A Grammar of Anong

Brills Tibetan Studies Library

Edited by

Henk Blezer Alex McKay Charles Ramble

Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region

Edited by

George L. Van Driem

VOLUME 5/9

A Grammar of Anong
Language Death Under Intense Contact

By

Hongkai Sun and Guangkun Liu

Translated, annotated, and supplemented by

Fengxiang Li Ela Thurgood Graham Thurgood

LEIDEN BOSTON 2009

On the cover: Picture by Hongkai Sun. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sun, Hongkai. [Anong yu yan jiu. English] A grammar of Anong : language death under intense contact / by Hongkai Sun and Guangkun Liu ; translated, annotated, and supplemented by Fengxiang Li, Ela Thurgood, Graham Thurgood. p. cm. (Brills Tibetan studies library ; vol. 5/9) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-17686-7 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Tulung language. 2. Tulung (Tibeto-Burman people)ChinaLanguages. I. Liu, Guangkun. II. Li, Fengxiang. III. Thurgood, Ela. IV. Thurgood, Graham. V. Title. PL3801.T85S8513 2009 495.4dc22 2009029138

ISSN: 1568-6183 ISBN: 978 90 04 17686 7 Chinese edition: Copyright 2005 Sun Hongkai and Guangkun Liu. [nng hu jnji = A description of Anong], (New Found Minority Languages of China). Beijing: Institute of Minority Studies. English (this) edition: Copyright 2009 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands

CONTENTS Preface to the English Edition ........................................................... Original Preface ................................................................................... Abbreviations ...................................................................................... Chapter One Introduction ............................................................. 1.1. The Anong People .................................................................. 1.2. Population Distribution ........................................................ 1.3. Legends about the Origin of the Anong People ................. 1.4. Social and Economic Conditions ......................................... 1.5. Traditions ................................................................................ 1.5.1. Dwelling ....................................................................... 1.5.2. Diet and Food Sources ............................................... 1.5.3. Marriage and Family .................................................. 1.5.4. Burial ............................................................................. 1.5.5. Religion ......................................................................... 1.6. The Language of the Anong People ..................................... 1.6.1. Research on Anong ..................................................... 1.6.2. Anong Language Use .................................................. 1.6.3. Analysis of Anong Attrition ...................................... 1.7. Other Related Issues .............................................................. 1.7.1. The Anong of China Have no Writing System ....... 1.7.2. Attrition under Intense Contact ............................... 1.7.3. Problems with Mutual Intelligibility among the Nu Chapter Two Phonology ................................................................. 2.1. Initial Consonants .................................................................. 2.1.1. Single Consonants ....................................................... 2.1.2. Single Initial Consonants ........................................... 2.1.3. Consonant Clusters .................................................... 2.2. Vowels and Finals .................................................................. 2.2.1. Simple Vowels ............................................................. 2.2.2. Simple Vowels without Codas .................................. 2.2.3. Nasalized Vowels ........................................................ 2.2.4. Vowel Sequences ..................................................... 2.2.5. Vowels with Codas ...................................................... ix xi xiii 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 12 16 16 16 17 19 19 19 21 22 23 23 25 25 26 27

vi

contents 2.3. Tones and Remnants of Tone Sandhi ................................. 2.4. Syllables .................................................................................... 30 30 33 33 35 35 40 41 43 44 50 51 52 52 55 55 55 60 67 72 76 94 98 100 107 108 110 113 113 117 118 123 124 124 126

Chapter Three Lexicon ................................................................... 3.1. Basic Characteristics of Words in Anong ........................... 3.2. Lexical Classification .............................................................. 3.2.1. Classifying Words According to Their Origins .... 3.2.2. Word Formation ....................................................... 3.2.3. Semantic Classification ............................................ 3.3. Word Formation Processes ................................................... 3.3.1. Derivation .................................................................. 3.3.2. Compounding ........................................................... 3.3.3. Four-syllable Eleborate Expressions ....................... 3.3.4. Reduplication ............................................................ 3.3.5. Imitation .................................................................... Chapter Four Syntax ....................................................................... 4.1. Parts of Speech (Morphological Categories) ...................... 4.1.1. Nouns ......................................................................... 4.1.2. Numerals .................................................................... 4.1.3. Classifiers and Measure Words .............................. 4.1.4. Pronouns .................................................................... 4.1.5. Verbs ........................................................................... 4.1.6. Adjectives ................................................................... 4.1.7. Adverbs ...................................................................... 4.1.8. Particles ...................................................................... 4.1.9. Conjunctions ............................................................. 4.1.10. Mood Particles ........................................................... 4.1.11. Interjections ............................................................... 4.2. Syntax ....................................................................................... 4.2.1. Word Order and Sentential Constituents ............. 4.2.2. Simple Sentences ....................................................... 4.2.3. Complex Sentences ................................................... Chapter Five The Restructuring of Anong .................................. 5.1. The Restructuring of the Lexicon ........................................ 5.1.1. The Rapid Increase in Loanwords .......................... 5.1.2. Differences among Anong Speakers Knowledge of the Lexicon ............................................................

contents 5.2. Phonological Changes ........................................................... 5.2.1. Development of Complex Vowels and Nasalized Vowels ........................................................................... 5.2.2. Loss of Consonant Clusters ....................................... 5.2.3. The Loss of Retroflex Consonants ............................ 5.2.4. The Emergence of Laryngealized Vowels ................ 5.2.5. Development of the 33 Tone ..................................... 5.2.6. Allophonic Variation .................................................. 5.3. Grammatical Restructuring .................................................. 5.3.1. Plural Marking on Nouns .......................................... 5.3.2. Possessives .................................................................... 5.3.3. Changes in the Numeral System ............................... 5.3.4. Person Marking on Verbs .......................................... 5.3.5. Causatives ..................................................................... 5.3.6. Grammatical Particles ................................................ 5.3.7. The Copulas ................................................................. 5.3.8. Stories and Texts ......................................................... Chapter Six Anong in Tibeto-Burman ......................................... 6.1. Anong as a Separate Language ............................................. 6.1.1. Sound Comparisons ................................................... 6.2. Lexical Comparison ............................................................... 6.3. Grammatical Comparison .................................................... 6.3.1. Plural Marking ............................................................ 6.3.2. Nominal Diminutives ................................................. 6.3.3. Possessives .................................................................... 6.3.4. Classifiers and Measure Words ................................. 6.3.5. The Formation and Characteristics of Reflexives ... 6.3.6. Verbal Grammatical Categories ................................ 6.3.7. Case Marking Particles ............................................... 6.4. The Position of Anong in Tibeto-Burman ......................... 6.4.1. Phonological Features ................................................ 6.4.2. Morphological Characteristics .................................. 6.4.3. Grammatical Characteristics ..................................... 6.5. Conclusion .............................................................................. References ........................................................................................

vii 127 128 129 130 131 132 132 135 135 136 136 137 139 140 141 142 143 143 144 153 156 157 157 158 159 160 160 164 166 168 171 173 176 177

viii Appendices Appendix A

contents

The Anong lexicon .................................................... 181 325 325 332 342 357 357 357 358 360 361 362 364 364 365 366 369 373 378 378 381 388 388

Appendix B Texts ............................................................................ Text One: Crossbows ..................................................................... Text Two: Overhead Cables and Boats ....................................... Text Three: Pythons ....................................................................... Appendix C An acoustic look at Anong ....................................... 1. Introduction ............................................................................... 1.1. Anong Data ........................................................................ 2. Vowels ......................................................................................... 2.1. Vowel Raising .................................................................... 2.2. Apical Vowel // ................................................................ 2.3. Nasal and Nasalized Vowels ............................................ 2.4. Influence of Lisu on the Anong Vowel System ............. 2.5. Summary ............................................................................ 3. Consonants ................................................................................. 3.1. Variation in Consonant Production .............................. 3.2. Voice Onset Time ............................................................. 3.3. Coronal Contrasts ............................................................ 4. Tones and Tense-Modal Register ........................................... 4.1. Tones ................................................................................... 4.2. Tense-Modal Register ....................................................... 5. Conclusions ................................................................................ References ........................................................................................

Index ..................................................................................................... 391

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION This volume evolved out of a National Science Foundation Grant that Professsor Sun Hongkai participated in. As part of his contribution to the grant, Sun Hongkai and Guangkun Liu wrote a grammar of Anong. This book is a translation of that grammar, but differs from the Chinese version in several ways. Most of them are minor, such as the differences between Chinese and English linguistic terminology; here, the consequences of these differences have been relatively small. The intent was always clear from the examples. A second difference lies in the considerably expanded lexicon, which includes all the known Anong forms: Suns original lexicon was a version of the standard lexicon found at the end of various grammars in this particular genre. We have included not just the forms in the original but all the forms found in the book and the accompanying texts as well as all the forms in Suns other wordlists. Annotation through footnotes is found scattered throughout the text. Suns original footnotes, a mere handful, have been incorporated into the text. Thus, all the footnotes in this English version are our own commentssomething Sun invited us to do. More substantial is the appendix by Ela Thurgood, which provides an instrumental acoustic analysis of Anong based on some of Suns recorded material. Finally, various references have been updated and occasionally new ones added. This translated, annotated, and supplemented English version is a joint effort by Li Fengxiang, Ela Thurgood, Graham Thurgood, and, of course Sun Hongkai, who generously answered our numerous questions. The overwhelming bulk of the translation was done by Fengxiang, with small pieces here and there done by Graham (but always checked by Fengxiang). The instrumental analysis in the appendix is the work of Ela. The bulk of the editing was done by Graham as was the preparation of the manuscripts, including the lexicon and the texts. All contributors helped with the proofing of the texts, a tedious but necessary task. Randy LaPolla provided valuable information on Trung and Rawang, David Bradley generously supplied valuable information on Anong, especially on the Anong of Myanmar. We thank them both for their help.

ORIGINAL PREFACE Research on the Anong language began in 1960, already more than 40 years ago. I recall investigating Anong for the first time. I was full of energy as the young lad I was, but now my head is completely silver. It is humbling to realize that 40 years has failed to sharpen my mind. The completion of the Anong manuscript has lifted a heavy burden on me. However, when I recall the many people who helped me in this undertaking, such as the Nu ethnic elders, cadres, and many others, an overwhelming sense of heavy-heartedness came upon me. They all treated me with such warmth. When I said goodbye to them at the end of my fieldwork trip in 2003, they presented me with a crossbow as a gift, which is the most coveted possession of a Nu male, a gesture to tell me that they considered me a member of their own. I want to thank Hn Wnjn, Yn, Li Shon, Fn Gup, and Wng Jmn as well as many other Nu elders, cadres, and intellectuals. Every time I went to the area to investigate Nu languages, they helped me in every way possible. Without their help, I could not have completed the research and writing of this book. Except for twice when I entered the Nujiang valley by myself, on all the rest of the trips to investigate the languages spoken by the Nu ethnic group, I had other colleagues working together with me, climbing hills and fording streams. Du J was with me on the 1960 fieldwork trip. On the 1965 trip, Li L was with me. Zhng Jn and D Rumng went with me on the 1987 trip. Hung Chnglng and Zhu Moco joined me on the 1995 trip. Yng Jingli ng was with me on the 1999 trip. And in 2003, Li Gungkn was with me. To these people, I owe my heart-felt gratitude. I have received support from many organizations to cover the expenses incurred in the many fieldwork trips and research I have undertaken over the years. Among those supporting this work are Research Institute of Minority Languages of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Key Projects Fund of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Chinese National Social Science Research Foundation, the Hong Kong City University Research Foundation, the United Nations UNESCO Endangered Languages

xii

original preface

Endowment, and the United States National Science Foundation (NSF). I would like to thank all of them for their support. This book was completed at California State University, Chico. Professor Li Fngxang (Frank Li) and Professor D Gunmng (Graham Thurgood) not only applied for and obtained the National Science Foundation (NSF) grant that partly supported this work, but also invited us to come to the United States to write the book. For four months of intense, day-and-night work, they not only set up a good working environment but also helped and cared for us. We were touched and will always remember this incredible experience. Finally, I want to convey my heart-felt thanks to my wife and collaborator Li Gngkn. She not only proof read and verified every page of the manuscript, correcting every error and omission, but also built the word list and accompanied me on the fieldwork trips, helping and taking care of me. We have been with each other for almost 50 years now. She shares credit for every accomplishment I have had. Sun Hongkai Chico, CA United States May 26, 2004

ABBREVIATIONS 1sg 1p 2p 3p 2sg 3sg abl adv agt appr asp asp caus clf com conj cop dat def dim dir do du excl exp fut.fh fut.hs imp inch incl ind instr inter io loc First person singular First person Second person Third person Second person singular Third person singular Ablative Adverb(ial) Agent Approximative Aspect Aspect Causative Classifier Comitative Conjunction Copula Dative Definite Diminutive Directional Direct object Dual Exclusive Experiential Future first-hand Future hearsay Imperative Inchoative Inclusive Indicative Instrumental Interjection Indirect object Locative

xiv neg nom npst obj opt ov p pass pl poss prf prt pst redup rec refl rq sg sov suf sup svo temp vo voc

abbreviations Negation Nominalizer Non-past Object Optative Object-Verb Pronoun; Pronominal Passive Plural Possessive Prefix Particle Past Reduplication Reciprocal Reflexive Rhetorical question Singular Subject-Object-Verb Suffix Supplicative Subject-Verb-Object Temporal Verb-Object Vocative

The research in this paper is supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant No. 60232 Endangered Languages in China. Sun Hongkai, along with Li Fengxiang and Graham Thurgood, were participants in the grant.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION 1.1. The Anong People The Anong people are a subgroup of the Nu ethnic group (nationality). Their autonym is a31nu35. The Nu ethnic group has four components: Nusu, Zauzou, Trung, and Anong. The four groups speak four different languages, namely, Nusu, Zauzou, Trung, and Anong. Linguistically, both Nusu and Zauzou belong to the Yi subgroup of the Lolo-Burmese branch of Tibeto-Burman while Anong and Trung are part of the Jingpo branch.1 The most populous group is Nusu with about 12,000 people distributed over Lshui and Fgng counties in the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province; it has three dialects with major differences between them. Zauzou is the smallest of the four groups with a little over 2000 people distributed mainly in Lnpng County with a few in Lshui County in the Nujiang2 Lisu Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province; it has only minor differences among its sub-dialects.
Table 1: The Nu ethnic group autonym Nusu Anong language name Nusu ( Ns) Anong ( Anng) language subgroup Lolo-Burmese (= Yi) Jingpo subgroup number of speakers 12,000 380 3 diverse dialects also in Burma

1 Suns Jingpo subgroup is controversial; however, the lower level group consisting of Trung (Dlng), Anong, and Rawang is not. LaPolla refers to this group at times as Dlng-Anong-Rawang and at times as Nungish. We have replaced LaPollas use of Dlng, a Mandarin name, with the autonym Trung, but otherwise it is the same group. Both Nungish and Trung-Anong-Rawang work fine for linguistic purposes. We reserve Nu for the ethnic group, a group that both speakers of Trung-Anong-Rawang languages and speakers of linguistically quite distinct Lolo-Burmese languages. 2 The Nujiang is sometimes called the Nujiang Riverin English, despite the fact that jiang itself means river in Chinese.

2
Table 1 (cont.) autonym Anong Zauzou language name Trung ( Dlng) Zauzou ( Ruru)

chapter one

language subgroup Jingpo subgroup Lolo-Burmese (= Yi)

number of speakers 6500 2200 minor differences; a Trung dialect sub-dialectal differences

Two groups call themselves Anong. Distinct from the Anong described in this book are the Trung, who consist of about 6000 speakers residing in Gngshn County and the Bingzhnglu area in the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province. Their autonym is a31nu35. Investigation reveals that another group also designating themselves as Anong live in Gngshn County; they are very closely related to Trung. Their language is a dialect of Trung, which can be called the Nujiang dialect of Trung. This Nujiang dialect of Anong language is very similar to Trung; it is basically mutually intelligible, with only minor phonological differences and hardly any differences in their grammatical structures and lexicon. Finally, there are the Anong described here, who are distinct from the Trung group, but who certainly belong to the same subgroup. 1.2. Population Distribution The Anong people are located within the boundaries of Fgng County in the Nujiang Lisu Prefecture of Yunnan Province. Its total population is around 7000, with 2200 living in Shngp Township, 1100 in Zlji Township, 2100 in Lmdng Township, and 2200 in Lshdi Township. The rest are scattered in various other places in the county. Their approximate geographical position is roughly 98.7 latitude and 27.1 longitude. The region is very mountainous with the turbulent Nujiang flowing through the whole territory from north to south. To the east of the river, lies the towering snowy Blu mountain, and to the west stands the Golgng mountains with a year-round snow cover. The Anong live in the valley between the two mountains with some on the tablelands on the hillsides. The Anong are surrounded by various ethnic groups, with Burma in the west, the Tibetan Autonomous Region in the north, and the Lisu, Bai and Han in its midst. There are

introduction

said to be some Anong in the nmiki River reaches in the border region between China and Burma, but information about their actual locations and specific population figures is not available. 1.3. Legends about the Origin of the Anong People Anong does not have a writing system,3 and there is no record in Chinese historical documents of this ethnic group. According to an Anong legend, long, long ago, there was a great flood. Among the ancestors of the Anong people, a brother and a sister hid themselves in a big gourd which protected them from the disaster. In order to continue the ancestral line of the Anong people, the brother and sister got married and had nine boys and seven girls. The first child was an Anong, the second was a Trung, and the rest were Han, Tibetan, Bai, Lisu and Naxi. The Anong settled down in the Nujiang region, while the rest went to far away places to make a living. Because of this legend, the elders all believe that the Anong are the indigenous people of the Nujiang region. The Anong have a tradition of memorizing family genealogies. I had Mr. Hn Wnjn, who has since passed away, recite his family genealogy of 28 generations, which is given below. If we assign 25 years to each generation, the Hn family has a history of at least 700 years. According to the elders in Mgji Village, the cave in the mountain behind Mgji Village was the home of the ancestors of the Anong people. Sometimes, the Anong still go there to pay respect to their ancestors. Also, there are two big pieces of stone which are bigger than a house. The Anong consider them to be God sent and worship the stones. The bigger one is called the male stone and the small one is called the female stone. These anecdotal elements indicate that the Anong are the earliest Nujiang region residents.

3 Bradley (p.c.) points out that the Anong of Myanmar have a recently developed writing system. See the discussion of the literacy work and Bible translation in the next footnote.

chapter one
Table 2: Hn Wnjns genealogy to 28 generations Name in IPA In Chinese characters p lnqng n dngqng g lpng m lpng ta lsh g hn y yng y gi d sngd n kng n r jn kn k m d bhng c hnghng wa s w n w qix c hng k xi g lib d d gi yo si zi nin d h mij d ji Funeral method cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation cremation burial burial burial burial burial burial

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

pu31ln31ti55 i31du31ti55 g31l55pu55 m31l55pu55 t31l3155 ga55xn55 i55i55 i55g31 d31s31d55 i55ku31 i5531 31du31(u31) a31kn55 ka35mi31 d31b31xom31 ts31x55xom31 u55s31 u55i31 u31t31si31 ts31x55 ko31o53 gu31l55bi55 d55di53 g31io55 s53dz31 55t55 x31m35do31 d55gie55

1.4. Social and Economic Conditions Before the liberation (1949), the Anong mainly engaged in farming, with a little fishing and gathering on the side. Although the husband and wife nucleus family structure had been well established, and land was privatized, within the same tribe, there was still frequent collective farming, labor swap, and land and draft animal borrowing. The gap between the rich and the poor had already started to widen, and riches had begun to be concentrated among a few. Some limited land sales had taken place but no instances of land leasing activities. Some rich families had begun to possess slaves, usually one or two for one or

introduction

two years, and they were always people from outside the Anong ethnic group. Loaning money without charging interest was common though some charged high interest. Commodity exchange was quite backward, often taking the form of a bartering system. Things often bartered were herbs, farm and husbandry products, salt, and cloth. No market existed yet. Cows were often used as the basic exchange items. Farmland was well established, but the percentage of land to be left fallow each year was very high, usually about 45%. The means of production and the farming method were both very backward. Farming tools were highly limited in number and type. Their farming skills were very crude; no fertilization or weeding was practiced. They mostly relied on nature to take care of the crops. They still practiced a certain degree of slash and burn farming. The natural environment was not conducive to farming. The arable land is mostly on the hillside with a thin layer of soil that is full of stones, making it very difficult to farm. As a result, what they could get from the land was never enough to feed themselves, so they had to fish and gather to survive. 1.5. Traditions 1.5.1. Dwelling In the past, the Anong lived in caves. A few hundred years ago, they started to build thatched houses through mutual help with self-prepared materials. Usually, the owner would get the materials such as hay, bamboo, and wood ready and on the day of construction, friends and relatives would come with tools, some with food and wine while others with bamboo strips, etc. to contribute to the owner. Building a house is a truly collective effort; some would be responsible for putting in the foundational pillars, some would be in charge of making bamboo mats, some would work on constructing the roof, and oftentimes a house can be completed in a day. In the evening, the owner would treat all of the participants (sometimes up to 20 or 30 people) to a meal with meat and wine. Usually, the Anong choose a spot on the hillside for a place to build a house. They would first build a platform using wooden poles as legs. Then they would use bamboo mats as flooring material. The platform is usually about a meter high from ground level, or a little higher, but rarely over two meters. The walls are made of bamboo mats. The roof is thatched with a thick layer of hay. The door usually opens in the

chapter one

direction with the slope. The space by the sides of the door outside the house is usually used for storing firewood and for drying clothes. In some households, an airing platform is built close to the door for drying grain or for outdoor activities. The space next to the doorway inside the house is used for storage. Clothing is hung over the bamboo rack behind the door. The middle of the house is the cooking area with a fire stove. When guests come for a visit, they usually sit around the fire stove. Beds are set against the walls. Sometimes the house is divided into several sections as bedrooms for older kids or newly-weds. The number of households in various villages range from several to a few dozen irregularly scattered on the hillsides. 1.5.2. Diet and Food Sources The staple for the Anong is maize, which is supplemented by buckwheat and beans. Rice is grown along the riverbank areas, but the yield is very low. Their main cash crop is the rhizome of Chinese goldthread. The rhizome of Chinese goldthread used to grow in the wild. Growing it domestically has only about a hundred year history. This cash crop is the main source of income for the Anong. They also grow some lacquer, walnut, and tung trees. The Anong use oil from lacquer tree seeds for cooking. Animal husbandry is limited to raising cows, pigs, and chickens in small numbers. Gathering is the main supplemental food source with a wide array of varieties, such as bamboo shoots, wild mushrooms, wild vegetables, and tubers. Elderly Anong speakers can name dozens, even hundreds of varieties of wild vegetables, wild mushrooms, wild tubers, and bamboo shoots. 1.5.3. Marriage and Family The patriarchal husband and wife family structure has already been established, but remnants of the matriarchal social system, such as intra-ethnic polygamy, still exists, manifested mainly through kinship terms, the wife inheriting over brothers, and the power the maternal uncle possesses. Marriages are usually arranged by the parents. When children come of age, their parents pick the potential spouse from a comparable family and ask a go-between to arrange the marriage for them. Their engagement is announced when parents on both sides agree to the marriage. Customs require engagement gifts, the quantity of which is negotiated by the two families. However, the gifts must include

introduction

a cooking pot with a tripod cooking rack. To some extent, marriage is mercenary. Marriage between near relations is forbidden, but marriage between maternal cousins is permitted. No sex is allowed before marriage, and children out of wedlock are discriminated against. 1.5.4. Burial Generations ago, the Anong buried the dead through cremation. Burial in the ground is a more recent phenomenon. The change of burial method is said to be attributable to a shortage of firewood. Tombs can be found in the vicinity of the villages. The dead body is wrapped in a bamboo mat and put in a wooden coffin, which is then put into a stone grave that is covered by a yellow dirt mound. Some of the tombs are marked. 1.5.5. Religion The Anong are polytheists. They believe that everything has a spirit, including the sky, the earth, the sun, the moon, mountains, rivers, trees, grasses, and animals. They attribute all illnesses and disasters to gods and ghosts, which is why whenever there is a calamity, they offer sacrifices to ask god for protection. Each village has its own shaman, called da31 55 ph31. The shaman is responsible for organizing all activities related to offering sacrifices to ghosts, driving away ghosts, welcoming gods, sending gods away, calling back the spirits of the dead for healing purposes, or praying for rain. In most cases, when such activities take place, an essential part is sacrificing animals. For major activities, animals such as pigs, sheep or cows are offered, while in minor activities, chickens, piglets or baby goats are sacrificed. Being the shaman is not a full time job, though a certain amount of compensation is given to the shaman after such activities. In recent times, Christianity has been introduced into the area. It is said that in 1932 a Canadian missionary named M Domng brought Christianity to the Fgng region. Churches have been built in villages in the surrounding area where Mgji Village is located. Many of the locals have been converted to Christianity.

chapter one 1.6. The Language of the Anong People

Anong is a Tibeto-Burman language in the Jingpo subgroup. It is similar to Trung, a language belonging to the same subgroup, but considerably different from Nusu, a Lolo-Burmese language spoken by the largest component of the Nu ethnic group. Most of the former Anong speakers no longer speak the language. They either speak Lisu or Chinese. Some speak Bai. Only some of the Anong in Mgji, Ksh, Mlng, Lggng, nqi, and Lhigng villages still speak Anong. 1.6.1. Research on Anong Nobody else has done any research on Anong.4 I have been to the Anong region seven times over the past 40 years or so to do fieldwork on the language. The first time was in 1960, and I spent a total of two months there, September and October. I found a fluent speaker of Anong by the name of Fn Gup, who was an elementary school teacher. During that trip, I collected over 2000 words and some sentences. At the time, there were about 800 speakers of Anong. My second fieldwork trip took place in April 1965. The main purpose of that trip was to collect data on Nusu, a language spoken by the majority of the people in that region. However, I spent some time in Fgng County and collected some examples for certain grammatical structures of Anong. The third time I went to the region to work on Anong was in April and May of 1983. On that trip, I found a fluent speaker in Lik, the government seat of the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture. His name was Hn Wnjn. I collected more sentences for various grammatical structures. I wrote a

4 This statement must be qualified. First, it is clear that Sun is restricting his comment to the Anong spoken in China. Second, Sun makes clear in the original preface he was accompanied by other linguists in all but two his field trips to work on Anong; in fact, Sun thanks them for their help. However, aside from help from the linguists he mentions in the preface, it appears that Sun is the only linguist to have worked on Anong in China, and, certainly, the only one to have worked on the Nu River dialect. David Bradley (p.c.) mentions the work of Joel Kopang on the Anong spoken in Myanmar, who has devised and implemented an orthography, published a reading primer ([anonymous]. n.d. Anung Shiuva. Shiureu Chen Demc Bok [Literacy Primer in Anung Language], Noc Shiuva wa Rac Nang Chen Rac: Mulashidi, Putao, Burma); a New Testament ([anonymous], n.d. Geumeu Heungshangc Shiuva Khaziut se Bok [The New Testament in Anung Language], with publisher or place of publication information; and a hymn book. Undoubtedly, these are the materials from another country Sun refers to a little later in this chapter. Joel Kopang has visited the Anong in China accompanied by Anong from Myanmar and reports that there is easy mutual intelligibility.

introduction

grammatical sketch based on the data I collected up to that point. The sketch was published in the Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area (Sun, 1988). Based on information collected on this trip, the number of Anong speakers was estimated to be around 500. The fourth fieldwork trip was carried out in September 1987. On that trip, I surveyed the middle-aged and younger speakers use of Anong and collected information on their attitudes towards the Anong language. I also collected more data on grammatical structures, family genealogies, and some texts. The fifth trip was in October and November of 1995. On that trip, I sampled the population and conducted a more in-depth survey of the language situation. It was found that only 410 people could still speak Anong. I collected a considerable amount of additional data on the language, especially data on grammatical structures. In January and February of 1999, I went to the region for the sixth time. I went to the villages and conducted one-on-one interview sessions and group discussions to gauge and analyze the language use situation and language attitudes among different sectors of the population. I paid special attention to the structural changes that Anong has been undergoing as an obsolescing language. This was the most productive of all of the trips up to that point. The word list was expanded to close to 5000 from less than 3000. Additional data were collected on grammatical structures and more grammatical structures were found. More texts were collected, and recordings of words, sounds, grammatical examples, and some texts were made. Sadly, I found out during that trip that some of the speakers who were 70 years of age or older had passed away, including Hn Wnjn the informant I worked with in 1983 and 1987. My estimate based on information collected from the sixth trip was that the number of speakers of Anong dropped to under 400.5 1.6.2. Anong Language Use I discovered during my first fieldwork trip to work with the Anong that most of them had already shifted from their native language to Lisu, with others having shifted to Chinese and Bai. This took place before
5 As Bradley (2007) notes, Suns 1994 estimate of 400 is now much too high for Anong in China. Bradley (p.c.) citing Sun (p.c.), estimates the number has dropped to 40 or so speakers. However, there are some 4,000 speakers in Myanmar, as well as a few who live in Thailand. (See also Sun 2005). The further description of the Anong of Myanmar takes on more significance, as it represents an earlier stage of many of the changes documented in this work.

