baseline active core region) ~0.6 ft3
Irradiation volume per assembly (pin region) ~3 ft3
48

Very-High-Temperature Reactor System of process heat at different temperatures, including

R&D hydrogen generation for upgrading heavy and sour crude
oil. Core outlet temperatures higher than 1000°C would
VHTR Description enable nuclear heat application to such processes as
The VHTR is a next step in the evolutionary develop- steel, aluminum oxide, and aluminum production.
ment of high-temperature gas-cooled reactors. The The VHTR is a graphite-moderated, helium-cooled
VHTR can produce hydrogen from only heat and water reactor with thermal neutron spectrum. It can supply
by using thermochemical iodine-sulfur (I-S) process or nuclear heat with core-outlet temperatures of 1000°C.
from heat, water, and natural gas by applying the steam The reactor core type of the VHTR can be a prismatic
reformer technology to core outlet temperatures greater block core such as the operating Japanese HTTR, or a
than about 1000°C. A reference VHTR system that pebble-bed core such as the Chinese HTR-10. For
produces
20 hydrogen
CHAPTERis shown below. APOWER
1: NUCLEAR 600 MWthPLANTS electricity generation, the helium gas turbine system can
VHTR dedicated to hydrogen production can yield over be directly set in the primary coolant loop, which is
2 million normal cubic meters per day. The VHTR can called a direct cycle. For nuclear heat applications such
alsodesign,
generate electricity
the TRISO with high efficiency,
particles areover 50% intoasgraphite
packed process heat for refineries,
spheres withpetrochemistry,
a diameter metal-
of 60
at 1000°C, compared with 47% at 850°C in the GT- lurgy, andreactor
hydrogenvessel.
production, the heat application
mm, which are then loaded and
MHR or PBMR. Co-generation of heat and power makes circulated in the The concept was
process is generally coupled with the reactor through an
the VHTR an attractivein
demonstrated heat source
the for largeArbeitsgemeinschaft
15-MWe industrial Versuchsreaktor (AVR) during
intermediate heat exchanger (IHX), which is called an
complexes. The VHTR can be deployed in refineries indirect cycle.
1967–1988 in Germany.
and petrochemical industries to substitute large amounts

Figure 1.14 Very-high-temperature reactor plant. Source: [DOE02].

The MSR design illustrated in Figure 1.17 offers the potential use of flexible
fuel and coolant compositions, with a high thermal efficiency. A popular fluoride
coolant considered
A Technology Roadmap forfor the MSR
Generation design Energy
IV Nuclear is FLiBe (LiF-BeF2 ), with several alternate
Systems
fuel designs [Pet16] typically featuring a graphite core, illustrated in Figure 1.18.
Fuel dissolved in the molten salt as well as TRISO particles discussed for the
VHTR design have been considered for the MSR design. A direct reactor auxiliary
cooling system (DRACS) is considered as part of the passive reactor cooling
system and is included in the design illustrated in Figure 1.18. The concept
benefits from the design and operating experience of the 7.4-MWt Molten Salt
Reactor Experiment (MSRE) [Hau70] that operated for five years (1964–1969) at
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and is perhaps a design that requires additional
development before commercial deployment could be considered.
The key design features of the three promising Generation IV NPP designs are
compared in Table 1.1 to augment the graphical illustrations in Figures 1.12–
1.18. A systematic comparison of reactor physics, thermal hydraulics, and safety
characteristics of three major reactor types, LWR, SFR, and VHTR, is presented
in Appendix B.
 graphite fuel elements. This provides high-burnup capability (~15%) and excellent
retention.

The reactor produces superheated steam at 566°C and 16.7 MPa. The reactor
two helical coil steam generators in parallel. A shutdown cooling system is also ava
during maintenance. A natural circulation reactor cavity cooling system provides co
cavity under all operating and accident conditions. Table 3 summarizes key param
this baseline design for the module shown in Figure 4.
1.5 ADVANCED REACTOR DESIGNS 21

Figure 1.15 Top view inside the reactor vessel of a VHTR plant. Source: [Pet16].

Figure 1.16 TRISO particle, pin cell, and prismatic fuel assembly for the VHTR plant.
Source: [DOE02].

With the realization that the new AP1000 plants under construction at the Vogtle
and Summer plants in the United States would incur large capital investments on
Figure
the order of 4.
$8.0SC-HTGR core
billion for each cross section
unit, significant andunderway
effort is also primary circuit layout.
to develop
small and modular reactors (SMRs) that would require much smaller initial capital
outlay per unit, with the 60-MWe NuScale design [Doy16] as a primary example.
The commercial
Each 60-MWe SC-HTGR
module illustrated plant
in Figure 1.19 contains
features PWR fuel one or more
elements 2.0 standard reactor modu
mstandardized
in length, compactreactor modules
helical-coil best leverages
steam generators, and a reactor the
vesselsubstantial
inside an investments in design
integrated containment vessel and relies on natural circulation cooling for normal
fabrication
operation capability
and passive shutdown. toThe
minimize deployment
NuScale containment cost.
vessel In theto all-electric mode, the plan
is designed
beRankine cycle with
25 m tall, compared a net
with the 82-mefficiency of 43.5%.
AP1000 containment structure [Cho19]. In-

31
 sure, reducing stresses on the vessel and piping
MSR Description
• Inherent safety is afforded by fail-safe drainage,
The MSR produces fission power in a circulating molten passive cooling, and a low inventory of volatile
salt fuel mixture [an MSR is shown below]. MSRs are fission products in the fuel
fueled with uranium or plutonium fluorides dissolved in
a mixture of molten fluorides, with Na and Zr fluorides • Refueling, processing, and fission product removal
as the primary option. MSRs have the following unique can be performed online, potentially yielding high
characteristics, which may afford advances: availability

• MSRs have good neutron economy, opening alterna- • MSRs allow the addition of actinide feeds of widely
tives for actinide burning and/or high conversion varying composition to the homogenous salt solution
without the blending and fabrication needed by solid
• High-temperature operation holds the potential for fuel reactors.
thermochemical hydrogen production

22 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Figure 1.17 Molten-salt reactor plant. Source: [DOE02].