10

chapter one

the founding of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. In 1960, there were about 4300 Anong, with only about 800 Anong speakers left, constituting 18.6% of the total population. The 1994 census puts the total Anong population at 7200 with 400 Anong speakers (5.56% of the total Anong population). This represents a 70% drop in the number of speakers who still speak Anong though the actual decrease in the number of Anong is only 50%. The total population of these Anong villages is around 1000. The villages fan out in the surrounding areas with Mgji Village in the center. Mgji Village is essentially inhabited by the Anong with only one Lisu family in it. The other villages have a much higher percentage of Lisu families in them, and there are a considerable number of crossmarriages between Anong and Lisu. In terms of language use, there are about 400 native speakers of Anong, most of whom are bilingual in Anong and Lisu.6 A considerable number of them speak Lisu more proficiently than Anong. A few of them are trilingual in Anong, Lisu and Chinese. There is considerable variability among the bilingual and trilingual speakers with respect to their level of proficiency in those languages. In November 1995, I conducted a survey of the language use situation of the Anong in Mgji Village, which has the highest concentration of Anong. I interviewed all of the people over 10 years old from all of the households in the village, numbering 104 and 27 respectively. Information collected included name, gender, age, nationality, educational level, and language use. Data on language use included use of their mother tongue, use of Lisu, Chinese, and other languages. I divided the degree of use of the languages into four levels. A. Fluent This level refers to those who can not only engage in every day conversations but can also talk about various topics related to production and daily living and have a vocabulary of 3000 or more.

Bradley (p.c.) notes that he has never met an Anong speaker who was not bilingual in Lisu, although he suggests that there may well be a few in Myanmar. It is also clear that among the Anong of China, except for a couple of the most elderly Anong, Lisu was their dominant language.

introduction

11

B. Semi-fluent This level refers to those who can carry out every day conversations but are no longer very fluent. They have a vocabulary of over 1000, but they are more proficient in their second language. C. Limited Proficiency Speakers at this level only retain the ability to use Anong greetings and produce some simple sentences in Anong. They can no longer fully express themselves in Anong, and their utterances often contain words from their second language. Their vocabulary is highly limited, and they have lost many of the every day words. Their pronunciation is inaccurate and they are very fluent in their second language. D. No Proficiency This group refers to those who have pretty much lost their mother tongue. Some still retain some comprehension with no production, while others have completely lost their mother tongue. The findings of the survey can be summarized as follows. Of the 104 people sampled from 25 households, 62 belonged to level A comprising 59.6% of the total number of people sampled; 19 or 18.2% belonged to Level B; 14 or 13.4% belonged to Level C; and 7 or 6.7% belonged to Level D, which indicates that people in Mgji Village still retain use of their mother tongue. However, analysis of the use of Lisu, their dominant language, showed that the situation was more serious; in Lisu, out of the 104 people surveyed, 96 belong to Level A with only eight belonging to Level B. What is more, the eight that belonged to Level B are all elderly who rarely went out. Nobody fell into Level C and Level D in their ability to speak Lisu. This shows that even in an area where Anong speakers are most concentrated, their second language proficiency has far surpassed their ability to speak their mother tongue. Almost all Anong can speak Lisu and the vast majority can speak it better than their mother tongue. With respect to the use of Chinese, my survey showed that out of the 104 people sampled, only 13 belonged to Level A, i.e. 12.5%; 17 belonged to Level B, i.e. 16.3%; 19 belonged to Level C, i.e. 18.3%; and 55 belonged to Level D, i.e. 52.9%. Although only a small number of Anong speak Chinese, they are mostly intellectuals, village cadres, or those who travel outside the village frequently. It should be pointed out that the variety of Chinese they speak is not the Standard Chinese (Putonghua), but a local

12

chapter one

Chinese dialect, which is also different from the Kunming dialect. Of the 13 who belonged to Level A, virtually all of them had received either junior high or senior high education. Those that belonged to Level B had received elementary education or some kind of schooling. They all had plenty of opportunities to travel outside the area, and the language of communication across ethnic groups in the region was mainly Chinese and Lisu. They are usually bilingual in Chinese and Lisu. Those who do not speak Chinese tend to be the elderly or women who never traveled outside the area. In the Mgji Township, there are some Bai households, but no Anong in this area can speak Bai, and most of the Bai can speak either Chinese or Lisu. Mgji Village in Mgji Township has the highest concentration of Anong. Going from door to door one can still hear conversations in Anong, but Lisu is more commonly used. Anong is also used in the villages mentioned above that are located around Mgji Village, but since those Anong are interspersed with Lisu and other nationalities, hardly any of them have a Level A type of proficiency, though 280 of the Anong in those villages belong to Level B, they are all over 70 years of age. Hardly any of those who are under 5060 years old can speak their mother tongue. They rarely had the opportunity to use Anong, except if they spoke a few words of Anong when they greeted the elderly. So most of the Anong in those villages belong to either Level C or Level D. It is clear that Anong has lost its function as the means of communication in those villages, having been completely supplanted by Lisu. The 400 or so Anong speakers mentioned above refer to those who have the ability to speak Anong belonging to Level A and Level B. In actuality, most of them, especially the ones who live in villages other than Mgji Village, rarely use Anong. 1.6.3. Analysis of Anong Attrition A number of factors contributed to the situation described above. The following are possible reasons based on our long-term field investigations and analysis of our observations. (1) The Influence of the Surrounding Environment The surrounding environment determines language use to a certain extent. According to the genealogies and historical legends of the Nujiang Anong people, the Anong were the indigenous people of the area. They moved here southwards from the Qnghi-Tibetan Plateau

introduction

13

well over 70 generations ago. They also believed that the Nujiang was so-named only after the Nu people had moved here. Therefore, they call the Nujiang the Nong River [i.e. the Nujiang]. Legend says that the three brothers of the family parted ways, with some moving northwards to the Gngshn area. These still call themselves the Anong people today, but due to a lack of contact over an extended period of time, their language became very different from that spoken by the Anong around Fgng County. Later, these Anong in the Gngshn area moved again towards the Dlng River, to form the present-day Trung nationality. Therefore, the languages spoken by the Nujiang Anong in the Gngshn area and the Trung are very similar, and may even be considered two dialects of the same language. Another group moved westwards into Burma. During the 1940s to 1950s,7 the Lisu and Bai people migrated gradually into the Nujiang area. As they were powerful and populous, they occupied a large area along the middle reaches of the Nujiang. Gradually cultural assimilation of the Anong who remained in the region occurred, due to a long period of contact with the surrounding ethnic groups, i.e. the Lisu and Bai. The Anong lost many of their distinctive characteristics, including their own language. Therefore, by the time the Peoples Republic of China was founded, the vast majority of the Anong in this area no longer spoke their mother tongue. During the 50 years since New China was established, this trend of assimilation has continued. (2) Intermarriage The Anong have been a relatively open-minded community. In the Nujiang area, they coexisted peacefully with other ethnic groups. Intermarriage was common, especially with the Lisu. The Anong has complex phonological and grammatical systems. We observed that, even in those few villages where the Anong were in the majority, people from the few households of other ethnic groups living among the Anong did not

7 The date of Lisu and Bai arrival in the area is disputed. Bradley (1994) notes that Lisu tradition says that Lisu have been living in the area since about 1573, but now thinks (p.c.) that this is a little too early; he notes that 1742 appears in some sources. He suggests that the local Bai (actually Laemae, sometimes known as Northern Bai but speaking a quite distinct language) have probably been there at least as long. Bradley (p.c.) notes that more than 600 years earlier still, the Lisu appear at the time of the Nanzhao kingdom, living further east in the mountains northeast of Erhai Lake and serrving as soldiers fighting against the Han and Tibetans for Nanzhao.

14

chapter one

learn Anong. In Anong families where one of the members had married someone from another ethnic group, even though there was only one non-Anong member in the family, he or she very rarely learned Anong. On the contrary, Lisu became the common language of the family. My Anong language consultant is a typical example. Among the Anong, his mother tongue proficiency belonged to Level A. However, his wife was Lisu, and they had been married for over 30 years. Even now, she could only speak Lisu though she can understand Anong. In his family, Lisu was the common language of communication. They had three daughters and a son. Like their mother, the children only had a limited comprehension of Anong, and could not speak it. Sometimes, their father would consciously use a few Anong sentences at home, but the children would still answer in Lisu. The Anong also intermarry with Bai and Chinese, and the language use situation is more or less the same in such families. They all use Lisu because Lisu is the dominant language in the region. Members of a family learn Lisu first. (3) Language Attitudes During my investigations in the area, I interacted extensively with Anong intellectuals, cadres, as well as other individuals to find out about their attitudes towards the situation of their mother tongue. These attitudes can be summarized into the following three types: Type One: Some leading cadres and intellectuals are very concerned about the imminent extinction of their mother tongue. They view their language as an important distinguishing characteristic of their nationality, as well as a medium for cultural transmission. Therefore, the disappearance of their language would lead to the loss of cultural phenomena and historical legends, including folk tales, genealogies, music, and poems: this would in turn lead to the loss of their main ethnic distinctiveness. As early as the 1980s, a leading cadre in the Autonomous Prefecture who was of the Nu nationality had suggested adopting measures to record these languages. Under her guidance, they allocated some funds to enable linguists to record, collate, and publish Nu language data. In her preface to the volumes of Nusu and Zauzou data which had already been published, she stated very clearly:
Language development occurs hand-in-hand with social development. The liberation and economic development of different ethnic groups

introduction

15

have promoted changes and development in their languages. The new situations and new problems which have occurred have required careful consideration, research, and resolution. One such problem which has attracted attention concerns those languages and dialects which have small numbers of speakers. In modern society, fewer and fewer people are speaking these languages and dialects, with some being on the verge of extinction. These include the Nusu and Anong languages of the Nu nationality. Language is a cultural form and is also the medium by which ethnic history, literature, religion, and customs are transmitted. Although a decline in the numbers of speakers of these languages or even their extinction may be an inevitable trend within social development, the loss of these forms of cultural expression is without doubt a regrettable fact of history. Therefore, many within the ethnic groups of this prefecture have appreciated the severity of the situation and have actively promoted the urgent task of preserving linguistic and cultural material.

These words reflect very clearly the basic attitude of ethnic intellectuals towards the imminent extinction of their mother tongues. A few among them also hope to record their language in a phonetic written form, in order to more accurately preserve the linguistic data. Type Two: A small number of Anong intellectuals and individuals support the disappearance of their own language. Their views are that speaking Chinese is most useful, as it can be used all over China; Once we have learned to speak and write Chinese, we can become cadres and gain more knowledge of important national issues; and We can understand easily what is said on the radio or television. Their attitude towards using Lisu is: We must learn Lisu because we are surrounded by Lisu speakers, and must speak Lisu on the streets. If we cant speak Lisu, we cant go anywhere. Regarding the imminent extinction of their own language, their view is that: It doesnt really matter. It may even be better if it becomes extinct, as everyone will then speak the same language. It will be much more convenient because we wont need translators anymore. Some Anong people feel that their own language is primitive, and that it cannot be used to express many new concepts. Therefore, using Chinese or Lisu is more convenient. This group of people is strongly opposed to the creation of a phonetic alphabet or writing system, as they feel that any such project would be unnecessary. Type Three: The majority of cadres, individuals, and intellectuals have an indifferent attitude towards the disappearance of their mother tongue.

16

chapter one

They consider this to be inevitable, and think that it is better to follow the natural course, since worrying about it is of no use. Needless to say, Anong is seriously endangered. 1.7. Other Related Issues 1.7.1. The Anong of China Have no Writing System The Anong of China have apparently never wanted to create a writing system for their language.8 However, we found that among some Anong, there was some religious scripture and some reading materials being circulated that had been brought in from overseas. The language used in these materials is close to Anong. The Anong people can basically decode them, but there are phonological and lexical differences. This shows that there may be languages similar to Anong on the Burma side. However, lack of information on their speakers and the lack of materials for comparison makes it impossible to determine whether the differences between Anong and those languages are dialectal differences or not. Therefore, if we dont take the Burmese Anong into consideration, the Anong language in China is a seriously endangered language soon to become extinct. If we take into consideration the Anong speakers in Burma, then the situation is a bit better because I firmly believe that there are more Anong on the Burmese side. 1.7.2. Attrition under Intense Contact When a language is undergoing attrition due to the impact of linguistic and social surroundings, drastic changes take place in its use and in its structures. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, I have carried out seven fieldwork trips in the Anong region, starting in 1960 spanning 40 plus years. In terms of diachronic changes, there should not be a lot of change in such a short time, but large scale historical changes may bring such changes about. During our numerous fieldwork trips to the Nu nationality area, I have witnessed tremendous change in the Nujiang region. The lives of the Anong have undergone major changes

8 Note that, as Bradley (p.c.) writes and as we have briefly described in earlier footnotes, the Anong of Myanmar have a script, which contains religious writings. See also Joel Kopang.

introduction

17

too. Our records show differences between data collected at different time periods indicating that Anong is a fast changing language. Thus, one of the values of studying Anong is that such data may help us understand patterns of language change. Details and analysis of such changes will be given in chapters on phonology, morphology and syntax. 1.7.3. Problems with Mutual Intelligibility among the Nu Although the Anong are part of the Nu ethnic group and although they are interspersed with the Nusu who are also part of the Nu ethnic, they can only communicate with the Nusu through Lisu. Even among the Nusu themselves there are dialectal differences that affect mutual intelligibility. However, after living in the same area for an extended period of time, mutual intelligibility within Nusu has increased. Thus, it has been pointed out that there is no clear demarcation lines between dialects, especially in border areas between two dialects, but the division between languages is clear. No matter where they are, mutual intelligibility between distinct languages is always a problem. Here, the degree of mutual intelligibility between Nusu dialects is greater than the degree of mutual intelligibility between Anong and Nusu, supporting the view that difference between languages and dialects can usually be differentiated.

CHAPTER TWO

PHONOLOGY Anong is a language that has retained much of its original TibetoBurman character. Its sound system shows remnants of its originally more complex consonant clusters, although they are now considerably simplified. Only the nasals still occur in the codas; final obstruents have been reduced to a final glottal stop. Tones have emerged and have begun to be used to distinguish the meanings of words, although this is still limited. There is widespread syllable weakening. Anong is disappearing step-by-step, as it undergoes extensive phonological change. Some of the resulting patterns are systematic; others do not seem to follow any discernible pattern. The changes are portrayed here, with the details laid out, the patterns discussed, and the causes analyzed where possible. The base line for the phonological system given in this grammatical sketch is based on the most conservative data collected in 1995, except for the glottal stops, which are based on the oldest collected datathe 1960 databecause the 1995 glottal stops vary freely. The IPA notation used here is essentially a broad phonetic transcription coming close to phonemic. 2.1. Initial Consonants 2.1.1. Single Consonants Anong has 47 single initial consonants (see Table 3).
Table 3: Anong initial consonants stops: unaspirated aspirated voiced affricates: unaspirated aspirated voiced ppbttdtstsdzttdttdkkg-

20
Table 3 (cont.) fricatives: voiceless voiced nasals: voiceless voiced laterals: voiceless voiced semi-vowel: m m-

chapter two

fv-

sznnl-

x-

h-

Notes on single consonants: (1) Aspirated and unaspirated consonants. The aspirated and unaspirated consonants appear with comparatively low frequency. In some words, the voiced stops and voiced affricates alternate freely with their voiceless counterparts. (2) Nasals. The nasals [m], [n] [], [] can all be syllabic as well as occur in initials and codas (for examples, see the vowel section). The [] is often deleted before [i]. In prefixes, [] occurs in free variation with [o] in prefixes. Some of the voiceless nasals only occur in roots with inflectional suffixes. (3) Retroflexes. Anong has a set of retroflex consonants, which includes retroflex stops, nasals, and laterals, for example, [], [], [], [], []. These retroflex consonants are often palatalized, making them quite similar to the corresponding palatalized series: [], [], [], [], and []. In the Anong of semi-fluent speakers, these retroflexed consonants are replaced with their non-retroflexed counterparts: [t], [t], [d], [n], and [l]. (4) Phonetics of retroflexes. The actual phonetic values of the retroflex fricatives and affricates [t], [t], [d], [], and [] are [t], [t], [d], [], and []. In some words, the voiced and voiceless alveolar retroflex fricatives [] and [] occur in free variation with their non-retroflex counterparts [s] and [z]. Also, the retroflex affricates [t], [t], and [d] occur in free variation with their non-retroflex counterparts [t], [t], and [d] in some words. (5) The semi-vowel []. The semi-vowel [] is unstable. Sometimes it is realized as a voiced alveolar fricative or as a voiced alveolar retroflex fricative. It is often deleted before the high, front unrounded vowel [i].

phonology

21

(6) The coronals. The [t], [t], [d], [], and [] are slightly back and sound close to laminal affricates [c], [c], [j], [], and []. (7) The glottal stop. The glottal stop [] occurs both alone in syllable onsets and as a part of consonant clusters. It also occurs in coda position both alone and in combination with nasals. In addition, syllabic nasals have an accompanying glottal stop. (8) Some of the fricatives are clearly aspirated, but this aspiration is non-phonemic, that is, it does not distinguish the meanings of words, and thus the aspirated fricatives are not treated as separate phonemes. (9) The glottal fricative mainly occurs with nasalized vowels. The velar fricative occurs in free variation with the glottal fricative in some words. (10) Voiced nasals and the glottal stop occur both in onset and coda positions. (11) Voiceless nasals and laterals mainly occur in inflections. 2.1.2. Single Initial Consonants
Table 4: Single Initial Consonants p p b m m f v ts ts dz s z t t d n n l pi31 pi35du55 b31 m i55u31 mi55 fu31 vi55k31 tsui55 ts31 l35dzi31 si31di55 zn53 tan55 ti55 di55b35 no31i55 nn55 u53 lim53 i31iu53 i31m31 im55 g31i55 brush key snake begin; start hemp tie, fasten bottle crime; guilt rain chili true; really ask (bamboo) joint one spider stay goods seek; look for bury pay for old kick kneel k55pu31 pu31 31b55 m 31u31 l31m55 fu35 31vu35 tsi55 31tsu5555 dzu53 31su55 31zu55u31 tu31 tu31 do31 nm31 nm55 m53 lu35lu35 a53i33 i3131 o55 31 cuckoo fill in (dirt) goat dig (dry) field soak hand a frame point, tip stockaded village reed write thousand sharp; fast push sell (imp.) ear of millet roast in sun (put on) straight grow up; mature grasshopper durable wine

22
Table 4 (cont.) t t d t t d k k g x h o55 i31i31 pu31t55 t31 d31 5531 55 31u55 ti55pi55 31ti31 di31 55u31 in55 im55b31 31u31tim31 ko31p33 kin53 31gi31 31u31 i31s31 31xi55 55 i55b31 31hi35

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sit (imp.) return (money) newspaper buttocks expand; swell urine be mountain narrow to change copper spin yarn fingernail full shine fox cook; boil lift; carry a name monkey laugh shadow goose bowl

go31u31 su55t55u55 31tu55 du5531 o55 31n3155 u55 to55 tu55 do31 53u31 55 o31 3131m55 ku55 ku55 gu31 om55om55 xu31u55 om55 31u55 h5531

curve, bend reckon accounts breast; udder raise; lift enclosing wall turn over (food) hibernation surround earthen jar success chew year, age want prisoner six room (house) wear (clothes) nod (head) revolve beat; tap mountain carry (on head)

2.1.3. Consonant Clusters There are 23 initial consonant clusters, which have been divided into three groups. The first consists of clusters with the retroflex semi-vowel [] as the second member: [p], [p], [b], [m], [f], [v], [k], [g], and [x]. The second consists of preglottalized onsets: [b], [d], [], [g], [dz], [d], [d], [m], [n], [l], [], [], and []. And, the last consists of a single cluster, combining the features of the first two: [b]. All three sets of clusters are disappearing. The retroflex semi-vowel has already disappeared in the speech of speakers 50 years of age or younger. It has merged with the high front unrounded vowel. The pre-glottalized series is only retained in the speech of certain elderly speakers. For other elderly speakers, the glottal feature has been lost, but has left vowel constriction behind. Certainly, most speakers no longer have pre-glottalization. In my informants speech, pre-glottalization still contrasted phonemically in the data collected in 1960, but the contrast was gone in the 1999 data.

phonology
Table 5: Consonant clusters p p b m f v k g x b d g dz d d m n l b pn55no31 31p31 bi53 31mn55s33 d31f55 31vi55 k53 d31g55 xn53 31ban55 dm55 55 gam55 dzm55 dn5531 d55u31 t55mu31 31n31 l31sm55 3135 3131 i31u31 55bn35 untie; undo ancestors four get angry turtledove cable yoke sweet dog sift bamboo on credit crawl carve; engrave drench (rain) defecate bite; bark daughter dye (cloth) musk to paint ruminate grab; arrest step over p33 s31b55 di31f55 d31k55 g55d35 xn31 b31i55 31dn55 5531 tu55g55 i31dz55 d31 d35 lin35 31 tears wild leeks to winnow

23

varnish tree melt (snow, etc.) charcoal food steamer cut off (rope) vomit titmouse leopard fierce (action) finished, complete bloated (with urine) greasy; slippery

2.2. Vowels and Finals Anong has 10 simple vowels, 16 complex vowels, 48 vowel + coda combinations, and 4 syllabic nasals. 2.2.1. Simple Vowels Anong has ten simple vowels: [i], [e], [], [a], [o], [u], [], [y], [], and []. Their positions are indicated on the vowel chart (see page 24). Notes on monophthongs: (1) The phonetic values of the four vowels [], [y], [e], and [] is as indicated on the chart. The vowel [y] has the lowest frequency of occurrence; it appears to only occur in Chinese loans. (2) [i] is slightly more open than the standard value assigned to this vowel position. [e] is slightly lower than IPA [], with a value approaching [], and [] is slightly more to the center and slightly

24

chapter two more open, closer to []. [] is relatively back, a little less to the front than IPA []. When [] occurs before [n] and [i], it has the value of [a]. Both [u] and [o] are slightly more open. [] is more to the center and more open. The value of [u] remains unchanged after [m], [n], and []. But when it occurs after bilabial stops [u] is closer to []. When it occurs after the other consonants, it is labialized, with a value close to [ ]. []. In multisyllabic words, [] appears to be the vowel that results from the reduction of an unstressed vowel in a non-initial position. In Chinese loans, instead of [] as the reduced vowel, [] is often used as the reduced vowel. When [] occurs after retroflex consonants, it sometimes becomes [i]. [i] is deleted after the palatal nasal [], and [u] is often deleted after the velar nasal []. The apical vowel [] becomes [] after retroflex consonants. Vowels in prefixes are always significantly reduced, rendering them almost inaudible.
y i u e

(3)

(4)

(5) (6) (7)

phonology 2.2.2. Simple Vowels without Codas

Table 6: Simple vowels without codas i e a o u y si55 se55 31s55 sa31bo33 31s35 so53 31su31 y35s31 31s31 s and; red; spicy bird cry sour expel earth understand; know to boil jade boat; ship comb tsi31u31 tse31 ts53 ti31tsa55 ts31bi31 tso33o55 31tsu55 ty55in53 ts31 ts

25

scoop up to temper come out (sun) ten dust; dirt plow pointed; sharp extinguish cut (cloth) rain

2.2.3. Nasalized Vowels Contrastively nasalized vowels are a relatively new phenomenon in Anong. The data from 1960 show free variation in the distribution of nasalized vowels. However, more recently collected data indicate that nasalized vowels have become contrastive, as shown in the following examples.
Table 7: Contrasts in nasalization nasal final nasalized vowel non-nasalized vowel l55 l31 l33 piece (of stone) swim look for; seek ku55 ku31 ku33 room (of house) hole, cave bee; wasp

Therefore, it is necessary to analyze Anong as having a set of nasalized vowels: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ ], [i], [i], [i], [u], and [u]. Some nasalized vowels only occur in Chinese loans, for example [ ].
Table 8: Nasalized vowels d31t55 k31u31 31k55 31b33 55 d31g55 di31t5531 t35f 35 wing to weed (grass) iron loaf on the job borrow idle; free time marry (of woman) manure di31t31k33 side h35pu33 h55 l31 mi55l55 di31d3131 z 31s 55 hedgehog to brush swim hemp stalk taste ginseng

26
Table 8 (cont.) i i i u u i35i31 i5531xo55 31i55m31u31 tsu55 ku31

chapter two

unitary beast midday; noon inch hole; cave

ti31u31 31i35si31 n31u31

sweep (dirt) slow cow

2.2.4. Vowel Sequences The transcription used here for Anong uses neither the symbol j- nor w-, but instead uses i and u in slots where others might prefer to use these glide symbols. For the most part, context dictates a more consonantal or a more vocalic interpretation. It is in this context, then, that Anong is said to have 22 vowel sequences. There are 22 complex vowels, of which 20 are diphthongs and two are triphthongs. The 20 diphthongs can be divided into two types, those with [i], [u], or [y] as onset as in [ie], [i], [ia], [i], [io], [iu], [i], [ui], [ue], [u], [ua], [u], [yi], [ye], [y], [i], or [u] and those with [i] or [u] as coda as in [ei], [i], or [u].1 The two triphthongs are [iu] and [ui].
Table 9: Vowel sequences ie i ia i io iu i ui ue u ua u yi ye (1) y (2) y u55ie31 31tsi55 31gia31n55 31i55 io31mn55 liu35 i31 dzui55 kue55ty31 ku35p35 ua55s5535 u55 yi31to35 m55xye31 y55tsu31 cy5531 member free time to peck rock bee clouds doubt; suspect kind of bird ashes (fire) tapioca paddy rice sickle copper oxidation army i31dz55 wolf pair sui55in31 mercury rule; custom sue55 tax national flag ui35ku35 foreign country village name sua55t35u55 to reckon fish to31u31 river cruel/evil people kyi53u31 to bark green corn tye31tian53 shortcoming propagate only one sugar y55y55u33 sound of wind m55gie55 p31i31 m31tia35lu55 d31i33so55 io55m33 d31kiu53

1 The preposed numerals indicate the number of tokens. Several of these combinations are limited to loans or onomotopoetic forms.

phonology
Table 9 (cont.) (1) i p31li3131bi53 (2) u tu55g55 ei fei31liu31 ai ti31tsai55i33 i xo55tsi31 u u31m31 iu piu35 ui kui35ti35 apologize titmouse fertilizer twelve matches aunt ticket accounting only one i31u35 tu55fei55 ti31tsai55ku55 ki55ts33 pu55ts33 fn55tiu31 ui35ku35

27

come down in torrents bandit; brigand sixteen collect steamed stuffed bun noodles foreign country

In general, complex vowels have low frequency of occurrence in Anong. Only the vowels with transitional glides [i] or [u] occur in native words with any frequency. The triphthongs only occur in Chinese loanwords. Thus, we believe that complex vowels in Anong are a relatively new phenomenon, which could also be the consequence of Lisu and and Chinese influence. 2.2.5. Vowels with Codas The codas following vowels consist of a nasal, a glottal stop, or a nasal plus glottal stop combination [m], [n], [], [], [], [], [m], [n], and [], shown in the following table.
Table 10: Vowel plus coda combinations m m n n i / / / / / / e / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / o / u / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / i i io iu i u u a / / / / / / / / / ua ia / /

/ /

/ /

Notes on vowels with codas: (1) The velar nasal [] in such finals is often deleted with a residual compensatory effect of nasalizing the preceding vowel. (2) The palatal nasal [] in coda position developed from the reduction of an earlier syllable consisting of a palatal nasal followed by

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chapter two a vowel. The vowel was lost leading to the reanalysis of the [] as the coda of the preceding syllable. The semi-vowel [] is unstable in coda position and only occurs in a limited number of words. Sometimes it is pronounced as a retroflexed vowel and sometimes it is deleted. Therefore, it is not included in the finals inventory. The glottal stop is also unstable as part of a final. It seems to be on its way to being lost. In some words it is realized as the tight throat feature on vowels and in others it simply disappeared. However, its phonemic contrast is clearly there, which is why we still included it in our discussion of finals. The vowel [e] has a very low frequency of occurrence in finals, but it does not fall together with any of the other vowels, so it is treated here as an independent sound. In the database, all examples of -i occur before -u. Thus, the -i combinations are recognizeable as the result of a morphological juxtaposition: the combination originally only occurred before u, the post-verbal, sentence-final particle.

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Altogether there are more than 50 finals with consonant endings, which are illustrated with the following examples.
im im em m m am lim53 tim5531 31nem55 m31 dm55 s31lam55 bury suck (milk) should knife debt jump 31dim55 k31lim31u31 nm31 m31am55 kick fold sun lower jaw bone shady side (mountain) three build wall pile, heap messy skirt needle roll greens

m km53 m om om um m m um in in en n m31km dzom31 k31som35 55um55 i55m31 b31sm53 um3155 in55 tin55 55ben31 vn35

to ladle, scoop out p31dzm31 to bully prop up; support search (body) hit (iron) heart a fly linen thread fingernail seize mothers brother buy 31som53 d35om35 bum55 31bm55 31m31 um55 gin31u31 kn33

phonology
Table (cont.) n an an n un n n n n in ian uan un u i i e a o u i i iu i u i a o u di31xn tan55tim31 b55tan55nu55 n55 55io31mun55su55 31kn55 31pn35 zn53 b31tsn55 in55ti3131 tian53tu31 suan55tsu35 xun35 u55t55 di31xu53 3131p55 i31 s35 55 ki55nu31 i31fe55 b55 ga55d35 s55 55 o55 pu55 3155 b31 l33t55 ti31 31i31 31iu31 no31i55 xu53 ti55 dz55 mo55da k55 po35 k55lu31 to divine small vehicle behead weave (cloth) carpenter cough pant; gasp ask kind of sparrow flee flashlight sour go crazy (2ps) thick, rich to whip steamed bun rub; wipe; scrape seven eight shell, peel a portion tray ruin (clothes) daughter-in-law shame; shy put on (hat) open (door) scratch (for food) name bracelet to guard, watch sheep to covet to stay spiral; circle two buckets of (clf) drop (clf) thunder chicken change; transform where an31 55tn55 tian55tun55 31pn55 55n31 31tsa31do33m 31sn31 p31in31 tian55tun55 kuan55 an55tsun55

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pull (drawer) wood electric light solidify dust gossip stomach electric light clf. baskets install; fix

b31ti55 t55 3155 b33sum55p31i31 t55se55 31s55 ka31u31 p31 m31tn55o55 m33xu55 z55u31 b55 55 pi55dz55ti35u31 i31

lizard spit; saliva fish fly droppings dangshen elect spread; unfold five short knife/ sword cloth dig; excavate silk; thread louse give written invitation once; ever

dz31i55 come l31pu55xua55dm55 scarf ti31i55 arm (part of) ba31l55 vi55k31 do53u55 fu35 sow (seeds) be pregnant to ladle, bail hungry

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Table (cont.) io u u b31n55 xu55dz53 io55 gu53 d53gu53

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snail thorn of flesh clf (person) pine tree cucumber

ti31d55 te31io31

cricket save; be thrifty

2.3. Tones and Remnants of Tone Sandhi Anong has five tones: 55, 33, 53, 31 and 35. The tone 33 used to be unstable. When the 33 tone co-occurred with 31 or 35, it became 55; the 33 tone changed to 31 when occurring next to 53 and 55; as a consequence, the 31 tone is a sandhi variant of other tones in certain contexts. Recently collected data show that the 33 tone is now contrastive. As a consequence, it is treated here as an independent tone. Both the 35 and the 53 tones are relatively infrequent, with a low functional load in terms of signaling meaning distinctions. The following examples illustrate the five tones.
high level 55 high falling 53 mid level 33 mid falling 31 mid rising 35 tu55 tu53 tu33 tu31 tu (earthen) jar straight; press to play on swing dig up to fish lim55 lim53 lim33 lim31 lim bake, roast egg turn on (water) bury lay (egg)

Although the tones display variation including some tone sandhi, no clear systematic patterns can be established and the variation is unstable. Thus, beyond the comments on tone 33, further detailed discussion of tone sandhi is still not possible at this point. 2.4. Syllables A syllable in Anong consists of an initial, a rhyme and a tone (with the term rhyme referring to the vowel and any accompanying coda. Some syllables lack an initial, and thus are made up of just a rhyme and a tone. A syllable minimally contains one sound, which is either a vowel or a syllabic consonant, and maximally contains five sounds.

phonology
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 C V VV VVV CV CVV CVVV CCV CCVC CCCVC VC VVC CVC CVVC m 31 o31 i31 iu55t31 b55 31xu35 piu35 p55 dm55 55bn35 in55 i31 sn55 gin35 not carry on back (clf.) seed demand white go mad ticket dig on credit step across to sweat item (thing), clf slaughter exist; to mail 31tm55 31 31i55 ui35ku31 pu55 liu35 tiu55k31 bi31 31mn55 d31u35 31i31 tsu55 ku31

31
notebook stative particle rock bee foreign country silver doubt; suspect carve; engrave four get angry cotton smoke empty out (dirt) puncture

Syllable structure: (C)(C)(C)(V)V(V)(C)T Of the 14 structures, the VVV and CVVV only occur in Chinese loans, and CCCVC has an extremely low frequency of occurrence. The ones that have a high frequency of occurrence are V, VV, CV, CVV, VC, VVC, and CVC. Anong is rich in weakened syllables with the following characteristics (see the word list for examples). The syllable is short and indistinct, usually with a 31 tone, although some words have a high tone. It usually consists of a reduced simple vowel without a coda, making it resemble the onset of a consonant cluster somewhat. Since such syllables are often the remnant of a reduced morpheme or of a grammaticalized lexeme, it frequently either carries meaning or has a grammatical function, differentiating it from the initial sound of a consonant cluster, which lacks meaning or grammatical function. With a considerable portion of the lexicon containing these weakened syllables, the Anong lexicon has ceased to be monosyllabic and has become increasingly bisyllabic or polysyllabic.

CHAPTER THREE

LEXICON 3.1. Basic Characteristics of Words in Anong Anong has mostly monosyllabic morphemes. However, since most of the words occur with prefixes or suffixes, the majority of words in Anong are polysyllabic, though most of the root morphemes are monosyllabic. Only less than ten percent of the five thousand or so lexical items we have collected are monosyllabic. The lexicon of a language is a clear picture of the life of its speakers, a mirror of the cultural traits of a people. Due to the natural geography of the region where the Nu people reside, Anong is rich in certain types of words. For instance, the Nujiang reaches have a warm climate with a lot of bamboo varieties. Therefore, Anong has several dozen names of different varieties of bamboo, e.g., the following (which are accompanied by a translation of their Chinese names), t31u55 dragon bamboo, hi31z31 cane bamboo, 31tn55 solid bamboo, t3131 rubber bamboo, 31u55 poisonous bamboo, and ti31m31 mountain bamboo. In addition, there are these other varieties of bamboo, for which we lack even Chinese names: s31mn55, 31lu31, 31bn55, m31m55, 31d31, 31m55, and 31v55 as well as numerous other varieties of bamboo and bamboo products that also lack names in Chinese. The Anong use bamboo to build houses. The floors are made of bamboo; the walls are woven with bamboo strips; the roofs are made of bamboo poles of different sizes except for the beams, pillars, and thatch. They use bamboo sections for carrying water, bamboo bowls for eating rice, bamboo baskets for carrying grain, bamboo pockets for gathering, bamboo rafts for fishing, bamboo arrows for hunting and bamboo sliding cable for crossing rivers. Bamboo is closely bound up with the lives of the Anong. City dwellers might find it unimaginable but the Anong cannot live without bamboo. The Nu nationality live in the tableland areas on both sides of the Nujiang. Fishing is not only their pastime but also a manifestation of their accumulated experiences through years of fishing and gathering. Anong lives are inextricably bound with fishing, hunting, and gathering wild fruits and plants. As a result, they are able to describe many

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different types of fishing methods and fishing tools and name a great variety of species of fish in the Nujiang. Many of their legends are closely related to fishing. Gathering is also an integral part of the lives of the Anong. They gather a variety of different things in different seasons. When collecting lexical items in Anong, one can not help but notice the rich experiences the Anong have accumulated through gathering. Those of us who have lived in the cities far away from the rural areas cannot imagine how rich such experiences are. For instance, the Anong like gathering mushrooms, so I asked the informant to describe the varieties of mushrooms they gather, and he immediately named several dozen. Besides the generic term m31kam55 for mushrooms, there are many other words for different varieties which have no corresponding names in Chinese, such as mo55ku55, ta31m31tia35lu55, a31ta31m55dim55, m55b31si31, m35ku33, di55m55bm55m55dim55, m55ti33li33, da31so55m35dim55, and ka55su35m55dim55, etc. In the fall, the Anong like digging wild taro and other wild tubers. They eat some of them fresh and dry the rest. They sometimes grind the tubers into powder for use in spring when there is a food shortage. There are over a dozen names of tubers in Anong. For example, ku31du55, bi3135di31, m31nm31, bi31pa31, i31ua31g55, mi31la55da55, b31l33go53, and ku31du55tn31, etc. As to the names of wild fruits, the list is endless, some of which can be used for medicinal purposes. Medicinal herbs are also among things the Anong gather. Some of the herbs are not found in regions inhabited by the Han nationality, so many of them have no names in Chinese. Some of the herbs are very effective in curing illnesses. The Anong use some of the herbs they gather themselves and dry or process the rest for bartering for some of their daily basic necessities. Anong men are good at hunting. They either hunt individually or through group encircling. When they hunt individually, they use several different methods, such as pit traps, snares, and bows and arrows. Anong men always carry a bow and arrow. They are extremely skilled archers. If an animal is within the distance of ten meters, it rarely escapes their arrows. They use poisoned arrows to shoot big animals. If hit by such an arrow, the animal usually either passes out or dies within minutes. To hunt for smaller animals, they use normal arrows made of bamboo, some of which have metal wrapped heads. They usually use such normal arrows to hunt birds and small creatures like rats and squirrels. Among the words collected, a number of them are names of such animals. For

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35

instance, a31din55 rat, tim31din55 mouse, ba31din55 white tail rat, gu31lu55 long tail rat, p31d55 flying rat, d31a55 squirrel, and so on. Some of the varieties of rats have no names in Chinese, such as to31din31du55, t31m55, t31dzu31, ta31a55a31din55, t31la55, d31su31, ta55xo55, and b31ti53, etc. There are many lexemes in Anong that are used as both nouns and verbs. For example, vn55 flower; to flower, in55 sweat; to sweat, s55 fruit; to bear fruit, i55 stool; to empty ones bowels, ma55 a dream; to dream, lim31 egg; to lay an egg, im55 a knot; to make a knot, etc. There are also forms that are both nouns and classifiers or verbs and classifiers. For example, 55 year; classifier for age, b33 rope; classifier for three dimensional thin flexible things, m55 leaf; classifier for two dimensional flat rigid things, tim31 house; classifier for buildings, bm33 pile; classifier for a pile of something, ka55 speech, language; classifier for sentences. Sometimes the same form is even used as a noun, a verb, and a classifier, such as vn55 flower; to flower; classifier for flowers. These could be remnants of some kind of old word formation process. 3.2. Lexical Classification Lexical items in Anong can be classified in various ways. For instance, we can classify them according to their origin, structural features, or semantic relations. 3.2.1. Classifying Words According to Their Origins Words in Anong can be divided into two classes: native words and loans. Native words can be further divided into two subclasses. First, native words of Tibeto-Burman origin, some of which are of Sino-Tibetan in origin, are illustrated as follows.

Anong dog firewood black new three d31g55 55 55 31s55 31som53

Written Tibetan khji me i nag po gsar po gsum

Taoping Qiang ku55 sie33 i55i33 tsi55 tsi55

Xide Yi k33 33 a44n33 a3355 s33

Spoken Burmese kwe55 hti55 n44 ti44 to55

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Table (cont.) Anong fish stone gall bladder heart moon nine steal pig I pile (up) u55 lu55 31d31k55 i55/31m31 s31l55 d31g31 k33 o55 31 bum55

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Written Tibetan a rdo mkhris pa si zla ba dgu rku pag pa a spus

Taoping Qiang dz33 o241 t55 tie55m55 y33ya55 gu33 k55 pa33 55 bo241

Xide Yi h33 l (u)33ma55 t33 he33ma55 o31bo21 gu33 ku33 vo55 a33 bo33

Spoken Burmese 55 tu44 t55te22 n53lo55 l53 ko55 ko55 w44 22 po22

Among the above 20 words, we have nouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals, and pronouns. Half of them date back to Sino-Tibetan and the other half dates back at least to Tibeto-Burman. Although the number of such words is small, they are among the core vocabulary in Anong. A preliminary survey shows that 15% of the vocabulary collected is cognate with languages in the Lolo-Burmese subgroup, specifically 14.8% cognate with Yi, and 16.1% cognate with Lisu. The percentage of cognates with languages in the Jingpo branch is slightly higher than that of the Lolo-Burmese branch, 18.5% with Jingpo and 33.2% with Trung. Cognates with languages in other branches are relatively small in number. A considerable number of the native words in Anong are unique to Anong, most of which were created due to the needs of the Anong way of life. Some of them are derived from those in the core vocabulary, and some are derived through compounding, which will be discussed in detail in the section on word formation. The words reflect not only the characteristics of the region and its environment, but also the Anong way of life and traditions. Those words make up the core of Anongs lexicon. In addition to native words, Anong has a lot of loans. At this point in time, it is not possible to determine the diachronic layers of the loans. However, we can discern the recent loans from the surrounding languages, since the Anong are mixed with quite a few other ethnic groups. The source of the loans in Anong is complex. In terms of percentage, the majority come from Chinese and Lisu, constituting 25% of the Anong lexicon. A small number of the loans come from Burmese with occasional instances of borrowings from Bai and Tibetan. There

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37

are also some that came into Anong from Chinese via Lisu. Anong has two classes of Chinese loanwords: early loans which have assimilated to the structure of Anong, and later loans, which have not undergone as much assimilation. These are for the most part nouns but there is also a small number of verbs and classifiers. It is sometimes clear that the loans have in part been borrowed through Lisu because Lisu often has the same Chinese borrowing with an almost identical shape.

Anong lo55ts55 ts31t55 so55tu31 p31 so55

Pinyin lozi jiao suo xuanpi suo

gloss mule scissors; shears lock elect to lock

Anong d31mo55 tso55 lo35tso31 fu55

Pinyin mozi cng lzi yfn

gloss hat scallions; green onions stove portion; share

A later group of borrowings has been entering the language since the founding of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, including new technical terms and classifiers.

Anong s55tse31 kui35ti35 t35pi31 pi55pi31 tsu35fn53 i31i31

Pinyin sh kuij tipng ppng zofan yyun

gloss lion accounting peace criticize rebel; revolt a dollar

Anong n35f31 ts35iu31 nu55li33 tu55lue55 ti35i31 i31li53

Pinyin zhngchng zyu nul taoln d-y yl

gloss constitution freedom try hard discuss first one li (half a kilometer)

In some instances native forms are combined with borrowed forms to create lexical items, as is illustrated below.

Anong

Pinyin

gloss guarantor

Anong

Pinyin

gloss common people plate grove

po31p31 baorn

p5531tn31 baixng kn55b55 ti55tsu31 cipn ycng

ko55tu55 qingjiao corner (wall) m31t31 mshu Chinese ink

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In the above examples, po31 is from the Chinese word bao protect, p5531 is from the Chinese compound baixng the common people, ko55 came from the Chinese corner; angle, b55 came from the Chinese pn plate, m31came from the Chinese m ink and tsu31 came from the Chinese cng grove. In each case, the item borrowed from Chinese is combined with an Anong form to create a compound word in Anong. There are a number of cases of Chinese borrowings existing alongside Anong counterparts with apparently identical meaning.
Table 11: Chinese borrowings alongside native words native word lime a bank (for money) rule; custom study; learn confiscate l55x31 d31x31l55tim31 31i33 tn31 di3135u31 Chinese borrowing s31xue31 i31xa55 kue55ty33 cye31i31 mo31s55 Pinyin shhi ynhng giju xex mshu

For a period of several hundred years the Nu nationality have lived intermingled with the Lisu people, with consequent widespread mutual borrowing, but with more borrowing from Lisu into Anong. The borrowings are usually related to culture, religion, and daily life activities.
55g31 p31 t5531 s55i31 o31ku55 gu31 celebrate flag folk song culture cabbage coffin mu31gu31gu31 ko3131 tso55di31 l31t55 n33do33 sing a sound celebrate New Year photograph a mill smallpox

We find Lisu borrowings and comparable Anong expressions coexist in Anong. It is actually more common for Lisu expressions to be used among the Anong than Chinese borrowings because most of the Anong speak Lisu. It is also more common to have compounds made up of partly Lisu borrowings and partly Anong native forms, but I am not going into detail on this. The Nujiang reaches are contiguous with Burma. In downtown Fgng, one often comes across people from the bordering areas in

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Burma. What is even more noteworthy is that some religious materials were brought into the Anong region from Burma, which have had an impact on the culture and life of the Anong. Needless to say, language influence is no exception, resulting in Anong having a certain number of Burmese loans, shown below.
Table 12: Burmese loans Native word whirlpool wrought iron right side left side leopard t313531xu55 31k55in55 d31k55 m31d31k55 i31dz55 Lisu borrowing i55tu33 xu55mi55 l31i55 l3155 l31m55du31

Near the Nujiang (Salween) river valley and the Burmese border there are also inhabitants from Burma. More importantly, the Anong are also scattered over a portion of Burma and in each area have been influenced by the local culture. Recently the Anong have been taken in a small number of Burmese words into their vocabulary.

Anong glass; cup powder (face) soap steamboat train kerosene bell; clock film; movie (place name) vi55k31 u55t31 ts31pi55io55 ts31po31 m33t33 t35ts31 n55li55 bo55 mi31di55n31

Pinyin bli fn fizo lnchan huoch miyu zhng dinyng Mzhn

We even find half Chinese and half Burmese compounds such as vi55k31 pin31ts55 glass bottle, which is sometimes used to refer to bottles in general. The Burmese borrowing vi55k31 is a generic expression in Burmese meaning glass products, though it is also used to refer to glass. The pin31ts55 is a Chinese borrowing which means bottle in Chinese.

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chapter three 3.2.2. Word Formation

Words in Anong can be divided into mono-morphemic words and compounds. Monomorphemic words are mostly monosyllabic. The number of polysyllabic mono-morphemic words is relatively small. In fact, Anong has less monosyllabic monomorphemic words than other Tibeto-Burman languages, consisting of only about 10% of its lexicon.

Anong sun stone eat to spit nm31 lu55 m53 p31

Pinyin tiyang shtou ch t gold house prop up to brush, paint

Anong 33 tim31 dzom31 xa55

Pinyin jnzi fngzi f sha

There are, in contrast, relatively few disyllabic but mono-morphemic words.

Anong cloud star flea neck io31mn55 ko31i55 i31li31 go31o53

Pinyin yn xngxing tiozao bzi moon a crow cuckoo ant

Anong s31l55 d31k55 k55pu31 so31zo55

Pinyin yu wy bgu may

Although bisyllabic monomorphemic words do exist, they are rarer than monosyllabic mono-morphemic words. Polysyllabic mono-morphemic words do exist in Anong, but they are extremely rare. Only a few can be found among the words I collected, and they are mostly names of insects and birds, illustrated below.

Anong magpie centipede wasp dragonfly gecko; house lizard sparrow 31n55t31t31 k31x55l31m55 mu31ku31m55vi33 d31pu55ti55gu55 k31l31dz55 l55dz33so55

pinyin xque wgng hungfng qngtng bhu mqu

lexicon 3.2.3. Semantic Classification There are nine main categories:

41

(1) Homonyms These are words with the same pronunciation but different meanings. Since Anong is still a richly polysyllabic language, it has a relatively small number of homophones compared with other languages. There are two types of homophonous words in Anong: those that are homophonous in pronunciation and tones and those that are pronounced the same except for different tones. The latter type is more prevalent. The following are examples of completely homophonous words:
31ts31 person or run, jump nm31. sun or tie (shoe laces) a31s31 boat or to select (seeds) ka55 chicken or speech/language ia31 sheep or classifier for i55 stool (fecal) or eye or matter seized

Anong has many words that differ only in the tone, as shown below:
tu55 tu33 tu31 tu53 tu35 jug ride (swing) straight or pod (bean) dig (yam) to fish lim55 lim33 lim31 lim53 lim35 warm (by fire) boil (water) egg or taste, smell bury lay (egg) or roll up

(2) Synonyms These are words with the same meaning but different in pronunciation. It is rare to have words with identical meanings but with different pronunciations in a language. Here I refer to words in Anong that have similar meanings. Often such words come from different languages, which is a temporary phenomenon resulting from language contact. In time, some of the words will be lost and some will remain. The following are examples of synonyms.
m31da31ka55 da31ka55 i31dz55 left right leopard l3155 l31i55 la31m55du31 left (Lisu loan) right (Lisu loan) leopard (Lisu loan)

Such synonymous pairs are common in Anong between native forms and loans from Lisu, Chinese, or Burmese. In fact, such synonyms are not confined to native forms coexisting with loans. We also find synonyms among native words, such as the following.

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ts31a5 di31su55 bu31lu31 tsi55 ka31

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squrrel weasel strap (for carrying a baby) classifier (yoke for cows) classifier (for sentences) ta55xom31 t31v31 ta55pa53 u33 t55 squrrel weasel strap (for carrying a baby) classifier (yoke for cows) classifier (for sentences)

(3) Near Synonyms These are words with different pronunciations but similar meanings that are related in some way.
o55l35 o55t35 i55l i31li31ti31za31 mo55do55ti31za31 head scarf (for men) head scarf (for women) road (for horses) road (for cars) da31ta55 i33gu55 a55 a31om31 tripod (made of metal for cooking) tripod (made of stone for cooking) climb (a tree) crawl

(4) Polysemous Words Polysemous words differ from homophonous words in that, while there are no connections between the meanings of homophones, the meanings of polysemous words are connected, if not always synchronically, certainly through diachronic extension.
io31mm55 ti31vn31 min55 lim31 55 cloud or fog snow or frost or ice hair or mane or feather egg or insect egg or fish egg or to lay eggs tree or firewood or wood

For 55, everything that has something to do with tree or wood is related to it. For instance, 55om33 wood borer, 5533 fruit, 55tim53 tree root, 55ti55 bark, etc. Its near synonym dz55 classifier for plants can also be used to mean tree. (5) Antonyms Mainly among the adjectives and among the directions, new sets of words are emerging, making use of various types of antonyms.

lexicon
Table 13: Antonyms Anong above inside sunny side of mountain long wide (road) big high, tall thick, coarse deep beautiful g31t55 i55u33 p31lim55 u55i31 u55g31 u5531 u55m31 u55lom33 31 31nm55 below outside shady side of mountain short narrow small short, low thin (pole) shallow ugly Anong

43

g31p33 i55di31ti55 p31dzm31 ti5555 ti55pi55 ti55l55 ti55im31 ti55s33 m3131 m31nm55

Of the ten pairs of antonyms above, the first three are nouns with the first two being directionals. The two words in each pair are opposite in meaning with the same prefix on two different roots. The remaining seven pairs are adjectives, with the first five having the same prefix in the left column and the same prefix in the right column, though the prefix in the right column alternates between aspirated and unaspirated initials depending on the consonant immediately following the prefix. If the following consonant is voiced, then the initial consonant of the prefix is aspirated. Otherwise it is unaspirated. The final two pairs are also antonyms but of a different sort, namely, the opposite meaning is realized through the use of negative marker. That is to say, not deep means shallow and not beautiful means ugly. However, the negative marker m31 precedes 31 which has a reduced syllable before it while ma31 occurs on nm55 because in this case there is a reduced syllable a31 before nm55. In other words, ma31 is made up of the negative marker m31 and the reduced syllable a31. 3.3. Word Formation Processes It was mentioned earlier that words in Anong can be divided into native words and loans. In this section, we will focus on the rich word formation processes of the native words. The Anong have lived by the Nujiang for centuries. Through their work and daily life activities, including their fight against the elements, the Anong have enriched their lexicon by creating a large number of new words through their unique way of

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thinking based on the core vocabulary that are of Tibeto-Burman origin. Anong has a variety of word formation processes. The commonly used types are derivation, compounding, reduplication, and onomatopoeia. We will discuss each of those processes below. 3.3.1. Derivation Prefixes. Derivation through prefixation and suffixation is very productive in Anong. Anong is rich in prefixes (or reduced syllables in prefix position)1. Only single vowels with no consonant endings occur in prefixes. The following prefixes have a high frequency of occurrence. (1) The prefix p31 is used productively and with considerable frequency.
Anong tongue stove stomach sunny side of mountain p31l31 p31i31 p31in31 p31lim55 poison intestines ghosts shady side of mountain Anong p31l55 p31i55 p31i33 p31dzm31

(2) b31 is also a productive prefix.2

Anong liver snail k. of rodent winding, crooked b31in33 b31n55 b31ti53 b31t55 insect; worm bequeath itch long-tailed sparrow Anong b31l33 b31sn31 b31s55 b31tu55

(3) m31 is a commonly used prefix. It has been suggested that this prefix goes on words that are related to human organs, but this does not seem to be the case. The following are examples.