Table 1.1 Key features of three Generation IV plants.

SFR VHTR
A Technology MSREnergy Systems
Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear
Fast spectrum, closed fuel High He outlet temperature Low pressure, high thermal
cycle, TRU transmutation facilitating H production efficiency with fluoride salt
Enhanced resource utilization Improved overall economics Generation of electricity and H
Pyrometallurgical processing Pebble bed or prismatic design Closed fuel cycle possible
Need to reduce cost for Need to develop heat-resistant Need to develop improved
intermediate heat exchanger fuel and materials for 1273 K corrosion-resistant materials

corporating advanced passive safety features in new innovative designs, the SMRs
may offer meaningful alternatives to the full-size AP1000 and ESBWR designs,
especially in regions with smaller energy markets. Realization of the goals enun-
ciated for the Generation IV initiatives will present new challenges to nuclear
engineers. Power plant designs, including fuel, coolant, and engineered safety
systems, should be optimized systematically with energy-generation cost under
 1.5 ADVANCED REACTOR DESIGNS 23

Figure 1.18 Top view inside a MSR reactor vessel. Source: [Pet16].

Figure 1.19 Schematic illustration of the NuScale module. Source: [NRC17]

24 CHAPTER 1: NUCLEAR REACTOR PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING

consideration. Methods for determining nuclear electricity generation costs are

discussed in Chapter 15. Nuclear power plants operating in the United States have
achieved an impressive record of safe operation and low electricity generation cost
in recent years, especially as a result of the formation of large operating companies
comprising multiple nuclear plants each. This does not, however, guarantee contin-
ued operation of nuclear plants in the current deregulated merchant-fleet structure,
as exemplified by recent decisions to decommission several nuclear plants with
operating licenses remaining, e.g. the Kewaunee and Vermont Yankee plants. It
appears imperative to reevaluate the rate structure for the electric market in the
United States, in light of the increasing need for carbon-free, base-load energy
sources around the world.

References

[Boa99] C.E. Boardman, A. Fanning, D. Carroll, A. Dubberley, and M. Hui, “A

Description of the S-PRISM Plant,” Proc. 8th Int. Conf. Nucl. Eng. (ICONE-8)
(1999).
[Cho19] A. Cho, “The Little Reactors That Could,” Science 363, 806 (2019).
[DOE02] A Technology Roadmap for the Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems,
https://www.gen-4.org/gif/jcms/c40473/a-technology-roadmap-for-generation-iv-
nuclear-energy-systems (2002).
[Doy16] J. Doyle, B. Haley, C. Fachiol, B. Galyean, and D.T. Ingersoll, “Highly
Reliable Nuclear Power for Mission-Critical Applications,” Proc. Int. Cong. Adv.
Nucl. Power Plants (ICAPP) (2016).
[GEH14] GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy, “ESBWR Design Control Document, Tier
2,” 26A6642AD, rev. 10 (2014).
[GIF14] Technology Roadmap Update for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems,
https://www.gen-4.org/gif/upload/docs/application/pdf/2014-03/gif-tru2014.pdf
(2014).
[Hau70] P.N. Haubenreich and J.R. Engel, “Experience with the Molten-Salt Re-
actor Experiment,” Nucl. Appl. Technol. 4, 118 (1970).
[Hon12] M. Hone, S. Skidmore, M. Misvel, and E. Resch, “AP1000 Core Reference
Report,” WCAP-17524-NP, Westinghouse Electric Company (2012).
[Lee11] J.C. Lee and N.J. McCormick, Risk and Safety Analysis of Nuclear Sys-
tems, Wiley (2011).
[NRC08] US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “NRC Reactor Systems Training
Manual” (2008).
[NRC17] “Design Certification Application - NuScale,” www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-
reactors/design-cert/nuscale.html (2017).
[Pet16] D. Petti, R. Hill, and J. Gehin, “Advanced Demonstration and Test Reactor
Options Study,” INL/EXT-16-37867, rev. 1, Idaho National Laboratory (2016).
 PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 1 25

[Tes84] D. Testa, ed., The Westinghouse Pressurized Water Reactor Nuclear Power
Plant, Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1984).
[TRP14] US Department of Energy, “Advanced Reactor Concepts Technical Re-
view Panel Public Report” (2014).

Problems

1.1 Study the Generation IV Roadmap and prepare a comprehensive comparison

of the key features of the six concept groups selected. Discuss how the concepts
satisfy the five objectives and goals of Generation IV designs.
1.2 Tabulate and compare the key safety features that should be enhanced for the
six Generation IV concept groups.
1.3 Discuss the key technology developments that are required for successful
development and deployment of the Generation IV groups selected.