1 It is important to note that, while Sun refers to these entities as prefixes, he often alternatevly refers to them as reduced syllables in prefix position. From a historical perspective, some of these are known to descend from fuller morphemes; others are still unidentified. 2 At least some of these b31 prefixes come from the reduction of a word for insect; bug.

lexicon
Anong chin m31gi31 mushroom m31km55 dawn m31g55g55 Anong cat m31i31 place; site m31gm53 peach m31sm31

45
Anong grain; cereals m31dz33 guest m31nm35

(4) The prefix s31 This is also a very productive prefix. This prefix goes on verbs to mark causative. It also goes on nouns. In the past, people treated the two instances of this prefix as the same. In fact, these are two different prefixes from different sources.3
Anong daughter moon garlic nose s31l55z55 s31l55 s31b33 s31n55 salt bee sting Chinese mugwort solid bamboo Anong s31l55 s31l55 s31mo33 s31mn55

(5) The 31 prefix has a relatively low frequency of occurrence. It mainly occurs before roots with retroflex consonant initials.
Anong quilt pear skirt break; smash 3131 31to55 31m31 31xum53 pine tree pus be on diet bashful; shy Anong 31u33 31d31 313155 3155

(6) The prefix d31- . This prefix is not very frequent, sometimes being manifested as di31-.
Anong nine tendon walking stick wring; twist d31g31 d31gu31 d3131 d31tim31 neck tumor thin person disaster center; middle Anong d31ba55 d31z5531 d31k55 di31d

3 Although only a few of the examples given here exemplify the two prefixes Sun is referring to, it is quite clear that there was both an *s- prefix marking causative, transitive, directional and a quite separate prefix referred to as the *s- animal prefix, which was extended to body parts.

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(7) The prefix 31-, 31-, or z31- is often used in everyday conversation. Sometimes it varies even to the degree of becoming io, then sometimes occurring with the high level tone.
Anong mountain cure tangerine cloud 31u55 31mn55 z31m55t55 io55mn55; io31mn55 necklace abandoned field acne Anong 31lu35 z31bm55 io55dz31

(8) 31-/o31-/31-. This is one of the most productive prefixes. Its frequency of occurrence is slightly lower than the most productive prefix a31. The glottal stop is very robust before the syllabified velar nasal so we transcribe the glottal stop. In other cases, we have left the glottal stop out.
Anong seed year; age nut; kernel fetus hoof mustard greens 31i31 3155 31ts31 31tn31 o31go31in31 o31n55 cave; hole day stem; stalk peel; rind silkworm chrysalis spleen Anong 31ku31 31i55 31dz55 31ti55 o31u55 o31ti31vn55

(9) 31-. This is the most productive prefix in Anong. It often occurs with a glottal stop. Since the glottal stop does not signal any meaning distinction, I have left the glottal stop out in all cases.
Anong ear mouse; rat soak; bubble wild pepper 31n31 31din55 31pm55 31dzm55 tooth person sheep hand Anong 31s31 31ts31 31i31 31vu35

(10) i55-/i55-/i31-. This prefix has several variants and they alternate, mainly depending on the syllable it occurs with. Sometimes the glottal stop can be deleted.

lexicon
Anong inside outside future water duck i55u33 i55di31ti55 i55z31 i55b31 nearby sawdust leopard lungs Anong

47

i55dz55 i55p31 i31dz55 i31s55

In addition to the ten prefixes above, Anong also has some low frequency prefixes, such as p31, ts31, dz31, t31, t31, 31, ti31, di31, i31, i31, k31, k31, and g31. I will not give examples for those low frequency affixes.4 It is noteworthy that it is not possible at this point to figure out the meanings of most of the prefixes in Anong. This is especially true of those prefixes that came from consonant cluster reductions, which in most cases should be treated as part of the root since they are like prefixes only because of where they occur and their phonological characteristics. We often call such prefixes reduced syllables to differentiate them from true prefixes, which is probably a more accurate way of describing them. Suffixes. Anong has a certain number of suffixes. Although they are fewer in number than prefixes, they are no less productive. Also, the meanings and functions of all of the suffixes are quite clear. The following are the common ones. (1) -su55. This suffix is common among Tibeto-Burman languages. Its original meaning was person. It has been grammaticalized into a suffix on the verb to derive a noun meaning the person who performs the action encoded in the verb. In some languages, it is still being used as a full lexical item meaning person. In Anong, a different form is used to mean person, which is a31tsa31. In many cases, it occurs on a VN (Verb-Noun) compound.
Anong herder teacher woodcutter butcher tailor; dressmaker 31tu53su55 s31lm55su55 55u31su55 o55sn55su55 g31m31p55 su55 thief goldsmith a cook translator Anong k55su55 33zn55su55 31g55kin55su55 k55i31tim55su55

4 Sun declines to give examples for this set of low frequency prefixes. However, examples of all of them can be found through a search of the lexicon.

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(2) -p31. This suffix is similar to -su55. In Lisu, it is a very productive suffix. We have noticed that some Lisu loans with this suffix have a high frequency of occurrence. Consequently, this originally uncommonly used suffix in Anong has become very productive.
Anong Trung person m55ts31 p31 Lolo person (Yi) l35lo33 p31 guarantor; sponsor po31 p31 Bai person sorceress butler Anong l31b31 p31 d3155 p31 tim31k55 p31

Among the six examples in the group above, the first four are Lisu loans. The fifth form is made up of the Chinese word bao guarantee plus the suffix -ph31 to mean guarantor. The sixth form consists of the Anong form tim31 house, the Chinese word kha55 look, and the suffix -p31 meaning butler. (3) -dm55 This suffix is also a nominalizer that goes on verbs, similar to su55. The difference is that su55 derives nouns that refer to people whereas dm55 creates nouns that refer to things.
Anong to eat to fan to place under m53 di31f55 i31n55 food a fan cushion, pad, mat Anong m53dm55 di31f55dm55 i31n55dm55

In most cases, it occurs with VN (Verb-Noun) compounds meaning what something is used for.
m33xu55 cloth in55 sweat l31pu55 head 31vu35 hand ma55 face t31mi31 fire + + + + + + zn53 weave in55 wipe xu55 wrap dim55 cover dn31wash 31pu55 blow + + + + + + -dm55 ==> m33xu55zn53dm55 -dm55 ==>in55in55dm55 -dm55 ==> l31pu55xu55dm55 -dm55 ==> 31vu35dim55dm55 -dm55 ==> ma55dn31dm55 -dm55==> t31mi3131pu55dm55 loom towel scarf; turban gloves washbasin blow tube

(4) -ka55 This suffix goes on nouns of places, times, and directions to refer to locations and times.

lexicon
Anong in front; front lower course (of river) reverse; wrong side evening last night m55u31k55 i55k55 i55i31k55 3155k55 t55m55 55k55 opposite upper course (of river) over, above; head this evening Anong lu55lu35k55 n55k55

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na33ta55k55 d5555k55

(5) -55 or -31 This suffix appears on stative adjectives.5

Anong thin; watery black light (weight) ga3155 5531 313131 deep pointed heavy Anong 3131 31tsu5555 313331

When this suffix goes on adjectives that end with a consonant, the consonant goes with the suffix to form a syllable.
31 nm55 + 55 31 nm55 m55 31 n55 m55 handsome; beautiful mistake inexperienced

31 n31 + 31 31 n31 n31 31 31 n31 o55 o55 + 55 o55 o55 55 o55 o55 55

(6) -za55 This suffix has a low frequency of occurrence. It occurs on human nouns to refer to young people.
youngster; lad girl di31ts31z31 young married woman; female s31l55z55 t31m55z55

(7) -ua31. This suffix goes on adjectives and other words to derive adverbial expressions.

5 The -31, -55 is the reflex of the old Sino-Tibetan copula. It is found attached to stative adjectives elsewhere in Tibeto-Burman, too.

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ka31ma55 u33

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quietly; stealthily m31tn55 u33 unceasingly; continuously do55do33 u33 everyday; daily

m31n55 u33 motionlessly 31t55 t55 in vain; for nothing u33 (adv.)

3.3.2. Compounding Compounding is the main word formation process in Anong. Most of the words in Anong are created through compounding. We can classify the compounds into the following types based on the relationship between the roots in the compound. (1) Coordinate compounds. In this type of compounds, there is no modified and modifying relationship between the roots. The number of such compounds is relatively small.
31p31 father o55p31 uncle + + 31m31 mother u31m31 aunt ==> ==> 31p3131m31 parents o55p31u31m31 uncle and aunt

(2) Modified-modifying and modifying-modified compounds. Most of the compounds in Anong belong to this type. Modified-modifying compounds:
l31t55 tea lu55 stone + + pn55 circular s55 mill ==> ==> l31t55pn55 bowl shaped tea leaves lu55s55 grindstone

Modifying-modified compounds:
3131 wheat + b55 flour t31 juice ==> ==> 3131b55 string noodles kn55t31 vegetable soup

kn55 + vegetable

(3) Noun-complement compounds. Strictly speaking, noun-complement compounds are also a type of modified-modifying compounds,

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usually with the first element as the center. The complement is often a classifier. This compounding process is quite productive.
55 firewood s55 tree + + tn55 section dz55 tree, clf. ==> ==> 55tn55 wood s55dz55 tree

(4) Verb-object compounds. Tibeto-Burman languages are SOV in word order, and in a verb phrase, the order is OV. In Anong, verbobject compounds have the same OV order.
l33 hand + t55 bind around ==> ==> l33t55 bracelet l31pu55xu55 turban

l31pu55 + xu55 head wrap

(5) Subject-verb compounds

a31xa35 foot 31n31 ear + + di3131 lame b31d55 deaf ==> ==> a31xa35di3131 lame person 31n31b31d55 deaf person

3.3.3. Four-syllable Elaborate Expressions This word formation process is unique to Sino-Tibetan languages. Almost all of the languages in the Sino-Tibetan language family have this word formation process. It is more productive in some than in others. Anong is rich in four-syllable rhyming words. When the elderly tell stories, they like using a lot of such expressions to show how colorful and expressive the language can be. We can divide those words into the following types.
(1) AABB m31m31im31im31 p55p55l31l31 tu55tu31lu35lu35 bumpy; rough describes the shape of something collapsed describes a frank and tolerant person

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(2) ABAB

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b31t55b31t55 k31m55k31m55 55u31 55u31 k31t35k31p35 ti31i55ti31bo55 31lo553155 31lu5531b31 k55gm55m31gm55 ku55do55i55do55 m55u33u31u55 3355t3155 31ku31o55to31 31d31m31ku55 whisper in someones ear in a soft voice, soft-spoken; coy, coquettish rub repeatedly with hands high and low, from top to bottom from north to south, east to west describes the unhappy state of indeterminacy sometimes one way, sometimes another formerly, ancient times bashful, shy each look after ones self changeable; fickle; capricious

(3) ABAC

(4) ABCB

(5) ABCD

3.3.4. Reduplication Although reduplication is not a productive word formation process in Anong, it occurs in a number of lexical categories, particularly with adjectives.
Nouns: Adjectives: Verbs: Adverbs: tu55tu55 earthen jar sn55sn55 smooth, glossy om55om55 nod t55t55 in vain 3131 hillside ka55ka55 hard m31m31 sarcastic si31si31 really, truly p55p55 small basket b35b35 thin 5555 to steady du55du31 straight

3.3.5. Imitation This is a process through which sounds in the real world are named. (1) Birds and Fowls Some birds and fowls are named after their calls. Examine the examples:
owl duck frog k55pu55 i55b31 n33ga55 a crow swan d31k55 o55 cuckoo magpie k55pu31 31n55t31t31

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(2) Animal Sounds Anong has names for the sounds some animals make. Some are named after the sound they make.
moo (cow) (mu55)d55 bo55 ma35 to thunder sound of small gun cackle (hen) gu31l55 i315555u31 the sound of fluttering neigh (horse) 55

(3) Onomatopoeia Some words are direct imitations of sounds made by animals and actions. These are often used as adverbs. Therefore, they all take the suffix ua33.
m55m55u33 u31u31u33 ko31lo31ko31lo31u33 y55y55u33 sound of a sheep baaing sound of leaves falling sound of mud or rocks falling down the mountain sound of wind or heavy sleeper

CHAPTER FOUR

SYNTAX Anong is a Tibeto-Burman language, sharing many of the grammatical characteristics of Tibeto-Burman languages. For instance, its basic word order is SOV, as in most Tibeto-Burman languages, and many but not all of its grammatical structures are similar to those of Tibeto-Burman languages. Like the other Tibeto-Burman languages, it has a rich classifier system, postposed auxiliaries and grammatical particles, and so on. However, Anong also has its own unique features. It is rich in morphology with both agglutinating and fusional morphological features. Its grammatical functions are mainly indicated through morphological means, although word order and particles also play a role. Reduplication is utilized but not productive. The grammatical characteristics of Anong will be discussed in two sections of this chapter under two headings: parts of speech (or, morphological categories) and syntax. 4.1. Parts of Speech (Morphological categories) Based on the their form, meaning, and function in a sentence, words in Anong can be classified as nouns, numerals, classifiers, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, modals, interjections, and particles. We will briefly discuss each of these eleven categories. 4.1.1. Nouns Nouns have the following grammatical characteristics: (1) Number Anong has two plural markers, the suffix z3131 and the suffix m53. These two forms are quite similar. Both originated as classifiers and gradually grammaticalized into plural markers, which may occur after nouns. The former, z3131, is restricted to animate nouns while the latter, m53, can occur with both animate and inanimate nouns. The use of these plural markers is illustrated by the examples below. For example:

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31ts31 d55t55 31b55 u55 person friend goat fish

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31ts31z3131; d55t5555z3131; 31b55z3131; u55z3131; 31ts31m53 d55t55m53 31b55m53 u55m53 people friends goats fish (plural)

These two pluralizing suffixes can occasionally be distinguished in use. z3131 is generally used with animate nouns; the 31 is often omitted in the flow of speech. After inanimate nouns only m53 can be added. For example:
55dz55 tim31 tree house 55dz55m53 tim31m53 trees houses

These plural suffixes are equivalent in meaning to the Chinese plural marker men. It is necessary to make two clarifications: first, the lack of a plural suffix by no means indicates that a noun is singular; second, if there is a numeral plus classifier expression, it is not possible in most cases to also add a plural suffix. (2) Possessive Prefixes Possessives are shown by prefixes attached to nouns. First person is shown by the prefix 31, second person by 31, and third person by 31. For example:

first person

second person

third person his father his mother his paternal grandfather his paternal grandmother

31p31 my father 31p31 your father 31p31 31m31 my mother 31m31 your mother 31m31 31k31 my paternal 31k31 your 31k31 paternal grandfather grandfather 31t31 my paternal 31t31 your 31t31 paternal grandmother grandmother

The singular personal pronominal prefixes originated through the grammaticalization of personal pronouns, reducing them to prefixes, although the first person plural form still alternates between prefix and a personal pronoun uses. We can see the historical connections through comparing the prefixes with their full pronoun counterparts.

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Table 14: Pronouns and possessive prefixes person first second third personal pronoun 31, 31io31 31 31 possessive prefix 31 31, i31 31

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Comparison of a number of Tibeto-Burman languages shows a close connection between possessive prefixes and pronouns. In fact, the possessive prefixes came from pronouns through phonological erosion and grammaticalization over an extended period of time. Although many words in Anong occur with the possessive prefixes, they are no longer productive grammatical markers. Thus, the possessive prefixes are the remnant of a now disappearing construction. They only occur on kinship terms and some animate nouns when they still carry the grammatical function of possession. Their grammatical function has been considerably weakened when occurring with other nouns. The same phenomenon exists in Chinese. In certain dialects of Chinese, we have forms like the following.
55ge55 55jie21 55ma55 55die55 age jiejie mama adie elder brother elder sister mother father

The prefix 55- in the above forms is the cognate of the first person possessive prefix 31 in Anong. Needless to say, no grammarian of Chinese considers 55- in the above forms as synchronic prefixes marking possession. The following examples illustrate a similar situation in the use of the possessive prefixes in Anong: the first person possessive pronominal prefix 31- of Anong continues to exist but has lost most of its meaning.
First person: 31ph31 31m31 31ben31 my father my mother my maternal uncle

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Second person: 31ph31 31m31 31ben31 Third person: 31ph31 31m31

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your father your mother your maternal uncle

his father his mother

With kinship terms, it is even clearer that the former prefix has lost much of its possessive meaning. There kinship terms with possessive prefixes can still take personal pronouns as well as a possessive particle, which is shown in the examples below.
31 I my paternal grandfather 31 you your paternal grandfather 31 he his paternal grandfather k31 POSS. k31 POSS. k31 POSS. 31 1st.Poss. 31 2nd.Poss. 31 3rd. k31 grandfather k31 grandfather k31 grandfather

Occasionally, the possessive prefix can occur on non-human animate nouns, such as the following.
3 I my goat 31 you your goat 31 he his goat k3 POSS. 3 1st.Poss. 31 2nd.Poss. 31 3rd.Poss. b55 goat

k31 POSS. k31 POSS.

b55 goat b55 goat

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It is clear from the above examples that when a pronoun is used attributively to indicate possession, the possessive particle k31ie55 usually occurs with it. However, no intervening material can occur between the possessive prefix and the noun. (3) Diminutives The suffix tn33 occurs on nouns to mark diminutive. Its original meaning is son, which has been grammaticalized into a bound suffix. It is somewhat like the Chinese r son and zi child, but tn33 is much more productive. It can occur with both animate and inanimate nouns. The following are some examples.
31ts31 31b55 31hi35 55dz55 person goat wooden bowl tree 31ts31tn31 31b55tn31 31hi35tn31 55dz55tn31 child kid small wooden bowl tree seedling

(4) Gender Anong has two gender markers: p31 and m31/m55. p31 indicates masculine or male while m31/m55 marks feminine or female. They can occur with both animate and inanimate nouns, as is illustrated by the following examples.
Table 15: Gender markers Gloss teacher servant cow dog stone pepper tree Plain noun s31lm55su55 du31n55 no31u31 d31g55 lu55 dzi53dz55 Masculine s31lm55su55p31 du31n55p31 no31u31p31 d31g55p31 lu55p31 dzi53dz55p31 Feminine s31lm55su55m31 du31n55m31 no31u31m31 d31g55m31 lu55m31 dzi53dz55m31

Adding these markers on nouns to indicate gender is not the grammatical category gender in its strict sense, but it is not a compounding process either, because neither of the markers can occur alone to mean male or female. The markers can occur on any noun that refers to entities that can be divided into masculine and feminine genders. We wonder if they are remnants of an earlier gender marking system in Anong.

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chapter four 4.1.2. Numerals

Numerals in Anong can be divided into cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, compound numbers, approximative numbers, and so on. Numerals usually cannot occur alone. They co-occur with classifiers following them. In this respect, Anong is similar to Trung but different from Jingpo. In this section, we will discuss the formation and characteristics of numerals. (1) Cardinal Numbers In Anong, the numbers one through nine are simple numbers and the rest are compound numbers. One through nine are as follows.
ti55 31i55 31som53 bi53 p31 one two three four five ku55 s35 55 d31g31 six seven eight nine

The form ti55 one occurs with two different tones ti55 and ti31. When it occurs with a classifier, it often carries the mid-low tone ti31. This tonal variation reflects not only tone sandhi but subtle changes in meaning as well. Its semantic content is somewhat weakened when it carries the mid-low tone. Most of the cardinal numbers in Anong were once prefixed. Historically, the prefixes themselves developed out of the initials of earlier consonant clusters. Thus, the current forms are a result of sound changes over a long period of time. What is noteworthy is the fact that the forms for five, six, seven and eight all used to have prefixes. However, they became monosyllabic due to sound change, but close examination of those forms reveal that they still carry remnants of the earlier prefixes. This is especially clear in the cases of five and seven. When we compare them with their cognates in Trung, we can see the sound changes they underwent.
Table 16: Numbers and prefixes gloss five six seven eight Anong p31 ku55 s35 55 Trung dialect p31 53 du55 s31 it55 t55 Trung-Nujiang dialect p31 53 ku55 s31 it55 t55

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The examples above clearly show that the velar nasal consonant in the coda position in ph31 five in Anong came from through the loss of the vowel . Similarly, the final consonant in s35 seven in Anong resulted from the loss of the vowel and coda consonant in it55 and then became attached to the end of the preceding syllable. This means that both forms, i.e. ph31 five and s35 seven used to be bisyllabic. As for ku55 six and 55 eight, both forms used to have stops in their codas. However, almost all of the stops in codas have been lost in Anong, in many cases leaving a residual glottal stop. The final nasals in the forms for six and eight in Anong come from earlier stops with corresponding places of articulation. (2) Compound Numbers The numbers from ten or higher are all compound numbers. The number ten must occur with the number one preceding it ti31tsa55 ten. Eleven through nineteen consist of ti31tsa55 ten followed by a cardinal number.
ti31 tsai55 ti33 ti31 tsai55 i33 ti53 tsai55 som31 ti31 tsai55 b53 ti31 tsai55 p31 ti31 tsai55 ku55 ti31 tsai55 s35 ti31 tsai55 55 ti31 tsai55 d31g31 eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen

It should be pointed out that a sound change took place when the form ti31tsa55 ten is combined with a cardinal number to form the compound numbers above, namely, the vowel in tsa55 changed from a simple vowel to a diphthong tsai55. It is highly likely that the second element in the diphthong came from the conjunction si55 through sound change, because most Tibeto-Burman languages utilize this conjunction to form compound numbers. For now, we will call the second element in this diphthong the conjunctive morpheme. The numbers twenty through ninety are formed in the following manner.

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31i55tsa55 31som31tsa55 31b31tsa55 pa31tsa55 ku55tsa55 s35tsa55 55tsa55 d31g31tsa55

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twenty thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety

The formation of numbers over a hundred is the same as the process for formulating the number ten. For instance, ti5533 hundred, ti31j55/ ti31tu31 thousand, ti31m31 ten thousand. The conjunctive morpheme i31 is used between numbers in a number with multiple places. The following are a few examples.
31som31 55 i31 ku55 tsai55 ku55 three hundred conj six ten six three hundred and sixty-six ti31 j55 i31 p31 55 i31 ku55 tsai55 31i55 one thousand conj five hundred conj six ten two one thousand five hundred and sixty-two

The conjunctive morpheme usually occurs at places in a number from ten through twenty. It is optional for numbers from twenty through ninety-nine. And it is compulsory for numbers from one hundred and higher. In addition, when occurring in numbers ten through nineteen, it is pronounced closely blended together with the vowel preceding it. Therefore, we treated it as the second element of a diphthong. However, when it occurs in other cases, such blending does not occur, so we treat it as an independent syllable. (3) Approximative Numbers Anong has a number of different ways to express approximation and estimation. 1) Using two successive numbers with the approximative particle 31.
p31-io55 ku55-io55 31 five-clf six-clf appr about five or six (people)

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31i55 tsa55 31som31 tsa55 two ten three ten about twenty to thirty (people) io55 clf 31 appr

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ti31 tsai55 31som31 io55 bi31 one ten three clf four about thirteen to fourteen (people)

io55 31 clf appr

2) The approximative particle 55 several can be used with a classifier or numbers such as ten, hundred, ten thousand, etc., to express estimation/approximation.
55 io55 appr clf (people) several people 55 dz55 appr clf (trees) several trees 55 lu55 appr clf (rocks) several rocks

The approximate particle 55 can also be used with numbers.

55 tsa55 appr ten several dozen 55 55 appr hundred several hundreds 55 m31 appr ten thousand several ten thousands

55 can also be used in connection with a set compound number followed by the approximative particle. The construction indicates the number is approximate.
31i55 dzu53 31 s31l55z55 z3131 31i55 tsa55 p31 55 55 we village def girl pl two ten five age appr t35 31vu3531i31ti55 n33. conj marry prt Women in our village get married around the age of 25. 31 s35 55 55 t35 55 he seven age appr conj book He went to school at about the age of seven. v31 read tn31 s33. dim prt

It should be noted that there are two versions of the approximative particle , one with a mid-low tone and the other a high-high tone. The question is are they two different morphemes or are they allomorphs of the same morpheme? We consider them as allomorphs of the same morpheme with a similar grammatical function, although one is a bit

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more concrete than the other. Specifically, the one with the mid-low tone is less concrete while the one with the high tone is more concrete. Grammatically, they are very similar though not identical. This may be a case of a functional morpheme changing to a content morpheme due to the influence of the phonetic environment. This surmise is based on the fact that suffixal morphemes in Anong usually carry the mid-low tone. They only change to a different tone when influenced by their phonetic environment in the flow of speech. Also, the use of morphemes with the concrete meanings several and about being used as grammatical markers is a relatively recent phenomenon. (4) Place Numbers Place numbers such as the tens place, the hundreds place, etc., may occur with the prefix 31 to convey the meaning several.
31 tsa55 31 55 31 tu31 31 m31 prf ten prf hundred prf thousand prf ten thousand several tens several hundreds several ten thousands several thousand

Some of the place number plus the prefix 31 combinations can be used to form compound expressions, such as the following. In this case the smaller number comes first.
31 tu31 31 m31 prf thousand prf ten.thousand thousands upon ten thousands 31 55 31 tu31 prf hundred prf thousand hundreds upon thousands

Numbers can also be followed by k3155 to indicate in excess of or more than.

ti31-tsa55 k3155 io55 one-ten more.than clf (people) more than ten (people) ti31 55 k3155 io55 one hundred more.than clf (people) more than a hundred (people) 31som53 tsa55 d3155 io55 three ten more.than clf (people) more than thirty (people)

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k3155 usually occurs between the number and classifier, but it can also occur after the classifier, which is illustrated by the examples below.
o55 i31 31 31 31i55 55 gm55 d3155 31n55. pig this clf def two hundred catty more.than have This pig is about two hundred catties (= around 1/2 kilogram). mu31gu55d31 dzu53 31 s35 tsa55 zm55 d3155 o33-31. proper.name village def seven ten household more.than have-ind Mgujia Village has about 70 or so households.

(5) Fractions Fractions are expressed by using the locative particle o31k31 between the two numbers.
som53-55 three-prt one third p31-55 five-prt two-fifths u31k31 ti31-55 loc one-prt u31k31 31i55-55 loc two-prt

(6) Multiples Multiples are expressed through using the suffix k55.
ti31 k55 one times twice p31 k55 five times five times ti31 55 k31 one hundred times one hundred times

The expression fu55 borrowed from Lisu can be used in place of the suffix k55. In fact, the Lisu form has a higher frequency of occurrence.
ti31 fu55 one suf two times, twice p31 fu55 five suf five times ti31 55 fu55 one hundred suf one hundred times

(7) Ordinal Numbers k31p55 or i55p55 is used before a cardinal number to form an ordinal number.

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k31p55ti55 k31p5531som53 k31p55ti55tsa55 k31p55ti3155 or or or or

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i55p55ti55 i55p5531som53 i55p55ti55tsa55 i55p55ti3155 first third tenth hundredth

Anong has a calendar system similar to the Chinese lunar system. However, the word s31l55 moon/month must occur before the number.
s31l55 ti55 i33 month one day first day of the month s31l55 31som53 i33 month three day third day of the month s31l55 55 i33 month eight day eighth day of the month s31l55 ti51 tsai55 month one ten fifteenth day of the month p53 five i33 day

Anong has also lexicalized the practice of putting their children in the order according to age for both males and females.1 Up to ten such terms are in use, five of which are given below. The reason for omitting the other five expressions is that due to the effect of the governments family planning policy, there is no longer a consistently accepted set of expressions for referring to the next five children in Anong since they are very rarely used.

Table 17 has terms for birth order only up to fifth-born. However, Bradley (2008:5469) writes that the Anong system in Myanmar has terms up to ninth-born. One question is why there is a difference here. In any case, this system, borrowed into Lisu, is one of the clearest cases of influence from Anong into Lisu.

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Table 17: Terms for birth order Birth order first second third fourth fifth Male 31pu55 31d55 55kim33 31tsn55 55gu31 Female 3155 31i33 55t33 55du31 55ku31

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4.1.3. Classifiers and Measure Words Although Anong belongs to the Jingpo subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman language family, it has a rich classifier system. In this respect, Anong is very similar to Trung in terms of the number of classifiers, their grammatical functions and characteristics. And, just like Trung, its classifier system is typologically more similar to languages in the Qiang, Burmese, and Yi branches, and more different from languages in the Jingpo branch.2 Classifiers in Anong can be divided into nominal classifiers and verbal classifiers. Classifiers can not occur alone. They must occur with numerals or some other part of speech as constituents of a sentence. Their characteristics and uses are briefly discussed below. (1) Noun Classifiers Noun classifiers can be categorized in many ways, depending on usage and characteristics. The following are commonly used classifications. 1) Classifiers indicating the shape of objects:
o55 l31 tam55 b55 ko55 pm55 round, hard objects objects that come in flexible sheets objects that come in thin rigid layers rope-like flexible objects rope-like rigid objects round, soft objects

Sun Hongkai. 1999. Zhangmian Yu Liangci Yongfa Bijiao-jian lun liangci fazhan de jieduan cengci [A comparison of the uses of classifiers in Tibeto-Burman languages, with a discussion on their developmental stages and layers]. Zhongguo Yuyan Xuebao [Journal of Languages of China], Vol. 3.

68 2) Measure words
lm33 b31t55 m33k33 lu55 d55 gm55 pn55 55

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arms spread, i.e. the length from finger tip to finger tip with arms spread the length between the thumb and middle finger the length between the thumb and the index finger one tenth of a catty (one catty equals half a kilogram) a unit of dry measure (equals one decaliter) catty liter a unit of length (equals one third of a centimeter)

3) Temporal measure words

55 i33 s55 di31ts55 i55 year/age day morning generation night

4) Classifiers for abstract matters

t31 i31 31 t3131 bm55 kind (of things/goods) item (of matter) unit item (of problem) type/item (of unspecific objects)

5) Classifiers for collective nouns

z31 z55 k35 m31i55 dzui55 b31m53 flock nest grove bouquet pair some

6) Nouns or verbs as classifiers Nouns:

x55 tm55 basket book

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di31ki3 tm55 bowl petal

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Verbs:
m31b33 m31gu53 do55 bm55 k31lim55 a31 bundle hold (with both hands cupped together) roll pile bunch carry on back (so a backload of )

7) Classifiers borrowed from Chinese and Lisu From Chinese:

xo31 pin31 tsu55 f55 tu33 box bottle cun (= one third of a decimeter) a square or cubic meter bucket

From Lisu:
k35 d55 ti55 ti35 box chi (= one third of a meter) unit if dry measure (= one decaliter) pack (as in a load carried by a pack animal)

Some of the classifiers in Anong have a very high frequency of occurrence, such as io55/io55 for people (e.g. person, professor, military officer), dz55 for plants (e.g. tree, bamboo, seedling), 31 for animals and insects (e.g. horse, fish, chicken, insect, snake), dzui55 for things that come in pairs (e.g. earrings, shoes, bracelets), and 55 for relatively abstract matters (e.g. matter, country, case/incidence, sort/kind, slice (of kind heart)). These characteristics show that the functions of classifiers in Anong are expanding. In addition to being used to indicate quantity, they show signs of taking on functions of classification. The following examples illustrate that classifiers in Anong begin to be used as demonstratives in addition to their functions of measure and classification.

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su55u31 io55 mi53 di51z55u31 io55 31 b31 ti55 dm55 du35 i55 u31da33 fat clf caus skinny clf def do one clf beat with.fist asp The fat person beat up the skinny person with his fist.

The literal meaning of the above sentence is The fat one beat up the skinny one. The demonstrative, that is, the indexical, use of the person classifier is quite obvious. Also, in Anong, there are a number of expressions for the meaning beat depending on the instrument or method used. In this case, the expression du35i55 means to beat with fist. Noun classifiers also display the following three characteristics. 1) Reduplication Either reduplicating the classifier alone or together with the numeral one to mean one by one. The following are some examples.
ti55 ti55 ti55 ti55 ti5531 ti55k55 ti55pan55 ti55du55 io55 dz55 i33 bm55 ti5531 ti55k55 ti55pan55 ti55du55 io55 dz55 i33 bm55 one by one/one at a time plant by plant/one plant at a time day by day/one day at a time pile by pile/one pile at a time item by item/one item at a time utterance by utterance/one utterance at a time piece by piece/one piece at a time bucket by bucket/one bucket at a time

Both types of reduplication have the same grammatical function. When these constructions occur in a sentence as adverbials, they must be marked by u33, li55, or 31.
31t31 ti55i33i33 time one day day Time goes by day by day. li55 adv 31 b35 go

55 ti55 k55 ti55 k55 you one utterance one utterance You speak utterance by utterance.

u33 adv

tim35 say

2) The prefix k31- and the suffix -n31g55 are used with a classifier to convey the meaning each/every.

syntax
k31- io55 prf clf each person k31- i55 prf clf each evening -n31g55 suf -n31g55 suf k31- dz55 prf clf each plant k31- lu55 prf clf each piece -n31g55 suf -n31g55 suf

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3) Auto-classification: a noun or a part of a noun can be used as classifiers for the object it refers to. Full nouns as classifiers:
pan33 leg a leg ti55 one pan33 leg lu55 stone dzu53 village m55 ti55 leaf one a leaf tim31 ti55 house one a house k55 ti55 utterance an utterance m55 leaf tim31 house k55 one utterance

lu55 ti55 stone one a stone dzu53 ti55 village one a village

Partial nouns as classifiers:

i55lu55 ti55 eye one an eye 55dz55 tree a tree lu55 eye ti55 dz55 one tree 55vn55 flower a flower k55lim31 road a road ti55 one ti55 one vn55 flower lim31 road

(2) Verb Classifiers Anong has a small number of verb classifiers. However, they have a high frequency of occurrence with significant grammatical functions. They occur before verbs of activity or action to quantify the activity or action. They are d31, dm55, so31, and mo33.

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l55 imp d53 see o31 imp.sg

m31di31 i55-31 31io31 ti55-so31 map this-clf I one-clf Let me take a look at this map, please. ti55i31 yesterday b55d31-vu31-su55 beggar b31 obj

d31g55 mi53 dog caus

ti55-mo33 ki53 31b35 one-clf bite go Yesterday, a beggar was bitten by a dog.

4.1.4. Pronouns Anong has personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and indefinite pronouns. The following is a brief discussion of their formation and functions. (1) Personal Pronouns
Table 18: Personal pronouns Singular 1 2 3 31, 31io31 31 31 Dual 31i55si31 (incl) 31i55si31 (excl) 3155si31 3155si31 Plural 31i55 (31ni35) (incl) 31i55 (excl) 3155 3155

Anong has first, second, and third person pronouns which come in singular, dual and plural forms. First person dual and plural also have inclusive and exclusive distinctions. The first and second person pronouns are Tibeto-Burman, and, ultimately, Sino-Tibetan, in origin. It should be noted that the first person singular pronoun has two forms. The 31 form originates in Sino-Tibetan. The other form is made up of the phonologically reduced first person singular pronoun 31 and the person classifier io31. The former contrasts with the first person dual and plural inclusive whereas the latter contrasts with the first person dual and plural exclusive. The difference between the plural and dual forms of the pronouns is the marker si31 on all of the dual pronouns.

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(2) Demonstrative Pronouns Anong has two sets of demonstrative pronouns: proximal and distal. The proximal set has only one form, ia55 this (here), which has two variants i55 and i31. The distal set has four forms to distinguishhigh, level, and low positions of the object with respect to a mountain, river, or flat land. The form n55 that (up there) is used to refer to an object located high up in the mountain, in the upper reaches of a river, or on the mountain side (as opposed to the water side). The form i55 that (down there) is used to refer to an object located down a mountain, in the lower reaches of a river, or on the water side (as opposed to the mountain side). To refer to objects on flat land, Anong has two different forms, namely, o55 that (over there) and ku55 that (yonder). Demonstrative pronouns have to occur with classifiers as constituents of a sentence. Usually, they cannot occur alone. The following are some examples.
i55 bm31 n3155 this clf def This one here is mine. o55 bm31 n3155 that clf def That one over there is yours. ku55 bm31 n3155 that clf def That one yonder is fathers. 31io31 I 31 you 31p31 father k31 poss k31 poss k31 poss k31 poss k31 poss ie55 be ie55 be ie55 be ie55 be ie55 be

i55 bm31 n3155 31k31 that clf def grandpa That one down there is grandpas. n55 bm31 n3155 31ben31 that clf def uncle That one up there is uncles (on mothers side).

(3) Interrogative Pronouns All of the interrogative pronouns are made up of the interrogative morpheme k55 or k31 plus a pronominal morpheme. The interrogative pronoun for people is k31io55 who, which is made up of the interrogative morpheme k31 and the classifier for

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person io55. Literally, it means which one, but because the classifier is the classifier for people, it implies which person.
31 k31io55 31you who 2sg Who are you? i33 be

When k31 io55 is used with the adverb g31 also, the combination is no longer an interrogative pronoun. It becomes an indefinite pronoun.
31 k31io55 b31 g31 m31- -l35 I who do also neg look.for I am not looking for anybody.

The interrogative pronoun plus classifier can be reduplicated to indicate plurality.

k31 io55 q clf (person) which one (i.e. who) k31 io55 k31 io55 q clf q clf (person) which ones (i.e. which persons)

The interrogative pronoun for things is k55t31 what. It is made up of the interrogative morpheme k55 and the classifier for relatively abstract things t31.
31 k55t31 31 you what 2sg What do you want? o31? want

Just like the interrogative pronoun for people, when the adverb g31 is used with k55t31, they form an indefinite pronoun meaning anything.
31io31 k55 t31 g31 m31- o31 I what also neg want I dont want anything.

It can be reduplicated to indicate plurality.

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k55t31 k55t31 k55t31 what which ones

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It can occur with l31 to form a rhetorical question.

31 55 k55t31l31 you def why Why did you hit somebody? 31ts31 somebody b31 do 31 2sg35 beat u31? -asp

The location interrogative pronoun is k5531 where, which is made up of the interrogative morpheme k55 and 31. The 31 used to be used as a locative particle.
31 k5531 you where Where did you go? 31 2sg dz31 go d31 asp

There are two other location interrogative pronouns k55b31 and k55 k31, but they are not as widely used as k5531. Just like the interrogative pronouns for people and things, the location interrogative pronoun can occur with the adverb g31 also to turn it into an indefinite location pronoun, and it can be reduplicated to indicate plurality. The interrogative pronoun for quantity is k5531 how much/many. It is made up of the interrogative morpheme k55 and the indefinite number 31 several. The interrogative pronoun for quality, state, or appearance is k31di55, which is made up of the interrogative morpheme k31 and the abstract noun di55 circumstance/ kind/state. (4) Reflexive Pronouns The reflexive pronoun in Anong is 31lu5531 self. It can occur alone as a constituent of a sentence. The ending 31 is often deleted.
31 g31m31 31lu55 he clothes refl He washes his own clothes. dn55 wash -u31 -mood

The reflexive pronoun can co-occur with a pronoun. However, both the prefix 31 and the suffix 31 must be deleted.

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31io31lu55 31i55si31lu55 31i55lu55 31lu55 3155si31lu55 3155 31lu55 3155si31lu55 3155lu55

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myself ourselves (dual) ourselves yourself yourselves (dual) yourselves himself themselves (dual) themselves

(5) Indefinite Pronouns There are two indefinite pronouns in Anong 31ts31 or 31ts31t55 somebody, and the other one is 3155 everybody.
ia55 n5555 31ts31 this def somebody This is somebody elses. 31ts31ts55 m31- m55 somebody neg- eat Somebody has not eaten yet. 31 3155 b31 you everybody do You speak to everybody. k31 poss -n31 -mood 31 2sgtim55 speak ie55 be

4.1.5. Verbs Verbs in Anong are marked for person, number, aspect, voice, mood, and direction using prefixes, suffixes, root internal changes of initial, final and tone, and reduplication. (1) Person and Number In Anong, a verb must agree in person and number with its subject. The agreement is marked through affixation. The verb ki55 bite; gnaw is used below to illustrate Anong agreement marking.3

3 The citation form for verbs is, as LaPolla (2000:284) has noted for closely-related Rawang, the third-person non-past affirmative/declarative form.

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Table 19: Agreement on the verb Singular 1 2 3 ki55 31ki55 ki55 Dual ki55s55 31ki55s55 ki55 Plural ki55i 31ki5531 ki55

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1) The first person singular marker on the verb is the suffix -, which comes from the first person pronoun through the grammaticalization process, and has been fused onto the verb root. When the verb ends in a vowel, the suffix becomes part of the final. When the verb ends in a consonant, the final remains unchanged but the tone changes from a level tone to a rising tone. When the verb ends in a glottal stop, then the suffix comes before the glottal stop (e.g. 31ga55 dry (clothes) vs. s31ga55/ s31ka55 cause to dry (clothes). As part of the final of a verb, the suffix 31 is in the process of weakening, being realized through nasalization of the preceding vowel. Sometimes it also causes the vowel in the morpheme that follows it to become nasalized. 2) Second person singular is marked by the prefix , which comes from the second person pronoun through the process of grammaticalization. It is sometimes realized as 31. 3) Third person marking is zero for singular, dual, and plural. 4) First person dual is marked by the suffix s55, which is sometimes realized as so33. Notice that both forms have the initial [s]. We believe that both forms are grammaticalized variants of the dual marker si31 for personal pronouns. Anong has a homophonous aspect marker s55, which often occurs with a low falling tone. 5) Second person dual is marked by the prefix and the suffix s55 or so33 on the verb. The prefix marks person while the suffix marks number. 6) First person plural is marked by the suffix i31. The origin of i31 is difficult to ascertain. It may be connected to the first person pronoun. It is noteworthy that in all of the Tibeto-Burman languages that have person marking, the first person plural markers are related to either i31 or a vowel similar to it. This is not a coincidence. It could be an indication that they are all cognates. 7) Second person plural is marked by the prefix 31 and the suffix 31 on the verb, both of which come from second person pronouns. Using person marking to indicate plural is not unique to Anong. This

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kind of marking is almost universal among Tibeto-Burman languages that retain the person marking category. 8) It was mentioned earlier that Anong has the inclusive and exclusive distinction for first person dual and plural. In the examples given in Table 20, the marking for first person dual and plural are examples for exclusive dual and plural in the first person. The dual inclusive marker is the suffix s31. For first person plural inclusive, the marker is the same as the marker for first person plural exclusive. The copula verb in Anong is also marked for person, but it has its own patterns. The affirmative form of the copula is i33, which does not inflect for person. The negative form of the copula, however, inflects for person and number. The negative marker m31 is fused with the prefix in second person to be part of the same syllable.
Table 20: Agreement marking on the copula Singular Negative Affirmative 1 i33 2 i33 3 i33 Dual Negative Affirmative Plural Negative Affirmative m3155i55 m315531 m3155

m3155 i33 m3155 i33 m3155 i33

m3155s55 i33 m3155s55 i33 m3155 i33

It should be pointed out that the negative form of the copula 55 can also be used as the affirmative form, although the affirmative form of the copula i33 can not be used in place of the negative form. 9) Inverse marking. Anong has SVO word order, and the verb most often agrees with the subject in person and number. Sometimes, however, the verb has to agree with the object and its modifier in person and number. Specifically, when the subject is third person, and the object and its modifier are in first or second person, the verb must agree with the object or its modifier in person and number. This pattern is exemplified as follows with the verbs p53 sew and 3133 hit (a person) when the subject is third person.

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Table 21: Inverse marking Subject 3 3 3 3 3 3 Object 1sg 1du 1pl 2sg 2du 2pl sew 31p5331 31 p53s55u31 31 p53i55u31 31p5331 31 p53s55u31 31 p5331u31 hit; beat

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313531 3135 s55u31 3135 i55u31 313531 3135 s55u31 313531u31

The examples above show that when the subject is third person, and the object is first or second person, the subject must agree with the object in person. But another difference is that the verb takes the prefix 31, which is a very productive prefix in Anong. The affixes on the verb follow predictable rules in pronunciation. For instance, when a verb root ends in a nasal consonant, it combines with the vowel suffix to form a syllable, as is illustrated below.

Verb m53 in53 53 eat poke drink

Verb+1pl m53i31 we eat in53i31 we poke 53i31 we drink

Pronounciation 53mi31 i53ni31 53ni31

When the verb root ends in a nasalized vowel, then the suffixal vowel becomes nasalized as well.

Verb di31dz31 taste ke31 pull 31 sew (button)

Verb+1pl di31dz31 i31 ke31 i31 31 i31

Pronunciation di31dz31 i31 ke31 i31 31 i31

For verbs that either begin with a vowel or with the prefix 31, the second person prefix 31 combines with 31 to form a syllable or it becomes the onset of the verb root.

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31s31 select (seeds) 31pu31 blow (on fire) 31pu31 31pu31s55 31pu3131 m53 eat m53 m53 s55 m5331

2sg 2du 2pl

31s31 31s31s55 31s3131

There are some other pronunciation changes, such as tonal changes. But the conditions governing those changes are quite complex. We will not go into detail about those changes here. (2) Aspect Aspect is marked by suffixes on the verb. Anong has future progressive, present progressive, perfect, experiential, and perfective aspects. (A) Future Progressive Future progressive is marked by the suffix b55 or u55 on the verb. The former can occur with first, second or third person, but the latter can only occur with the third person. Also, b55 indicates eye-witnessed or first-hand events (fut.fh) while u55 indicates non-eye-witnessed or hearsay events (fut.hs). Anong has a declarative mood suffix 55/31, which is also used to mark present progressive when used alone. It can co-occur with any aspect marker to indicate declarative mood.
31io31 55 o55 I def return.1sg I am going back. b55 fut.fh -55 -ind -u55 -fut.hs

3155 kn33 vn35 -55 they vegetable buy -ind They are going to buy vegetables (hearsay).

(B) Present Progressive Present progressive is marked by the suffix 55 or no3155 on the verb.
mo55do55 d31b31 55 -k31 31i35 -si31 car bridge on.top.of -loc slow -adv The car is slowly crossing the bridge. 31gu55 -55. cross -ind

3155 tim31 k31 l31t55 31ti31zn31s55 no31-31 they home poss door latch asp-ind The door to their house is latched. (i.e. in the state of being latched.)

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(C) Perfect Progressive Perfect progressive is marked by the suffix d31/d31/di31 on the verb. This marking indicates that the event has already been in progress or a resultant state is being realized. It does not emphasize its telicity, i.e. its endpoint. The marker varies in form in sentences with pronominal subjects. Person marking usually occurs before the aspect marker. (See the section on person and number marking on verbs for details.)
31io31 55 33 ti31 gm55 I def meat one catty I bought one catty of meat. ts31 dz55 31d31 rain fall exp It is already raining. vn35 d31 -31 buy exp.1sg -pst

(D) Experiential Aspect Experiential aspect is marked by the suffix -ie31. It indicates that the event has happened or used to take place. Sometimes it is used to convey the sense that the speaker experienced it in the past.
31 pei31tin55 dz53b55 I Beijing go I have been to Beijing. 31 55 31din55 33 he def rat meat He has eaten rat meat. -ie31 -asp

ki55 -31 -ie31 bite -ind -asp

(E) Perfective Aspect Perfective Aspect is marked by 55 on the verb to indicate that the event was not only already in progress but has been completed as well. The perfective aspect marker 55 is often used in combination with the perfect progressive aspect.
31 55 31g55t31 m55 55 d31 -55 he def food eat asp asp -ind He has finished eating the food/meal. m31dzn55sn31 3155 31kom55 55 crops all harvest asp All crops have been harvested. d31 -55 asp -ind

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(3) Voice Anong has reflexive (middle), causative, and reciprocal voices marked by prefixes, suffixes, and verb root internal changes. (A) Reflexive The reflexive is marked by the suffix 31 on the verb. The marker has two variants 31 and s31. Reflexive marking4 is no longer productive in Anong. In some cases, it has been fossilized with the verb root. The first person singular form is 31 and the second singular form can be either 31 or s31. It has no special forms for dual and plural. In other words, the regular person and number markers for dual and plural are used.

verb dn31 sn55 t55 gu31 wash (clothes) kill comb (hair) put on (clothes)

first person dn3131 sn5531 t5531 gu3131

second person dn3131 sn55s31 (31) t5531 (s31) gu3131

(B) Causative Causatives are marked by prefixes or devoicing of the initial consonant in some verb roots. a) The prefix s31 is used to mark causative. It has several phonetically determined variants. Verbs containing vowels such as a, o, , or u take s31. s31 occurs before verbs containing the vowel . i31 occurs before verbs with either a palatal consonant in the initial position or with the high front vowel i. This last form is clearly a result of place of articulation assimilation. This is the main causative marker in Anong, which is a reflex of the proto-Tibeto-Burman causative marker. However, it is not very productive in Anong.

4 Anong reflexive marking seems to include some middle marking (see LaPolla 2004), or fossilized remains of middle marking.

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Verb adhere eat bite (dog) break ga55 m53 d53 to55d55 Causative verb s31ga55 s31m53 i31d53 s31to55d55

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b) Some of the verbs with either a lateral liquid or a nasal consonant in the initial position, the initial consonant becomes devoiced in the causative froms.

Verb bury fill sleep cry lim55 n55 im55 55

Causative verb im55 (s31lim55) n55 (s31n55) im55 (s31im55) 55 (s3155)

c) Another causative prefix is d31 which has a variant form di31.

Verb hatch melt rot put on (clothes) bm55 g55 bm55 gu31

Causative verb d31bm55 d31g55 d31bm55 d31gu31

d) Anong has some other causative prefixes, which have the same function as s31 and d31. But they have a very low frequency of occurrence. Whether these are just exceptions or not is still unknown. Further investigation is needed to have a clear understanding of these prefixes.

Verb fall (wall) flat sour dim55 31d31 m31tm55

Causative verb b31dim55 (i31dim55) p55d31 pm31tm55

The first form above, takes either b31 or i31 as the causative marker. In the other two examples under (d), the prefix p55 came from the

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combination of p31 with the prefix 31 and p31 with 31 and m31 respectively, and the causative markers being p31 and pm31. (C) Reciprocals Reciprocals are marked by the prefix 31-.

Verb shoot miss ask pull vm55 tsom55 zn53 an33

Reciprocal verb 31vm55 31tsom55 31zn53 31an33 shoot each other miss each other ask each other pull each other

There are some words that have an inherent reciprocal meaning, and they all have the prefix 31-. This could be an indication that this grammatical marker is moving in the direction of becoming a derivational morpheme. The following are some examples.
31ti31 31g55 31pu55 3131 31k55 31vm55 31tan55 3155 31lin55 exchange discuss bump each other fight divorce battle wrestle copulate compete

Also, reciprocal and causative markers can occur on the same verb, which is illustrated by the following examples.
31 i31 d31 recip caus believe cause to believe each other 31 s31 g55 recip caus glue make stick to each other 31 i31 55( 55) recip caus rub make rub each other

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(D) Mood Mood in Anong is marked either through an utterance final particle or a morphological marker on the verb. Anong has indicative, imperative, and directional moods, marked by affixation, or voicing alternations of the initials of verb roots. 1) Indicative mood The indicative mood in Anong is marked by the suffix 55 or 31 on the verb.5 If another marker is also present, the combination will include progressive in its meaning.
p55dz55m31 31 g55t31 older brother def porridge Older brother is eating porridge. 31 31 b55d31 kin31 he def food boil He is cooking food. m53 -31. eat- ind -31 -ind

2) Imperative The imperative is often used to issue a command to the person the speaker is speaking to. Therefore, in Tibeto-Burman languages, the imperative is related to second person markings. The imperative in Anong has singular, dual, and plural forms marked by affixation, and, for some verbs, alternation in the voicing of the initials. a) When the initial is a voiceless consonant, or a voiced stop/affricate, or a consonant cluster, it remains unchanged, and the imperative is marked by the suffix o31 for singular, so31 for dual, and o31 for plural.

Root dzm55 bi31 x53

Singular dzm55o31 bi31o31 x53o31

Dual dzm55so31 bi31so31 x53so31

Plural dzm55o31 bi31o31 x53o31 glue cut (meat) sift

The singular imperative marker often blends with the verb or suffix. For instance, dzm55o31 is pronounced as dz55mo31, bi31o31 as bio31 and x53o31 as x53o31. The same rule applies to the examples below.
The tonal variation is not unexpected. Work is needed on the nuances of the tense-aspect marking.
5

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b) If the initial of the verb root is a voiced fricative, a voiced nasal, or a voiced lateral, then it is devoiced in the imperative form. The suffixes are the same.

Root v31 zn53 m33 m35 l55

Singular f31o31 sn53o31 m33o31 m35o31 55o31

Dual f31so31 sn53so31 m33so31 m35so31 55so31

Plural f31o31 sn53o31 m33o31 m35o31 55o31 light (lamp) ask sell dig lick

c) If the verb root begins with a vowel, the prefix must be added in addition to the imperative marker. In pronunciation, this prefix weakens to just the consonant which then blends with the vowel that follows it to form a syllable.
55drink Singular Dual Plural 31dz55 Singular Dual Plural m53 Singular Dual Plural p3155o31 p3155so31 p3155o31 chop p3131dz55o31 p3131dz55so31 p3131dz55o31 eat p31m53o31 p31m53so31 p31m53o31 (pronounced as: p53mo31) (pronounced as: pm53so31) (pronounced as: pm53o31) (pronounced as: p31dz55o31) (pronounced as: p31dz55so31) (pronounced as: p31dz55) (pronounced as: p55o31) (pronounced as: p55 so31) (pronounced as: p55o31)

d) When the verb begins with a diphthong that has [i] as its first element, [i] becomes in the imperative forms. The [] may have come from [s]. In any case, the alternation lacks an explanation.

Root in55 i55

Singular n55o31 55o31

Dual n55so31 55so31

Plural n55o31 55o31 escape yell

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3) Optative Anong has two types of optative. One is marked by the prefix l55 and the other is marked by the prefix l31, in addition to the imperative markers, the sentence ends with the utterance final particle lie31 in both cases.
31io31 55 l55 d55 o31 I def opt look imp.sg Please let me take a look. 31io31 55 ti55 so31 l55 I def one clf Please let me take a rest. 31 l31 dn55 he opt wash Please let them wash. 31 you 55 def o31 imp.sg lie31 opt lie31 imp.sg opt

di31g55 o31 opt rest lie31 opt -do31 walk dz31, conj

z55 m31 carry.on.back neg-

31 l55 z55 31 d31gu55 o31 he opt carry.on.back 2sg help imp.sg Please let him help you carry (it), if you cannot carry (it).

lie31 opt

(E) Directional Markers on Verbs The Anong people live in the mountains and valleys. Therefore, their actions and activities are marked for directions through a variety of suffixes based on the location and orientation of rivers and mountains. The suffixes can be divided into two categories, centrifugal vs centripetal, dependent on the speakers perspective. The suffixes came from full fledged lexical items, the original meanings of some of which are still retained, which can be seen in the examples below. 1) Motion toward the center of action (usually the place of the speech act) is marked by the suffixes 31ie55, 31n55, 3155, and o31 on the verb. Their grammatical functions and meanings are illustrated using the verb z55 carry on back.
z55 31ie55 z55 31n55 z55 3155 z55 o31 carry on back hither (level ground) carry on back up hither (from lower to higher ground) carry on back down hither (from higher to lower ground) carry on back return hither (return to starting point)

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2) Motion away from the center of action (usually the speech act) is marked by the suffixes 31b55, 31l31, 55, and u55 on the verb.
z55 31b55 z55 31l31 z55 55 z55 u55 carry on back hither/away (away from point of origin) carry on back down thither (from up a mountain/dwelling) carry on back up thither (from down a mountain/dwelling) carry on back return thither (return to point of origin)

When these directional suffixes co-occur with other grammatical markings, their finals inflect for person and number marking. We will again use the verb carry on back to illustrate the inflections for future progressive and perfect progressive.
Table 22: Future progressive and perfect progressive Subject 1sg 2sg 3sg 1du 2du 3du 1pl 2pl 3pl Future Progressive zn55 31bo55 31 z55 31bo55 z55 31bo31 z55 31b55 so31 31 z55 31bo55 so31 z55 31bo31 z55 31bi55 31 z55 bo5531 z55 31bo31 Perfect Progressive zn55 31b55 31 31 z55 31b31 z55 31b31 z55 31b55 s31 31 z55 31b55 s31 z55 31b31 z55 31b55 31 31 z55 b55 31 31 z55 31b31

There are several points to be noted about this set of examples. First, an alveolar nasal occurs on the verb in the first person singular forms for both future progressive and perfect progressive. The function and origin of this ending are still unknown, and will require further study. One possibility is that it is a variant of person marking resulting from double marking for person. Second, marking future progressive and perfect progressive through inflecting the suffix could be a remnant of changes in tense marking. So far, we do not have any other explanation for this kind of inflection. Third, in addition to the vowel change of the suffixes for the inflection, there is an accompanying tonal change in the form of an alternation between the high level and low falling tones. This is true with both the person and number markings and the

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marking for aspect. We conjecture that this is an accompanying effect of combining various affixes and the intonation patterns.6 (F) Nominalization of verbs Verbs and verb-object phrases can be turned into nominals through suffixation. The suffix on the verb-object phrase turns it into a noun meaning the thing used to V. The following are some examples. 1) dm55 can be added to both verbs and verb-object phrases to turn them into nouns.

Verb m53 a55 da55 dzom31 VO Phrase 31tsh 31 person 31gi31 carry eat drink look use

Noun m53 dm55 a55 dm55 da55 dm55 dzom31 dm55 food beverage something to read/look at/see something to use

V-O compound noun 31tsh3131gi31 dm55 pole (for carrying people) b3131d55 dm55 stamp, seal

b31 31d55 name carve

2) z55 is added to a verb or verb-object phrase to create a noun to refer to the place where V-ing is taking place.

Verb im55 di55g55 55um55 n31 sleep rest forge (iron) pump (water)

Noun im55 z55 di55g55 z55 55um55 z55 n31 z55 bed (place to sleep) place to rest (place to rest for horses) anvil (for blacksmith to fashion iron on) pump (place to pump water)

The tense-aspect-agreement system is still far from being fully understood.

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VO phrase m31dz31tm55 grain beat i31n31s33l55 animal graze

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V-O compound m31dz31tm55 z55 i31n31s33l55 z55 thrashing ground grazing land

3) -su55 is added to verbs or verb-object phrases to derive agentive nouns.

Verb tn33 s31lm55 di31b31 study teach help

Noun tn33 su55 s31lm55 su55 di31b31 su55 student, apprentice teacher, master assistant

VO phrase l31m55 u33 field do l31pu55 dz33 headman sit

V-O compound l31m55u33 su55 l31pu55dz33 su55 farmer headman

The same verb can take any one of the three suffixes to derive a noun.

Verb

Noun

55u31 (firewood + do) 55u31z55 place for gathering firewood 55u31 (firewood + do) 55u31su55 person who gathers firewood 55u31 (firewood + do) 55u31dm55 tool for gathering firewood

(4) The Copulas Like some of the Tibeto-Burman languages, Anong has several forms of the copula verb that occur in different contexts. 1) 3155 occurs with inanimate and movable objects. Its negative form is m3155.

syntax
31io31 g31m31 s55 ti55I clothes new oneI have an article of new clothing. tm55 clf 3155 cop -31. -ind

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Like the other verbs, the copula verb inflects for person and number, shown in the following table.
Table 23: Person and number on the copula 3155 Singular 1 2 3 31d55 3155 3155 31 Dual 3155 s31 3155 s31 3155 31 Plural 3155 i31 3155 31 31 3155 31

2) o55 occurs with animate entities, including entities that are considered to be animate by the speakers. Sometimes it is pronounced as no55. Its negative form is m31o55.
31i55 tim31 k35 31ts31 p31-io55 we house loc person five- clf There are only five people in our family. 31nu31 t55 t31m31 k31 u55 Anong nationality river loc fish There are fish in the Nu (Anong) River. 31si31 o55 only cop o55 cop -31. -ind -i31 . 1pl

This copula also inflects for person and number. Its inflected forms are similar to those of 3155. 3) 31n55 occurs with abstract nouns and nouns that refer to an entity inside a container. This form of the copula does not seem to inflect for person and number. Its negative form m3155 is also quite unusual. We suspect that the earlier form of this copula may have been n55. Due to its frequent occurrence with the indicative particle 55, over time it has evolved into the current form as a result of blending.
31 m31sn55 b3131 31n55 he story very cop He has many stories. 31io31 p53du55o55 k31 I pocket loc There is a key in my pocket. 31pi55du55 key 31n55 cop

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4) io55 occurs with nouns denoting entities that are not movable at will. It does not inflect for person and number. Its negative form is m31io55.
z31u55 k31 55dz55 mountain loc tree There are trees on the mountain. mo33g33 s31n55 u55i31 elephant nose long The elephant has a long nose. ti55 one io55 cop -31 -ind io55 cop -31 -ind

n31 clf

5) dm55 occurs with nouns denoting animal body parts or entities that are not movable at will. It overlaps with the meaning and function of io55. In some contexts it is interchangeable with io55.
k55 31xa35 chicken foot o55 pig 31xa35 foot 31i55-bu55 two-clf b53-bu55 four-clf dm55 cop dm55 cop -31, -ind -31, -ind

di55b35 31xa35 ku55-bu55 dm55 -31. spider foot six-clf cop -ind A chicken has two feet, a pig has four feet, and a spider has six feet.

(5) Auxiliary Verbs Auxiliary verbs are a subcategory of verbs. In Chinese grammar, they are referred to as modal verbs. However, in Chinese, modal verbs occur before main verbs. Anong, like other Tibeto-Burman languages, has a set of auxiliary verbs that are similar in meaning to the modal verbs in Chinese. They occur with main verbs to function as the predicate of a sentence. These auxiliary verbs are different from adverbs, since adverbs occur before verbs while auxiliary verbs occur after main verbs. They are not the same as verbs because a verb can be the predicate of a sentence but an auxiliary by itself verb cannot be the predicate of a sentence, except in special contexts. They are similar to verbal suffixes in terms of position and function, but they have specific meanings and can occur alone. So they have both lexical meaning and grammatical function. Therefore, they are half way between a content word and a function word. Some of them are more affix like and some are more verb like. We will discuss several auxiliary verbs with illustrative examples.

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(A) d55 able/can/may The auxiliary verb d55 cannot be the predicate of a sentence alone, but it can be negated. It does not inflect for person and number. It cannot take an object. It can occur alone when used as an answer to a question.
31 b3131 he very He can eat a lot. m53 eat d55 able -31. -ind

(B) i55/i33 dare This auxiliary verb can be negated. It can be the predicate of a sentence. It inflects for person and number. And it can occur alone as an answer to a question. But it cannot take an object.
31 55 b31 i55 31 i55 -31 m33 m31 i55 m31? you def snake catch 2sg dare -ind q neg dare q? Do you dare to catch a snake or not?

(C) 55 want, like This auxiliary can be negated and it can be the predicate of a sentence alone. It inflects for person and number. It can stand alone as an answer to a question under certain circumstances, but it cannot take an object.
31io31 55 no31u31 55 I def cow meat I dont like eating beef. ki55 eat m31neg55 like 35. 1sg.refl

(D) u55 will, consent This auxiliary can be negated and it can be the predicate of a sentence alone. It inflects for person and number. It can stand alone as an answer to a question under certain circumstances, but it cannot take an object.
no31u31 i55 31 31 cow this clf def This cow will not go back. o55 return m31neg u55 will -31. refl

(E) so55 can, understand, know This auxiliary verb can be negated and it can be the predicate of a sentence alone. It inflects for person and number. It can stand alone

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as an answer to a question under certain circumstances, but it cannot take an object.

31 55 t31m55 vm55 -31 31 so55 m31 m31 31 so55 m31 ? you def arrow shoot ind 2sg can q neg 2sg can q Do you know how to shoot an arrow or not?

(F) d35/33 should This auxiliary verb can be negated, but it cannot be the predicate of a sentence. It does not inflect for person and number. It cannot stand alone in answering a question and it cannot take an object. It must occur with the copula 33n55 to function as the predicate of a sentence.
31 55 55 ts31 55 d33 He def medicine drink should He should take the medication. 31n55. cop

(G) b31 u55 prepare, get ready to, want to This auxiliary verb can be negated and it can be the predicate of a sentence alone. It inflects for person and number. It can stand alone as an answer to a question under certain circumstances, but it cannot take an object.
31io31 55 d3155 b31u55 I def rest prepare-1sg I am prepared to rest. 35 -31. 1sg.refl -ind

(H) du31 can (both permission and ability) The meaning and function of this auxiliary verb are very similar to those of d55. This auxiliary verb can be negated, but it cannot be the predicate of a sentence. It inflects for person and number and can stand alone as an answer to a question in certain contexts. It cannot take an object.
31io31 55 dz55 m31 du31 b55 I def walk neg can asp I am about to run out of strength to walk. 31. fut

4.1.6. Adjectives Adjectives in Anong can be predicates of sentences just like verbs. In addition to the grammatical features they share with verbs, adjectives also have the following characteristics.

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(1) The prefix u55The prefix u55- often occurs with adjectives denoting concepts such as big, tall, high, long, wide, thick, etc. and the prefix ti55/ti55 frequently occurs with adjectives meaning small, short, low, thin, etc. The following are some examples.
u55d31 u55m31 u55i31 u55g31 u55lom33 big tall, high long wide thick (bamboo pole) ti55l55 ti55im31 ti55t55 ti55pi55 ti55s33 small short, low short narrow thin (bamboo pole)

Not all adjectives take those prefixes, and not all adjectives form opposite pairs such as those given above. The prefix u55 seems to have a higher frequency of occurrence than ti55/ti 55. We are not sure what the exact meanings are for those prefixes. However, adjectives that do take the prefixes cannot occur without them. Also, adjectives that take those prefixes cannot go through the reduplication process to indicate intensity. In other words, the meanings of such adjectives are similar to the reduplicated adjectives. Anong has a set of opposite pairs of adjectives created by adding the negative marker to the adjectives.
xom55 k33 31nm55 t55 s31 la33 tu31 31 crispy salty beautiful real good sharp deep m31 xom55 m31 k33 m31nm55 m31 t55 m31 s31 la33 m31 tu31 m31 31 rubbery (not crispy) bland (not salty) ugly (not beautiful) false (not real) bad (not good) blunt (not sharp) shallow (not deep)

(2) Reduplication Most of the adjectives in Anong can go through the reduplication process to indicate intensity. It is usually total reduplication though some adjectives display tonal variation when reduplicated, and a small number of adjectives undergo vowel or final change.
pu55 tu35 b35 55 dn55 yellow straight thin soft tender pu55 pu55 tu35tu31 b35 b31 55 55 dn55 dn55 very yellow very straight very thin very soft very tender

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dz33 dzum55 quick convex

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dz31 dz33 dzu33 dzum55 very quick very convex, bulgy

(3) Comparatives and Superlatives Although adjectives in Anong do not have comparison markers to differentiate positive, comparative, and superlative degrees, they do take affixes that express degrees of difference in quality or property. (A) The suffix tn31 The suffix tn31 is added to reduplicated adjectives to indicate a slightly lessened degree of change in the quality designated by the adjective. The suffix originates from a lexical item that meant son. It is also used as a diminutive marker.
x55 k53 u55 bm31 clear (water) sweet tender (vegetable) much x55x31 tn31 k53 k53 tn31 u55 u55 tn31 bm31 bm31 tn31 a little clearer a little sweeter a litter more tender a little more

(B) The prefix l55 The prefix l55 is added to adjectives to mean relatively.
55 ta55 s55 33 black tidy/neat new skinny l55 55 l55 ta55 l55 s55 l55 33 relatively black relatively neat/tidy relatively new relatively skinny

(C) The suffix bm31 The suffix bm31 is used on adjectives to indicate that the quality or property denoted by the adjective is a bit excessive. The suffix came from the adjective bm31 much through the grammaticalization process.
t55 t55 3131 x55 thick bald, bare heavy coarse t55 bm31 t55 bm31 3131 bm31 x55 bm31 too thick too bald, too bare too heavy too coarse

(D) Nominalization Adjectives can be nominalized by the suffix o55/o31/u55/u31 or the prefix 31/31.

syntax
Adjective pointed smooth deep red old ripe; cooked cold fat 31tsu55 s55 31 b31 si55 55 in55 du55 su55 Noun 31tsu55 o55 s55 o55 31 u31 b31 si55 u55 31 55 31 in55 31 du55 31 su55 pointedness smoothness deepness redness

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oldness ripeness; cookedness coldness (water) fatness

(E) Definite Marker Adjectives in Anong take one affix or another when occurring in a sentence except when they are used as modifiers. When an adjective functions as a subject or an object, it must be marked by the definite marker 3155, in addition to the nominalizer.
3131 u31 3155 31u35, 3131 u31 3155 soft nom def cotton, heavy nom def The light is cotton and the heavy is stone. 31io31 55 in55-in55 I def soft-redup o31 31 m53 -31, nom def eat -ind lu55. stone

31 55 ka55-ka55 o31 31 p31 m53. you def hard-redup nom def imp eat I eat the very soft (rice/food), you eat the very hard (rice/food).

(4) Adjectives > Adverbials When an adjective is used as an adverbial, it has to be reduplicated and marked by the adverbial suffix u33li31.
31 g31-g31 you full-redup You eat enough. 31 3131-3131 he light-redup He speaks softly. u33li31 adv u33li31 adv p31 prt m53. eat -31. -ind

ti31zm33 speak

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When used as predicates, adjectives behave very much like verbs in terms of grammatical marking through affixation. An adjective can also take the suffix 31ni55 to indicate that the property has begun an on-going changing process (inchoative).
31m31 31dzu35 31 gm55 Mother sick def good Mothers illness is getting better. 31ni55. inch

i55 55 55 31 55 gu31 z55 b3131 31nm55 31ni55. this several year def wear nom very beautiful inch Clothing [what is worn] has been getting prettier over the last few years.

4.1.7. Adverbs Adverbs mainly modify the predicate. Anong is relatively rich in adverbs. These adverbs may basically be separated into the following kinds. (1) Degree Adverbs
31 31du35ti31 b3131 31k55 31si55 very relatively very, specially, further more extremely (Lisu borrowing) only

(2) Scope Adverbs

g55 31pi55 3155 d31si55 also also, again all together

(3) Temporal Adverbs

i55s55n31 b55u31 i55 i31 k55 i31 p55 t31 m53 m55 u33 u33 u55 ti55 su31li55 now first last later already previously suddenly

syntax (4) Modal Adverbs

t31lu55 l55m3155 k31di55 g31 t31lu55 i33 approximately maybe certainly more or less

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(5) Manner Adverbs

31i35si31 k55ma55u33 s31l55m55u31li31 d31 dzn31 slowly quietly well, healthily quickly

(6) Onomatopoeia
xu31xu31u55 m55 m55 u31 u31u31u55 do31 lo31 do31 lo31 u55 sound of running water cry of a goat sound of falling leaves sound of flowing mud

(7) Conjunctive Adverbs

l31 xu55 . . . l31 xu55 . . . l31 55 . . . l31 55 . . . m31n31 . . . m31n31 . . . k31t31 . . . g31 . . . the more . . . the more . . . at the same time7 simultaneously8 (He eats while he runs.) as soon as

(8) Negatives
m31 t31 not dont

The above examples illustrate various types of adverbs in Anong. It should be pointed out that those adverbs have different characteristics. For instance, the temporal adverbs have a flexible word order. They can occur before the verb or before the object. Sometimes, they can
This conjunction apparently consists of two clauses each marked with l3155 continue. 8 Sun, in a wordlist, gives along with this form He eats while he runs to clarify the semantics.
7

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even occur before the subject. Manner and onomatopoeic adverbs are similar in usage, but they differ in origin. Manner adverbs come from adjectives while onomatopoeic adverbs originate in sound imitation. The adverbial marker on the former is optional but it is compulsory on the latter. Conjunctive adverbs can be adverbs or conjunctions. They can be used to connect lexical items, phrases, or sentences to create a tightly knit unit. Adverbs have the following characteristics when occurring in a sentence. (9) Reduplication They can go through the reduplication process to indicate intensity.
d5555k55 31 31d55-31d55 31do55ko55 mi31li31 31g55 i31. tonight def all-redup gather conj meet 1pl Tonight we all gather together to have a meeting.

(10) Adverb Placement Most of the adverbs used as adverbials in a sentence occur before the predicate verb, though a few can occur after the verb.
31io31 tn31 55 I child def I have only one child. ti31 one p31 imp io55 clf 31si55 only o55 have -31 -ind -31. -ind o55. first

31 55 dz31dz31 You def quick-redup You go first quickly.

g55dz53 go

4.1.8. Particles Anong is rich in particles that mark various grammatical relations. We have already discussed the plural particles on nouns, approximative particles on numerals, and adverbial particles on manner adverbs. Here we will discuss particles that mark grammatical relations in sentences. All of these particles are postpositional in Anong. Their grammatical functions are similar to the prepositions in Chinese though they are postpositions in Anong. Based on their grammatical functions, we can divide them into possessive particles, agentive particles, object particles, instrumental particles, temporal particles, locative particles, ablative particles, comparative particles, comitative particles, and definite particles. They are illustrated as follows.

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(1) Possessive Particles Possessive particles occur with nouns and pronouns that function as attributives to indicate definiteness and possession. Anong has two possessive particles ni55 and k31. The former tends to occur with nouns while the latter tends to occur with pronouns. They are usually used to indicate the grammatical relation of possession, and in most cases they are optional.
p55dz55m31 older.brother older brothers child 31m31 mother mothers hair 3155 they their house 3155si31 2du you (dual) book ni55 poss ni55 poss k31 poss k31 poss tn31 child 31i55 hair tim31 house 55v31 book

The tendency for ni55 to occur after nouns and for k31 to occur after pronouns is only a tendency; the two are often used interchangeably. Further, the possessive particle is usually optional; however, when the possessee is left out, the possessive particle is obligatory, which is shown by the following example.
nm31d31dm55 31 wrist watch def Whose wrist watch is it? s31lm55su55 ni55 teacher poss It is the teachers. i33. cop k31io55 who k31 poss i33 ? cop

(2) The agentive Postposition Anong has a single agentive postposition marking the noun as the causer.

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k55 break 3133 beat 33 fall u31li31 conj 31b55. go 31 die d31. asp

31m31 mi53 di31ki31 mother agt bowl Mother broke the bowl. 31 mi53 d31g55 k31 he agt dog obj He has beaten the dog to death.

The agentive particle is not always required in a causative sentence. However, there are a couple of contexts in which the agentive particle must be used. First, when the predicate verb is transitive, the agentive particle is obligatory, as is shown in the two examples above since both the verb break and beat are used transitively. Second, when the causer cannot be identified, the agentive particle is compulsory.
31 k31 m31- s31l55 -o55 He obj neg- good -nom A bad person killed him. 31ts31 person mi55 sn55 31b35. agt kill go

This is not a passive sentence; the syntax is quite typical of active sentences in many Tibeto-Burman languages. In addition, the word order does not affect the interpretation of who the actor is and who the undergoer is. It is worth noting that one difference between the two sentences above is that in the first sentence, the agentive can be omitted while in the second sentence, it cannot be omitted. (3) Object Postpositions There are two object postpositions in Anong, namely, ka31 and b31. The particle ka31 has three functions. First, it occurs on objects,9 which is its main function. Second, it occurs on location nouns to indicate the location of the action or activity. Third, it occurs on names of containers to show that the action or activity is carried out with the container as an instrument. (A) The Particle kha31 The particle ka31 does not occur on all objects, only on affected objects.

9 This marker occurs on a wide-range of objects including some indirect objects, some datives, and some direct objects. The basic meaning seems to be affected entity, but we will continue to follow Sun in terming these simply objects.

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31io31 3155 k31 55v31 I younger.brother obj book I gave a book to younger brother. ti31 one p55 clf di55. give.1sg

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It also occurs on objects that are directly affected by the action or activity denoted by the verb.
31 31 k31 g31m31 you he obj clothes You help him wash clothes. 31i31 i55 m53 tobacco this some This tobacco is for you. 31 def dn55 wash 31 you d31gu53 help k31 obj din55 send o31. imp -31 . -ind

Except in the above two instances, the particle k31 can be omitted. 1) k31 also occurs on nouns of places and locations.
ku55min31 k31 Kunming loc Kunming is very far. b3131 very ti31m33 -31. far -ind

2) k31 occurs on names of containers to indicate that the action or activity is carried out using the container as an instrument.
31t31 t55 k31 5555u55t31 grandma bag obj flour Grandma holds flour with a bag. d31gom55 hold -31. -ind

Anong has another object marker b31, which has basically the same functions as k31. The two markers can often be used interchangeably. However, b31 is rarely used to mark indirect objects.
31 3155 b31 you everybody obj You speak to everybody. gn31 speak o31. imp

mo31gu55d31 z31u55 b31 k55t33m33t33 ti31vn31 dz55 -31. Mgujia mountain obj often snow fall ind It often snows on Mgujia mountain.

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(4) Instrumental The instrumental postposition in Anong is mi55. Like in other TibetoBurman languages, the instrumental postposition is the same as the agentive postposition. At this point, it is hard to determine whether the two are homophonous or polysemous.
31 v55 mi55 55 he ax instr firewood He is chopping firewood with an ax. 31 bn31 mi55 u55 he hook instr fish He is fishing with a hook. 31ti31 chop 31tu33 (to)fish 31. ind 31. ind

(5) Temporal Anong has a temporal particle t35 that occurs with temporal expressions to indicate that the activity took place at the time designated by the temporal expression.
31io31 I ti31-tsi55 one-ten 31i55 two s31l55 month ti55 one -31. -ind u55 do di31 asp -55. -ind i31 day t35 temp

mo31gu55d31 k31 t55 b55 Mgujia obj arrive asp I will arrive at Mgujia on December first. 31 ti55 tsai55 55 31 he one ten eight age He enlisted at the age of eighteen. t35 temp

i31 soldier

(6) Locative Postpositions Locative postpositions are somewhat like directional particles. They cannot occur alone. They attach to nouns and pronouns to mark the location for the action or activity. As is discussed earlier, some of the grammatical markers mark location in addition to marking other grammatical relations. Here we will discuss several particles that only mark locations. (A) du55/u55kh31 inside
d31ko55 du55k31 b55d31 wok inside-loc rice There is still rice in the wok. t55 still 31n55. have

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(B) h55 on top of This particle came from the directional expression g31 55 through grammaticalization which resulted in the reduction of the prefix to 55.
t55ts31 55 31 table on.top.of def There is a book on the table. 55v31 ti31 book one tm55 clf 31n55. have

(C) ph55 down, below This particle came from the directional expression ga31p33 which lost the prefix ga31 through grammaticalization.
m31gu55 p33 55 tim31 ti55 tim31 slope below def house one house There is a household at the foot of the mountain. io55 have -31. -ind

(D) s31 by the side of; beside

t31m31 s31 u55 31tu33 su55 ti31 io55 river beside fish fish nom one clf There is someone fishing by the river. o55 -31. have -ind

(7) The Ablative Postposition The ablative particle is actually a location particle. The ablative particle in Anong is k31ne55 or ne55, which occurs with nouns or pronouns to indicate the location from where the action or activity originates.
kn55d31hm35 u31 ne55 k55 31i55 d31 31ts31 31ne55. vegetable.garden inside abl chicken two clf run dir Two chickens ran out of the vegetable garden. ko55min31 k31ne55 lo31ku35 k31 31som53-i33 ti31z31 31n55. Kunming abl Lik loc three-day road cop It takes three days to get to Lik from Kunming.

(8) The Comparative The comparative 5531 occurs with nouns or pronouns to mark the standard to which something is being compared.
d3131 ku55 ko55 31 t5531 i55 ko55 31 s33 -31. stick that clf def comp this clf def thin -ind This stick is thinner than that stick.

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ku55 31 t55 clf def big -31. -ind

i31 ku55 31 t5531 ku55 this clf def comp that That room is bigger than this room.

(9) The Conjunctive Particle Including Anong has two conjunctive particles: 3155 and t55ti55. Their functions and meanings are more or less the same.
31io31 3155 55 p31-io55 I conj def five-clf There are five people including me. i31. cop

31 dz31pi55 31 t55ti55 t31m55z55 som53-io55 i31. he older sister def conj woman three-clf cop There are three women including his older sister.

31p55i31 31io31 tomorrow I

(10) The Comitative z31 together with

g31 also

3155 z31 you.pl com

mu31gu55 mountain

b31 t31si55 55 u33 3155. loc together firewood do dir Tomorrow I will go to the mountain to get firewood with you.

(11) Definite Particles Definite particles occur with nouns, pronouns, or forms that function like nouns or pronouns to indicate definiteness. Sometimes it marks the topic of an utterance. There are two definite particles in Anong: 31/55 and 55/31. The variation in tone is conditioned by the tone of the last syllable of the word it attaches to. If that syllable carries a high tone (55), then the definite particle occurs with a mid falling tone (31). If that syllable carries a mid level tone (33) or mid falling tone (31), then the definite particle occurs with a high level tone (55). Sometimes the two definite particles occur together with 31 before 55. The definite particles have a very high frequency of occurrence. They can also occur after other particles and affixes.
31io31 55 ko55min31 k31ne55 I def Kunming abl I came from Kunming. dz55i55 31. come pst

syntax
31 31dzu35 31 gm55 de55 m55? you sick def good asp q Are you recovered from your illness? p55dz55m31 vn35 3131 55vn55 g31m31 i33. older brother buy def flower clothes cop What older brother bought was flowery clothing.10

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(12) Adverbial Particles -de -ly in Chinese. They are used Adverbial particles are like the to derive adverbs or adverb constructions which occur as adverbials in a sentence. Anong has a number of adverbial particles. The most frequently used ones are li31, 31, and u33. Sometimes u33 and li31 can occur on the same expression in that order.
3131t31 ti55i33ti55i33 time one.day.one.day Time went by day by day. li31 adv 31b55. go 31u35 3155. fall dir 31ni55. inch

31 m31s31u31-m31s31u31 li31 p33 he speak-redup adv tear As he is speaking, his tears started to fall. t55m55 31i35-31i35 child slow-redup The child got up slowly. 31 adv t53 big

31a55m31 mi53 g31m31 55 55-55 u33li31 dn55 -31 di31. elderly.woman agt clothes def clean-redup adv wash -ind asp The elder woman has washed the clothes very clean.

4.1.9. Conjunctions Anong is not rich in conjunctions. There are two kinds of conjunctions in Anong that occur with words and phrases, and sentences. Here we will discuss conjunctions that occur with words and phrases. The

10 The key to understanding the meaning of this example is the placement of 3131, glossed as a definite marker, but which is often equivalent to a subject or topic marker. It occurs directly after vn35 buy, making the topic of the sentence what older brother bought and the predicate was flowery clothing, hence, the translation. Sun translates it as such; our translation of the Chinese reflect both the Anong and Suns translation of it.

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coordinate conjunction for compound sentences will be discussed in the syntax section. The coordinate conjunction for words and phrases is si55 and.
31hi35 si55 31u55 bowl and chopstick bowl and chopsticks m53 dm55 si55 eat nom and food and beverage 31 he vn35 buy d55 asp 53 drink si55 and dm55 nom 31io31 I vn35 buy d55 31 asp.1sg

3131 def

31 ti55 to55 to55 31 m31 -33. def same-redup def neg cop What he bought and what I bought are not the same.11

Another conjunction is m33 or, which is not as frequently used as si55. This is an alternative conjunction that can also occur with sentences.
31i35 dz31 31bi55 we walk dir Do we walk or rest? m33 or di31g55 rest i31 1pl m53? q

4.1.10. Mood Particles Anong is rich in mood particles. When the elders tell stories, they use many mood particles. Mood particles also have a high frequency of occurrence in daily conversations. They usually occur at the end of utterances to mark questions, warnings, requests, estimation, rhetorical questions, etc. (1) The Interrogative Particle m53
i55 t35 3131 31 55 this clf def you def Didnt you know about this matter? m31 neg so55 know o31 m53? imp.sg q

11 The conjoined topic is what he bought and what I bought, marked by the definite marker 3131 and the definite marker 31; what remains is the predicate, hence the translation.

syntax
31 55 31nu31 t55 you def Anong nationality Are you an Anong? 31 2sg i55 cop m53? q

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(2) The Exhortative Particle l35 The exhortative particle is used to express warning, urging, and the like.
d31b31 k31 m31gu55 t35 p31 bridge loc cross temp imp Be careful when crossing the bridge. 31 55 s31l31nm55 31dzu35 you def well illness You get your illness cured. d55 careful 31 l35 refl exh l35 exh

31 def

31mn55 31 cure refl

(3) The Rhetorical Particle 53 The rhetorical particle, as one would expect, is used when the person asking the question already knows the answer to the question.
31 55 31pi55 you def again You came again? ti55 one d31 31 time 2sg dz31 walk 31ie55 53? dir rq

mu55 g31 t31 m31- 55 -31. 31 55 im55 b55 -31 53? sky also still neg- dark -ind. You def sleep asp -ind rq It is not dark yet. Are you going to bed already?

(4) Countering Questions The particle le53 is used to mark questions in situations such as below when the speaker first makes a statement and then asks a question about it. The question has le53 tagged on the end.12
31io31 55 d55 31d55 I def look asp 1sg. I have seen it. What about you? -31. -ind 31 You le53? q le53? q

3155 31l33 g31 m31 so53. they little also neg understand. They dont understand at all. What about you?

3155 You.pl

12 The le53 looks to be the wide-spread Tibeto-Burman content question marker, which has otherwise been largely replaced in Anong by m53, ultimately from < not.

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(5) The Supplicative Particle lie31 The supplicative particle lie31 is sometimes used to mark supplicative requests, requests in which one is not sure that the request will be granted.
31 g31m31 i33 tm55 31 31 l55 dn55 o31 you clothes this clf def he sup wash imp Please let him wash this article of clothing of yours. lie31 sup

4.1.11. Interjections Interjections are independent elements that are outside the syntactic structure of a sentence. They usually occur utterance initially, though some occasionally occur inside a sentence. They are used to convey various emotions. Anong is very rich in interjections, which are often used with facial expressions and jestures to add expressiveness. Based on their functions, such as showing surprise, sighing, prompting, and responding, we can divide interjections into a number of categories which are discussed below. (1) The Prompting Interjections The prompting interjections o55 or na53 occur utterance initially to get the listeners attention. They are often reduplicated.
o55! o55! u53 o31! dz35 u53 hey-redup take imp quick take Hey! Hey! Take it quick! Take it! n53n53 hey-redup dz35 quick d55 look o31 imp dz35 quick o31! imp d55 look o31 imp na33 upon 3131 def

k55 t31 i31? loc what cop Hey! Quick! Look! What is that up there?

(2) The Futility Marker The interjection 55 is used to express futility, that is, the feeling that one has no way out or there is nothing one can do about a situation or state of affairs. Notice that it contains a sound that is not given in the consonant chart in the phonology chapter [].

syntax
55! 31i33 g31 b55 sigh! hair all white Sigh! All the hair is already white. 31 dir ie55. cop

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(3) Surprise Markers The interjections 55, 55mi55 and 55t33 occur utterance initially to express the emotions of being surprised, stunned, thrilled, and so on.
55! i55s55n31 g55 t55 m31 ah! now also still neg Jeez, you are still here (i.e. you still have not left)? 55mi55! Oh! 31 you d55 look o31! imp! b31 snake ti55 one 31 clf dz55 walk dz31 walk 53? rq 31 dir ie55! cop!

o55 31! there def Oh my! Look! A snake is coming! Over there! 33t33! t3135 b3131 wow water very Gosh! The water is so cold. du55 cold -31! -ind

(4) The Interjections 31l55 and l55i55 The interjections 31l55 and la55i55 occur utterance initially to express pain or discomfort.
31l55! b3131 ouch very Ouch! It really hurts. 31 2sg dz55 hurt -31 -ind -31 -ind

55i55 31io31 k31 p55 ouch I poss Ouch! My stomach is hurting.

n31dz35 stomach hurt.1sg

(5) The Interjection phe53 The interjection pe53 occurs utterance initially to show contempt.
pe53! 31 31-tim55 31 31io31 to55 m31 phish! you 2sg-say def I listen neg Phish! I dont want to hear what you have to say. 55 35! want 1sg.refl

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(6) The Interjection 5555 The interjection 5555 is used as a greeting when you bump into somebody on your way to somewhere or in the fields. It is also used to alert somebody of something. When used as a greeting, it has the connotation of intimacy or familiarity.
5555! 3155 31 o55 hey you-pl def that Hey, you guys. Dont touch that! 31 clf t31 neg n55 touch o31 imp io53! mood

(7) The Interjection 31 The interjection 31 occurs utterance initially to express realization, acknowledgment, or understanding.
31! s31ti31 o55 b55 oh! matter that clf Oh, I know that already. 3131 31io31 ti55s31di55 so55-31! def I already know-1sg

(8) The Interjection 3135 The interjection 3135 is used to express displeasure.
3135! 31 55 k55t31 tsk you def what Tsk! What kind of person are you! 31ts31 person i33! cop

(9) The Interjection o55ue31 The interjection o55ue31 occurs utterance initially to convey praise and admiration.
o55ue31! p31nm33 i55d55 wow! wild pig such.a Wow! Caught such a big wild pig! d55 big o3131 nom i5555 catch tm55u31! obtain

(10) The Interjection e31 The interjection e31 is used to convey a sigh with emotions.
e31! eh! 31io31 I ti31 one ts55 lifetime 3131 def ti31vn31dzu55 ice-snow

55 li31li53 -31! tread experience -ind Ehh, my life has been like treading on ice and snow! (with a lot of frustration and tribulation)

syntax (11) The Interjection tse31 The interjection tse31 conveys regret or sympathy.
tse31tse31! 31 55 31vu35 i55t55 tsk tsk! You def hand so Gosh! Your hand is so severely burned. pi31pi31 severe

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31-k35! 2sg-burn

(12) The Interjection pfu31 The interjection pfu31 is often used in conversations to mean disagreement or a negative response to a question.
3155si31 31nu31t55 i55 they two Anong nationality cop Are the two of them of the Nu nationality? m53? q? pfu31! inter Dont know.

4.2. Syntax Anong does not have a writing system. So our understanding of its syntax is based on the sentences collected through a fieldwork questionnaire and the texts we collected. Therefore, subjectivity is unavoidable. Since this is only a sketch, the grammatical description is limited to simple structures. The following is a discussion of the sentential constituents, word order, and simple and complex sentences. 4.2.1. Word Order and Sentential Constituents (1) The Order of Subject, Predicate, and Object The basic word order in Anong is SOV, as is illustrated by the example below.
31b55 31k55 goat horn Subject Object Goats have horns. io55-31. have-ind Verb

Anong has no passive voice, and the subject and object order is flexible without affecting the meaning, as can be seen through the following examples.

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31io31 55 I def Subject I beat him. 31 k31 he obj Object I beat him. mi53 agt

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31 he Object 55 def k31 obj 3133 beat.1sg Verb 3133 beat.1sg Verb -31. -ind

31io31 I Subject

mi53 agt

-31. -ind

The sentence immediately above would, following Chinese practice, be translated as He was beaten by me but, in Anong, the sentence means I beat him. This is because in Anong grammatically marked objects and subjects have a relatively flexible word order. Fronting the object does not affect the basic meaning. In addition, the verb in the sentence immediately above has first person subject agreement marking. Therefore, the third person pronoun 31 he cannot be the subject regardless of the word order. It should be noted that, while the agentive particle mi53 in the first sentence can sometimes be omitted, in this sentence, it is compulsory because the agentive particle is needed to help clarify the relationship between the two noun phrases since the object has been fronted, Anong has both direct and indirect objects, with the indirect object occurring before the direct object. The marker k31 usually occurs with the indirect object.
31m31 mother 31io31 I k55 obj g31m31 clothes s55 new ti31 one tm55 clf

31-p53-p31-31.13 1sg-sew-give-ind (inv) Mother is sewing a new article of clothing for me.

(2) Attributive Modifiers Anong has two types of attributives with different orders with respect to the head noun. Nouns and pronouns as attributives occur before the head noun, usually without the possessive marker.

13

The form for give incorporated into the verb suggests benefactive marking.

syntax
31p31 father attribute fathers ax ni55 poss head v55 ax 31 he attribute his face ma55 face head

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Adjectives, numerals, and classifiers occur after the head noun.

g31m31 s55 clothes new head attribute new clothes i55lu55 ti55-lu55 55dz55 i31 dz55 eye one-clf tree this clf head attribute head attribute one eye this tree

If all of the attributive modifiers occur in the same phrase, their order would be as is shown as follows:
31 31k31 g31m31 s55 n55 he grandfather clothes new that those two articles of clothing of his grandfathers 31i55 two tm55 clf

In this example, the head noun is clothes. The pronoun he, the noun grandfather, the adjective new, the adjectival demonstrative pronoun that, and the numeral plus classifier two clf are all attributive modifiers. Except for the pronoun he which modifies the noun grandfather, all of the rest modify the head noun clothes. The order of attributive modifiers exemplified by the above example is the dominant order. However, it should be noted that when adjectives with two or more syllables are used as modifiers, they sometimes occur before the head noun, especially nominalized adjectives.14
b35b31-tn31 thin-dim thin book s31la33 good good person u55 nom u55 nom 55v31 book 31ts31 person

14 The u55, which is labeled a nominalizer, has the same shape as sentence-final particle found elsewhere.

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(3) Adverbials Adverbials usually occur before the predicate, though some adverbials can occur after the predicate. When the predicate of a sentence has a number of constituents before it, most adverbials come after the other constituents. However, temporal and locative adverbials have a flexible order. They can occur before the predicate and after the object, after the subject and before the object, or even before the subject.
31 55 k55t31m31t31 t31m31 s31-k31 u33 l55-31. he def often Nujiang beside-loc fish seek-ind He often fishes by the Nujiang.

In this example, the expressions often and Nujiang are temporal and locative adverbials respectively, both occurring after the subject and before the object.
n55 tim31 t31m55 ti31 that house child one That family has only one child. io55 clf 31ti31 only o55 have -31. -ind

The word only is the adverbial in this example, and it occurs after the object and before the predicate.
d5555k55 3155 t31lu55 tonight they maybe Tonight they may not return home. tim31 house m31 neg 33i55. return

In this example, there are three adverbials: the temporal adverbial tonight occurs before the subject; the adverbial maybe occurs after the subject and before the object; and the adverbial not occurs after the object and before the predicate. Adverbials occurring after the predicate are rare. We have only come across one instance.
31 55 dz31dz31 you def quick-redup Quick, you go first. p31 imp g55dz53-31 go-ind o55. first

syntax 4.2.2. Simple Sentences

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Simple sentences are the basic units of discourse. They can be categorized from a variety of perspectives. In this section, we will divide simple sentences into several categories based on their structures and mood. (1) Declarative Sentences Declarative sentences are marked by the indicative -31 suffix or an aspect suffix.
31 ma55 31 he face def His face is very yellow. pu55pu55-31. yellow-redup-ind

(2) Interrogative Sentences Interrogative sentences can be formulated through using interrogative pronouns, interrogative particles, the alternative interrogative structure, or the A-Not-A interrogative structure.
Interrogative particles: 31 55 i55pie55 you def again You came again? ti55 one d31 time 31 2sg dz53 walk 31ie55 dir 53? q

Interrogative pronouns: k55io55 g31m31 31 who clothes def Whose clothes are placed here?

i55k31 here

gn55 put

31d53? asp

The A-Not-A interrogative structure: 31 tian3535ti55 31 vn55-31 you television 2sg buy-ind Did you buy a television or not?

m53 m31 q neg

31 2sg

vn55 m53? buy q

The alternative interrogative structure: 31 tn31p31 k31 31-55-s55 you son obj 2-like-du k31 31-55-s55 m53? obj 2-like-du q Would you two like a son or a daughter?

m53 q

tn31m31 daughter

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(3) Imperative Sentences Imperative structures use the imperative form of the verb.
31 kn55 vn31 31 you vegetable buy asp You go and buy vegetables. bo55 go

(4) Requests Like imperatives, a request is also formed through using l31 and lie31.15
31 k31 i55pie55 ti55-hi35 t55 he obj again one-bowl still Please let him eat another bowl (of food). l31 opt m53 eat lie31. sup

(5) Exclamations Exclamatory particles or expressions are used to form exclamatory sentences.
55 l55! b3131 ouch! very Ouch! It really hurts. 31dz31-31. ache-ind

(6) Estimations Estimations are often marked with certain particles.

m31sm31 peach i55 this xa55 basket 3155 def p31 five tsa55 ten gm55 catty t31lu55 about

31n55 b31-31 have asp-ind This basket of peaches is about fifty catties (i.e. 25 kilograms).

4.2.3. Complex Sentences Complex sentences come in two main categories, namely, compound sentences and sentences made up of a main clause and a subordinate clause. We will discuss a few frequently occurring types of complex sentences with illustrative examples.

15

The l31 is labeled an optative elsewhere and the lie31 is labeled a supplicative.

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(1) Compound Sentences Compound sentences usually are not connected by coordinate conjunctions. There are three types of compound sentences in Anong. (A) Contrastive Compound Sentences
31io31 55 I def t55-o55 big-nom ti55 one n31 clf vn33 tm55-31 buy cont-ind tm55-31 cont-ind d55 31 asp asp d31 31. asp asp

31 55 tm31-o55 ti55 n31 vn33 he def small-nom one clf buy I bought a big one and he bought a small one.

(B) Relative Contrast Compound Sentences

mo31gu55d31 Mgujia i55k31 here k31ne55 abl t55 relative ti31m33 31, far ind

mo31gu55d31 k31ne55 du35u55 k31 b3131 ti31m55 31. Mgujia abl Gng Mt. loc very far ind It is relatively far from here to Mgujia, and it is even farther from Mgujia to the Gngshan area.

(C) Successive Compound Sentences

31 he s55 strength b3131 very 31n55, have, ti31 one 55 hundred gm55 catty

d3155 g55 z35 do31 31. excess also carry.on.back can ind He is very strong, and can carry over a hundred catties (= 50 kilograms) on his back.

(2) Complex Sentences with Subordinate Clauses Complex sentences containing subordinate clauses usually have conjunctions. They can be divided into the following types.
Transitional: 31 m55u31k55 31io31 k31 55v31l31u55 p31 zu55-u31 l53, you later I obj letter imp write opt

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m31ie35l53 31io31 31 mn55 31ie31. conj I 2sg angry asp You write to me in the future, otherwise I will be upset. Cause and result: l31m55 i31-x35 land this-clf 31 def u55k31 inside-loc i31 31 domestic.animals i55 dung

b3131 31s55 31 le31, 31m55 dz55 31 s31la33 -31. very fill refl conj, corn grow refl good -ind The corn of this piece of land is growing very well because a lot of manure was applied. Conditional: 31 m31 so55 o55 l5531 31, 31io31 k31 sn53 m55. you neg understand imp conj, I obj ask may If you dont understand, (you) may ask me. Concessive: 31 55 i31m31 55 ie55li31, l31m55 55 t55 u55 do31-31. he def old ind conj, land def still do move-ind Although he is old, (he) can still go to work in the fields. Temporal Sequence: 31a55p31 ku55 old man that p5555, conj io55m33 sickle io55 clf l35 take mi53 agt li31 conj no31u31 pm31 31d55 cow close asp z31u55 mountain k31 loc

no31 u31 dz31 n53 d55. cow food cut asp After enclosing the cows, the old man picked up the sickle and went to the mountains to cut hay. Complex sentences with complex relations: 31dm31x35 m53 d31pu55 31po55 dry land pl rice.paddy change d3155ti55 everybody t3135 water 31po55 change ti55-s5531 one-strand in31 draw i55 come u55 do 31ni55 inch li31 conj 31 want di31t55 ditch o35ti31, conj, du55-i31, dig-1pl

t35, conj,

d31pu55 rice.paddy

do35do31 all

o55n55-li31. mood-conj

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In order to convert the land into rice paddies, everybody worked together in digging the irrigation ditch to bring in water and convert all of the land into rice paddies. mu55 sky tin55d33 dark li31, conj, ti31z31 road g31 also m31-z55 neg-see 31 li31, refl conj

31xa35 be55 di3131 li31, 3 ti55 d31 31tn55 d55. foot again difficult conj, he one time fall asp He tripped because it was dark, the road was bad, and (his) feet were not right (i.e. His feet did not feel right.)

CHAPTER FIVE

THE RESTRUCTURING OF ANONG Research on Anong started in 1960. Except for the long interruption during the Cultural Revolution, we did follow-up fieldwork on Anong at quite regular intervals to collect additional data. Altogether seven fieldwork trips were undertaken over a span of 43 years ending in the fall of 2003. Forty years is a very short time period in terms of the diachronic development of a languageone would expect it to be too short to see major changes in a language. During those years, the region inhabited by the Anong underwent tremendous changes. Revolutionary changes took place in the economy, transportation, commerce, culture and education, health, and communications. A once closed Anong society suddenly opened its doors allowing other ethnic groups to come in and settle down in their midst, which led to cross-marriages between Anong and other ethnic groups. During the same time, some of the Anong traveled from their villages to other places to go to school, to seek employment opportunities, to engage in business activities, and so on. Interactions and communications between various ethnic groups reached an unprecedented width and depth. These social changes have been reflected in the Anong language. Data collected from different time periods indicate that the Anong language is also undergoing considerable change. The data we collected from distinct groups of Anong speakers show differences. Some of those differences are idiolectal features, while others are characteristic of age group differences. The speech of older speakers is more conservative while that of the younger ones has undergone considerable restructuring, which to a degree reflects the direction of change being taken by the Anong language. We also did research on languages in the Jingpo subgroup related to Anong as well as a language closely related to Anong, namely, Trung and its dialects. Comparative studies involving these languages helps us understand the changes in Anong. Analyzing the changes in Anong in terms of the social changes, the language internal differences, and the differences between Anong and closely-related languages gives us insight into Anongs obsolescence.

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chapter five 5.1. The Restructuring of the Lexicon 5.1.1. The Rapid Increase in Loanwords

The 5000 or so word list in the back of this grammar indicates the loans from Chinese, Lisu, and Burmese. We also tabulated the loans in the data collected in 1960 and the ones in the data collected in 1999. It is interesting to note that out of the 2600 words collected in 1960, we found 130 Chinese loans, about 5% of the total, and 208 Lisu loans, about 8% of the total. In 1999, we expanded the word list to 4900 and double checked words collected in 1960. We found that this expanded word list contains 391 Chinese loans, which make up 8% of the total, and 832 Lisu loans constituting 17% of the total. That is to say, we see the Chinese loans have increased by 3% and Lisu loans by 9%, when compared with the data collected in 1960. The following is a small sample of loans in Anong to show what kind of words are borrowed into Anong from Lisu, Chinese and Burmese. Lisu loans
55m33 nu55pu55 k31 ku55 k55ts55 mo33g33 ko55to55 po55lo55 sweet potato mung bean evening star cupboard elephant cocks comb bullet nu55di31 po5555ts31 n31ku55 di31d55 g55g31 p55du31 l31t55 broad bean do31tsi31 saltpeter bu31lu55 morning star ts31 wine pot s31l55 orangutan i55b31 a plane 31du31 polish with whetstone pea trumpet tin table; desk water duck a saw

Chinese loans
i31sui35 pi31ko53 m31t55 sun55tsu35 tin55tn55 ki55ts33 ti33ti35 coriander apple coal sour electric light market machine tso55 vu55kui55 lo55ts55 p31t31 l31tsu55 sui55fu31 t35p35 scallion tortoise mule white sugar candle kettle artillery l35dzi31 fn55tiu31 s55tse31 t35i31 i31u55 xo55tsi31 chili noodles lion soy sauce enamelware matches

Burmese loans
ts31po31 t35ts31 vi55k31 ts31pi55io55 steamboat kerosene glass works soap m33t33 b55 n31li31 u55t31 train movie wristwatch powder

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It is clear from the above 48 loans from three different languages that the borrowed lexical items are mostly for expressing new aspects of daily life and cultural phenomena. Only a few of them are part of the core vocabulary. A closer examination reveals that the loans from Burmese are mainly about phenomena that were non-existent in Anong. For example, luxury items such as face powder, and new means of transportation, such as trains and ships, were completely novel to the Anong. It is likely that such loans came into Anong via religious activities. Those loans did not exist in Anong in the 60s. It was in the 70s and 80s when Catholicism was rapidly developing in the Anong region when the Anong were introduced to those new phenomena. The Chinese loans are slightly different. Although we did collect some Chinese loans in 1960, most of the Chinese loans have occurred in the last 30 years or so, especially during the Cultural Revolution. The massive coalition building movement involving widespread mutual visitations between organizations throughout the country brought about contact and interactions between different nationalities to a degree the country had never seen before. In addition, the reform and open door policy adopted by the Chinese government in more recent times produced a lot of new experiences that are inevitably reflected in the languages lexicon. Many of the Chinese loans are words for daily necessities. We suspect that some of the Chinese loans came into Anong via Lisu, because these are also Chinese loans in Lisu, and their phonological shape resembles that of Lisu words. It is not surprising that there is a higher percentage loans from Lisu than from any other language since the Anong are surrounded by Lisu. They interact with the Lisu on a daily basis whenever they go to the store or when they go to school, and so on. Life would be impossible if one could not speak Lisu. In fact, people of all nationalities in the region speak Lisu, be they Chinese, Bai, or Naxi. Except for a few elderly women who rarely leave their homes, all the Anong are bilingual in Lisu. In fact, some of the Anong speak Lisu better than Anong. The number of Anong speakers has decreased by half in the last 40 years or so, specifically, from 800 to 400. In terms of semantic content, Lisu loans are found in every aspect of their lives. However, none of the loans are from the core vocabulary. It is intriguing which of the native words have been replaced by Lisu loans in the speech of many Anong. In the examples of grammatical structures we collected, some Lisu words were used in place of readily available native words. For instance, the Anong high frequency degree adverb ba3131 very/particularly/too/especially is often replaced by the

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Lisu loan a31k55, which has the same meaning. When this occurred, we would sometimes remind the informant of the native Anong word; he would immediately say apologetically that he forgot to use the native Anong form. In the same way, when we returned to the field to check words collected in 1960, we discovered that the informant had forgotten quite a number of the words on our 1960 word list, although when he was asked about these words he was able to recall them. In current day Anong, coexistence of loans side-by-side with native words is quite widespread, as is evident from discussions elsewhere in this volume. 5.1.2. Differences Among Anong Speakers Knowledge of the Lexicon A survey of the knowledge of vocabulary among Anong speakers with different levels of proficiency and in different age groups was carried out in 1995. The speakers surveyed can be divided into three groups. The proficient speakers who can serve as informants are 60 or older and have a vocabulary of over 3000 words; the number of such speakers is rather small. The middle-aged group is between 40 and 60. These speakers are no longer proficient in Anong although they can still engage in every day conversations. They are more proficient in their second language. Those under 40 have basically lost their native tongue. They are able to use daily greetings and have retained some basic comprehension abilities. We used the crossbow, the most familiar hunting tool to Anong men, as an example to test the Anong speakers knowledge of vocabulary. In addition to the general term crossbow, there are over ten words in Anong naming various parts of the crossbow, some of which are monomorphemic while others are compounds. We asked the Anong speakers to name the crossbow and its various parts for us in various situations. Speakers in the elderly group could either name all of the parts or almost all of the parts. Those belonging to the middleaged group could only give the general term, with some being able to name the bowstring, back of the bow and the trigger. Those under the age of 40 have lost all of the terms related to the crossbow. The test results are given in the table below.

the restructuring of anong

Table 24: Vocabulary loss gloss a bow crossbow trigger spring string trigger groove string button main stock head tenon arrow arrow groove arrow head arrow tail balance arrow bag quiver poison arrow nonpoison arrow shoot arrow Older people b31 da33 t31n55 t31n55 go31 o55 t31n55 p55 t31n55 va55 t31n55go31 lo55 t31n55 p55 t31n55 ku55 t31n55 l31pu55 t31n55 tso35 t31m55 t31m55 t31 t31m55 l31pu55 b55 ti31 b55 ti31 pn31 dm55 ko55 d55 t31m55 d31 ku55 p31 l55 so31 m53 p55 55 vm55, fm53 Middle aged b31 da33 t31n55 t31n55 go31 o55 gone t31n55 va55 gone gone term now lost t31n55 l31 pu55 gone t31m55 gone t31m55 l31 pu55 gone gone gone gone gone gone vm55

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Younger gone t31n55 gone gone gone gone gone gone gone gone t31m55 gone gone gone gone gone gone gone gone vm55

We also conducted some other semantic domain tests on a smaller scale. Although the results varied a little from person to person, the overall outcome was more or less the same, constituting credible evidence that drastic decrease in the number of native words is indicative of the lack of vitality of a language. Sometimes a native word is lost before an item is borrowed from another language to replace it. 5.2. Phonological Changes Since Anong has borrowed a certain number of words from Lisu and Chinese, the phonological structures of those loan words have clearly influenced the phonological system of Anong. Also, since the Anong reside in the middle reaches of the Nujiang surrounded by speakers of languages of the Lolo-Burmese subgroup, especially Lisu, the characteristics of those languages are impacting Anong, resulting in Anongs phonology changing in the direction of the phonological systems of the Lolo-Burmese languages. The changes are mainly manifested in the following way.

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chapter five 5.2.1. Development of Complex Vowels and Nasalized Vowels

Originally, Anong did not have vowel plus glide diphthongs, nor did it have any glide plus vowel diphthongs, nor any triphthongs. Due to the borrowing of words with diphthongs from Chinese, some diphthongs have been added to the Anong sound system. In addition, the development of nasalized vowels is also attributable to Chinese borrowings. Some examples are given in below.
u ei i u ue u y iu ui t35 f 35 tsu55 fei31 liu31 xo55 tsi31 pu55 ts33 kue55 ty31 ku55 p35 y55 tsu31 piu35 kui35 ti35 excrement inch fertilizer matches steamed bun rule; custom national flag propagate ticket accounting z 31 s 55 ts55 ku55 tu55 fei55 ki55 ts33 pu55 fu55 sue55 ui35 ku35 fn55 tiu31 ui35 ku35 ginseng visit; tour bandit county fair cloth wrapper tax foreign country k. of noodles foreign country

Nasalized vowels are a transitional phenomenon resulting from the loss of nasals in finals. Anong has already developed some nasalized vowels. Some of the nasalized vowels and diphthongs had never occurred in native Anong words. However, due to the influence of Chinese loans, some phonological structures started to occur that did not exist back in the 1960s. We conjecture that this is probably a kind of phonological diffusion, which is illustrated by the following examples.
ui u ye ai i y sui55 in31 su55 t35 u55 tye31 tian53 ti31 tsai55 ti31 xo55tsi31 y55 d31 l31 mercury reckon accounts defect eleven matches sugar swim dzui55 u55 s55 35 m55xye31 ti31 tsai55 s35 ki55ts33 d31g55 55 pair; clf. village name green corn seventeen market idle borrow

The nasalized vowels and diphthongs above do not have a high frequency of occurrence in Anong and they are not very stable. However, they indicate the tendency of certain phonological changes in Anong, which is why we have included them in the inventory of finals in Anong.

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It is uncontroversial that Proto-Tibeto-Burman originally had consonant clusters, but contemporary Tibeto-Burman languages share a general tendency toward cluster simplification and loss. Anong is no exception. Since Anong has a small number of speakers and it is surrounded by languages that do not have consonant clusters, Anong is losing its consonant clusters faster than the other Tibeto-Burman languages. Anong had a small number of simple consonant clusters. In the 60s, there were altogether 20 or so consonant clusters in two series with one series being made up of a glottal stop followed by a consonant and the other series consisting of a consonant followed by the retroflex semivowel . Both series are being lost and the former is disappearing at a faster rate. The following are some examples.

Clusters b d g dz d d m n l b

Older speakers b31 i55 31 dn55 55 gm55 dzm55 dn55 d55 u31 t55 mu31 31 n31 l31 sm55 31 35 31 i31 u31 55 bn35

gloss food steamer cut off (rope) crawl carve records drench (rain) defecate bark daughter; girl dye (cloth) musk spread (paint) ruminate grab; seize step across

Middle-aged speakers b31 i55 31 dn55 d55 gm55 dzm55 dn55 d 55 u31 t55 m31 31 n31 l31 sm55 31 n35 31 i31 31 55 bin35

Only a few elderly speakers speech still contains consonant clusters with an initial glottal stop. They no longer occur in most elderly speakers speech nor in the speech of middle-aged and younger speakers, which is clearly illustrated by the examples above. The loss of the initial glottal stop has a residual effect manifested in the form of laryngealized vowels though the patterns are not systematic. Basically, all monophthongs turned into laryngealized vowels. Only some speakers pronounce the vowels in finals with the laryngealized feature. Several points can be made in connection with this phenomenon. First, at this point, we can not determine the source of the glottal stop though it is clear that

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there is a close connection between the feature of laryngealized vowels and the loss of the glottal stop. This is consistent with the mechanism that gave rise to laryngealized vowels in Tibeto-Burman languages. Second, the laryngealized feature is stable in vowels without consonant endings and it is not stable with vowels in finals with consonant endings. There are two types of laryngealized vowels in Tibeto-Burman languages. One type is laryngealized monophthongs such as those in Lolo-Burmese languages and the other type involves laryngealized vowels in finals with consonant endings such as Jingpo and Zaiwa. Although Anong belongs to the Jingpo subgroup, geographically Anong is contiguous with Lolo-Burmese languages. Therefore, the laryngealized feature described above is closely related to language contact. Lolo-Burmese languages, especially Lisu, do not have finals with consonant endings, and only monophthongs in those languages display the laryngealized feature. The laryngealized feature in Anong patterns closely with Lolo-Burmese languages and differs from Jingpo languages as a result of language contact.

Clusters p p b m f v k g x b

Older speakers pn55 no31 p33 bi53 31 mn55 d31 f55 31 vi55 k53 d31 g55 xn53 55 bn35

gloss untie tears (eye) four get angry turtledove to slide sweet dog to sift step across

Middle-aged speakers pin55 no31 pi33 bi53 31 min55 d31 fi55 31 vi55 ki53 d31 gi55 n53 55 bin35

The examples above show that the semi-vowel [] is changing to [i]. Sometimes it affects the place of articulation of the adjacent consonant. When it occurs after a velar fricative, it is pronounced as [i]. When the voiceless velar fricative occurs next to it, the velar fricative is fronted, becoming a palatal fricative. 5.2.3. The Loss of Retroflex Consonants Anong has a retroflex consonant series, which includes retroflex stops, nasals, laterals and glides. They are , , , , , and . These retroflex con-

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sonants have lost their retroflex character in the speech of some middleaged and some elderly speakers. The following are some examples.

Retroflexes

Older speakers a53 i33 i31 31 o55 31 go31 u31 31 u55

gloss grow (up) grasshopper durable wine curve; bend mountain

Middle-aged speakers ta53 i33 i31 t31 do55 n31 go31 lu31 z31 u55

Some elderly speakers still retain the retroflex consonant series. In fact, sometimes they even add the retroflex feature to non-retroflex consonants. However, the general trend is clear, namely, they are losing their retroflex feature. This change does not affect retroflex affricates and fricatives. Those are still quite stable. This could be the result of Lisu influence because Lisu has a set of such consonants that are very similar to the palatals in Anong. 5.2.4. The Emergence of Laryngealized Vowels The data collected in 1960 showed no sign of laryngealized (tight throat) vowels in Anong. However, in 1983, we found that some of the vowels and finals with nasals were pronounced with laryngealization, though the laryngealization did not have any contrastive distribution for differentiating word meanings or grammatical function. In 1999, it was found to be contrastively used to mark grammatical relations. Then we found some contrastive use of the laryngealized feature for differentiating word meanings. In cases where a vowel developed the laryngealized feature due to the loss of an initial glottal stop, we kept the glottal stop in the onset position. And we use the glottal stop in the coda position to indicate that the preceding vowel has the laryngealized feature. The following are some examples.

gloss row (boat) browbeat search (body) to divine

Symbol used zam53 m31 km35 k31 som35 di31 xn35

Actual pronunciation zam53 m31 km55 k31 som35 di31 xn35

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Table (cont.) behead pant; breathe deeply shave ashamed suck (milk) louse

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b55 tn55 nu55 31 pn35 m55 55 tim55 31 55

b55 tn55 nu55 31 p n35 m n55 55 tm55 31 55

What is noteworthy is that Trung, a language closely related to Anong, has consonant clusters such as m, n, , etc. And the vowels in those finals are in the process of gaining the laryngealized feature. This provides evidence that the contrastive laryngealized feature on vowels in Tibeto-Burman languages can originate in final consonants with glottal stops. Further investigation is needed to fully understand the laryngealized feature in Anong. We believe that in addition to language internal mechanisms, one must take into account the influence of contiguous languages such as Lisu and Bai, both of which are rich in vowels with the laryngealized feature. 5.2.5. Development of the 33 Tone The data collected in 1960 showed four tones. At the time, we also noticed a 33 tone, but it only occurred in free variation and was never used contrastively. Therefore, we did not include it in the phonemic inventory of tones. However, in 1999, we found that the 33 tone had gained its contrastive status (See chapter two for examples.). Checking all of the 9500 syllables of the words collected, we found 250 instances of the 33 toneconstituting 2.67% of the total number of syllables in our word list, establishing its phonemic status in the phonological system of Anong. 5.2.6. Allophonic Variation Since Anong is an obsolescing language, many of its phonemes display frequent allophonic variation patterns within and between speakers, regardless of whether the setting is the same or different. The following are some examples. (1) Anong has a syllabified velar nasal with a high frequency of occurrence, and it is often pronounced as o. The following are some examples.

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velar prefix 31ku31 31u55 31lu55 31ts31 o prefix o31 ku31 o31 u55 o31 lu55 o31 ts31 gloss hole pupa stone; rock kernel

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(2) Although Anong has two different sets of retroflex affricates, some of the retroflex laminal affricates occur in free variation with their nonretroflex counterparts, which is illustrated by the examples below.
t55 xom31 t55 y55 d31 m3 t55 xom31 t55 y55 d31 m31 squirrel bird sugar knife

(3) In addition to the nasalized vowels series, we also have nasalized vowels that came from the allophonic variation of finals that end with the velar nasal, as is shown in the examples below.

velar nasal 31 nu31 31 i35 31 p31 p31 i33

nasalization 31 n31 31 i35 si31 p31 p31 i33

gloss Arab (self-designation) slowly five ghost

(4) The tones on some affixes, particles and certain lexemes display some free variation. The most typical case is the numeral one which occurs with high frequency with classifiers, see the examples below.
High-level tone55 ti55m31 ti55so31 Mid-level tone33 ti33i55 ti33xa55 Mid-falling tone31 ti31k55 ti31gm33 one 10,000 one point (needle) one night one basket one half one step ti55tsu31 ti55tu31 ti33b55 ti31xu55 ti31p55 one grove one 1000 one disk one foot (12) one bag

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The numeral one has a 55 tone when it is used to count, but when it occurs with other lexical categories its tone changes to either 31 or 33. The variation displays a certain degree of systematicity: the numeral before a word with 31 tone carries a 55 tone; and in other cases, the numeral carries either a 31 tone or a 33 tone. Since the patterns are not stable and thus no prediction is possible, we could only record them as we heard them in elicitation. (5) Some voiced consonants occur in free variation with their voiceless counterparts. For instance, the voiced lateral and the voiceless lateral fricative are two different phonemes, but in some verbs and adjectives, they occur in free variation. Several examples follow.

voiced lim31 l55 l55 li31 mu33

voiceless im31 55 55 i31 mu33 bury tongue take welding

The nasals m /m, n/n, /, /, / behave the same way as the laterals. We even get voiced fricatives occurring in free variation with their voiceless counterparts. (6) Aspirated consonants in Anong have a low frequency of occurrence. However, aspiration is phonemic in Anong. In some words, aspirated voiceless stops occur in free variation with unaspirated voiceless stops. The following are some examples.

unaspirated 31 di31 p35 31 p55 p31 l55 l31 tin31

aspirated 31 di31 p35 31 p55 p31 l55 l31 tin31 price spoon poison monster

In addition to the above, there are some other cases of free variation between certain sounds. For instance, in the initial position of syllables that begin with a vowel, sometimes they occur with a glottal stop and

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sometimes the glottal stop is deleted. Although this alternation can be contrastive, it no longer does so in most instances. Also, [], [z], [] are interchangeable in a limited number of words. Sometimes they can even be interchangeable with the vowel [i] in syllable initial position. The following examples illustrate this phenomenon.
iomn mn o55mn55 zmn zo55mn55 imn omn 55mn55 cloud cure

All of the above free variation patterns are so frequent in Anong that is is difficult to describe them completely. 5.3. Grammatical Restructuring Anong has a rich grammatical system indicated through prefixation, suffixation, and inflection. The drastic changes Anong is undergoing is also reflected in changes in its grammatical system. The system is relatively fully preserved in the speech of level A speakers. It is no longer strictly observed by speakers with Level B or lower fluency (see Chapter 1 for descriptions of different proficiency levels). Many of the grammatical structures either disappeared or have been simplified. The ensuing discussion is based on the findings of the language proficiency survey mentioned in the introduction. Only a few common categories and structures will be described here. 5.3.1. Plural Marking on Nouns The plural is marked by particles in Anong. There are two plural particles, z31 31 and m53, both of which came from measure words through the grammaticalization process. The z31 31 particle occurs with animate nouns whereas the m53 particle can be used with any count noun. In Level B fluency speech, plural markers no longer occur, and quantifying expressions, such as the word meaning many, are used instead. The following two sentences illustrate the use of plural marking among speakers with Level A and Level B fluency.
Level A fluency: m31nm35 z3131(or, m31) 3155 dz31 31b55 (indefinite) guest group all come (directional.suffix) The guests have all come.

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31 b55 (indefinite) (directional.suffix)

Level B fluency: m31 nm35 (bm31 bm31) 3155 dz31 guest many all come many guests have come.

5.3.2. Possessives Anong has a residual possessive marking system in the form of a prefix to nouns. It is still widely used in the speech of Level A fluency speakers. A considerable number of kinship terms take the possessive prefix. In fact, even some animate nouns can occur with the prefix. This marking system has disappeared in the speech of speakers with Level B fluency, and pronouns are used in its place. Examples are given below.

person 1 2 3

Level (A) 31m31 31m31 31m31

Level (A) 3131m31 3131m31 3131m31

Level (B) 3131m31 3131m31 3131m31 my mother your mother his mother

The above examples show that the forms produced by speakers with Level A fluency in the first column still take possessive prefixes. In the second column, Level A speakers used pronouns in addition to the possessive prefixes. In the third column, the forms produced by speakers with Level B fluency indicate that the possessive prefix has mostly disappeared leaving only a residual form - with no grammatical function. This is in fact the prevalent prefix -/a- in front of kinship terms among many current day Sino-Tibetan languages. 5.3.3. Changes in the Numeral System Anong has its own numeral system, which has basically preserved the characteristics of numeral systems of Tibeto-Burman languages. Except for the ones place, the tens place and the hundreds place, one can count up to a thousand. However, among speakers with Level B fluency, the situation is quite complicated. Some of them can count up to a hundred in Anong using Lisu words for the rest, some up to ten, some can only say the lower numbers, and some use Lisu words even for the lower numbers. This situation resulted in Anong having two

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numeral systems, with a native system and a borrowed system from Lisu co-existing at the same time, which is illustrated by the examples given below.
number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 100 Original ti i som bi p ku s dg ti tsa ti < Lisu ti i s li u to he ku ts tih number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1000 Original Anong titsaiti titsaii titsaisom titsaibi titsaip titsaiku titsais titsai titsaidg itsa ti tu < Lisu tsti tsi ts s ts li ts u ts to ts ts he ts ku i ts ti tu

The ordinal number system is even more interesting. Anong has three co-existing systems, namely, the native system, a system borrowed from Chinese and a system borrowed from Lisu. The system borrowed from Chinese is actually used the most frequently probably because of its simplicity, see the examples given below.

gloss first second third fourth

Original Anong kp ti kpi kpsom kpbi

< Chinese ti i ti ti s ti s

< Lisu evutim imtim smtim limtim

5.3.4. Person Marking on Verbs Verbs in Anong are marked for person and number through prefixes, suffixes and verb root inflections. Generally, the verb agrees in person and number with the subject, though in some cases the agreement also occurs on modifiers of the subject or object. This is the case with speakers of Level A fluency. For speakers with Level B fluency, the situation is quite different. The agreement marking system is no longer strictly observed. Sometimes it is used, while at other times it is

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not used by the same speakers. Oftentimes it is only used to mark first and second persons with no marking for dual and plural. Object and other constituents agreement marking has completely disappeared. This is illustrated in the examples given below using the verb 31n33 hit showing the differences between Level A and Level B fluency speakers use of person marking.
Table 25: Agreement systems (Fluency Levels A and B) number singular dual plural person 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 Fluency (A) 31 35 31 33 31 33 31 33 s55 31 33 s55 31 33 31 33 i31 31 33 31 31 33 Fluency (B) 31 35 31 33 31 33 3133 3133 3133 3133 3133 3133

Notes on Table 25: (1) The use of agreement marking does not show clearly delineatable differences by age. In other words, the use of person and number marking varies quite a bit among all Anong speakers, mainly correlating with proficiency levels. Those who are proficient still preserve the agreement marking of person and number. Those who are no longer proficient either show an incomplete marking system or do not use any of them at all. (2) We surveyed over ten types of speakers. We first sorted out the agreement system among Level A speakers and then checked them among Level B speakers. The table above represents a summary of the results we obtained. (3) The data show that in terms of first person and second person marking for agreement, there is no difference between Level A and Level B speakers. That is to say the person agreement marking system is still well preserved. The difference lies in number marking. Level B speakers no longer differentiate singular, dual, and plural.

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Causatives in Anong are indicated through either prefixes or inflection of the verb root. In 1983, we collected a full set of examples showing causative marking in Anong through prefixation. The data were collected from a 70-year old Anong speaker by the name Hn Wnjn. It is clear that the Anong system is a remnant of causatives in Tibeto-Burman languages. However, in 1999 when we went back to double check on those forms, our informant already passed away. We found another Anong speaker as our informant, but this informant rejected all of the causative forms we collected from Hn Wnjn. Further checking with other speakers reveal that some accepted the forms while others rejected them. And those who accepted those forms showed differences in the causative forms they provided. Clearly causative markings are disappearing in Anong. Those speakers who have it also showed sound differences. Although the differences correlate with age differences, they mirror the changes in causatives in Tibeto-Burman languages, and even to some extent, Sino-Tibetan languages. Therefore, we treated causatives as a special project and studied this grammatical category in detail. Since we already described the causatives in elderly speakers in the chapter on grammar, here we will only discuss the use of causatives in different age groups (see also Sun 1999b:183199).

gloss bury collapse cry cut off (stick) know smash (bowl) white wear (clothes) flat sour

verb lim55 dim55 55 d55 i55 ga55 b5531 gu55 31 d31 m31 tm55

Fluency (A) i31 lim55 i31 dim55 s31 55 i31 d55 i31 i55 s31 g55 s31 b5531 d31 gu55 p31 d31 pm31tm55

Fluency (B) im55 tim55 (tim55) 55 t55 (t55) i55 hka55 (ka55) hp55 (p55) 31 gu55 31 d31 m31 tm55

Notes on the ten examples above. (1) In Anong, causatives occur with not only verbs but adjectives as well, illustrated by white, flat, and sour in the examples above.

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(2) The causative is marked by prefixation. The most frequently used prefix is s31/i31. Other prefixes used are d31, and p31(p31). The s31 becomes i31 when it occurs before a palatal consonant followed by [i]. When p31 occurs before verbs or adjectives that already have the prefix 31, then it becomes p31, which is a combination of p31 and 31. The frication of the consonants in these two forms of the causative marker is rather slight among elderly speakers speech. They are hardly audible in middle-aged speakers speech. This indicates that causatives are undergoing changes in Anong. (3) Some sound changes have occurred due to the pronunciation changes the causative prefixes have undergone. Fricatives have weakened to a slight puff of air resulting in the loss of the prefix as an independent syllable, which led to changes in the consonants in initial position of the verb or adjective root. Voiced consonants have become voiceless and aspirated while stops have disappeared altogether. The differences shown in the speech of different age groups in Anong causatives provide good evidence for the paths of change for causatives. These data help explain the various residual forms of causative markings among Tibeto-Burman languages, because the case in Anong illustrates one of the links in the continuum of changes this grammatical category has been undergoing among Tibeto-Burman languages. 5.3.6. Grammatical Particles Anong has a set of grammatical particles for marking possessive, causative, accusative, instrumental, locative, allative (source), comparative, and definite. These particles fulfill very important grammatical functions, and the rules for their use are generally speaking quite strictly observed. However, in recent years, changes have occurred among speakers in different age groups with different levels of proficiency. Elderly speakers who are proficient still strictly follow the rules governing the use of those particles. Those who are younger and those who are not proficient no longer follow those rules strictly.

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Fluency (A) conjunctive: causative: recipient: instrumental: temporal: locative: source: comparative: continuative: comitative definite: adverbializer: ni55, k31 mi53 k31, b31 mi55 t35 du55k31, 55, p33 k31ne55, ne55 5531, p3331 3131, t55ti55 z31 31, 31 li31, 31, u33, u33li31 Fluency (B) k31 mi53 b31 mi55 ne55 5531 31, 31 u33 notes:

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basically not used still in use basically not used basically not used not used not used; use points of compass only use ne55 basically not used not used not used used more often only use u33

The possessive particle is only used when the possessee is omitted. The description basically not used means sometimes it is used and sometimes it is not used, or some speakers use it while others dont. Among the elderly speakers, a difference is made in comparison, namely, superior comparison and inferior comparison. For instance, in I am older than you the superior comparative form is used and in I am younger than you the inferior comparative form is used. However, most speakers no longer make this distinction, including Level A speakers. Sometimes, even when it is used, only the superior comparative form is used. The definite particle is used more often among Level B speakers than Level A speakers, showing a tendency to replace other particles. 5.3.7. The Copulas Among Tibeto-Burman languages, especially those with rich morphology, the copula verb can not be omitted in copula constructions. Further, the copula verb undergoes various morphological processes marking various grammatical functions, such as person, number, aspect, and voice. However, those languages that are not rich in morphology allow omission of the copula. Anong is somewhere in between. In Level A speakers speech, the copula is still required, and the copula inflects for negation. Among Level B speakers, the copula is usually omitted in affirmative sentences. In negative sentences, the copula is required, but its morphological inflection has disappeared. The following two sentences illustrate these differences.

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31 h31t55 i33 m53? you Han be Q Are you Han? 31io31 55 m 3155, I Def.Part. Neg.be I am not, I am Nu. Level B speaker: 31 h31t55 you Han Are you Han? m53? Q 31io31 I 55 Def.Part. 31nu31t55 Nu 31io31 I 55 Def.Part. 31nu31t55 Nu i33 be

31io31 55 m 3155, I Def.Part. Neg.be I am not; I am Nu.

Clearly, in the Level A speakers speech, the copula 55 is made up of the root 55 and the first person singular marker . In contrast, the Level B speaker no longer uses the first person singular marker. 5.3.8. Stories and Texts Anong has a rich oral literature tradition, including myths, epic stories, legends, congratulatory speeches, and ancient songs. However, very few elderly speakers still remember them. When collecting texts, we discovered that very few elderly speakers have the ability to tell stories eloquently using expressive language with moving plots and good coherence. Such performances often use vivid expressions such as four-syllable rhyming constructions, idioms and sayings, and couplet sentences. Even those who are still proficient do not necessarily have the ability to tell stories. Some can tell stories to some extent using simplistic language with incoherent and poor plots. Most Anong speakers can no longer tell stories. It should be pointed out that the differences between different age groups and different proficiency level speakers are more extensive than we depicted here. We have only discussed the most transparent cases. More subtle differences in lexicon, phonological and grammatical structures will be discussed in later studies.

CHAPTER SIX

ANONG IN TIBETO-BURMAN In the western linguistics literature, when the Nung languages are discussed, until recently there has been a tendency to limit the discussion to the Nung languages found in Burma, such as Rawang which is similar to Trung, as if they were quite similar. However, in actuality, the languages in the Nung ethnic group differ in major ways. They can be divided into four branches,1 one of which is the Anong branch that consists of two languages, namely, Anong and the Nujiang dialect with the ethnonym Anong, a language which is similar to Trung. Anong belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family. However, is it a separate language? What languages in the Tibeto-Burman language family are close to Anong? How should Anong be subgrouped within Tibeto-Burman? These questions must be answered for any newly discovered language. And in this chapter, we will discuss those questions from two perspectives. 6.1. Anong as a Separate Language When we first started investigating Anong in 1960, we thought that the speakers of Anong were ethnically Nung. Although there were differences between Anong and the Nung languages, they might be just dialectal or subdialectal differences. So maybe Anong was close to the Nung languages. Therefore, we considered classifying all these languages including Anong as closely related. In 196162, the then Minority Nationality Languages Research Institute entrusted us with the task of working out the subgrouping of Trung and Nung languages through a comparative study. After almost two years of research, we reached a conclusion: The main language in the Nung ethnic group is Nusu, which we classified as a Yi (Loloish; Lolo-Burmese) language. Trung

1 This subgroup of four languages is ethnic, not linguistic. The two non-Nung languages are Nusu and Zauzou, both Lolo-Burmese. Thus, the ethnic designation combines two Nungish languages and two Lolo-Burmese languages.

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is close to languages in the Jingpo subgroup so we classified Trung as a Jingpo language. Later further investigation revealed that the Nung ethnicity speaks four different languages: Nusu, Zauzou (Chinese: Ruru), Anong, and Trung (Dlng). And the languages have marked differences. Additional data from all of those languages and more in-depth comparative research indicate that the languages are so different that they do not look like dialects of the same language. After we documented Trung, we discovered that Anong is very similar to Trung. So the question is is Anong a dialect of Trung? After the grammatical sketch of Trung was published, we made several more trips to the Anong area to collect more data. After we did more comparative research in the late 80s and completed the grammatical sketch of Anong, we finally concluded that Anong is a separate language. In the following sections, we will demonstrate that the Nung groups all speak different languages. 6.1.1. Sound Comparisons In this section, we will look at initials, finals, tones, and syllable structures to find out what differences exist between those languages. (1) Initials Initials consist of single consonants or consonant clusters, though Zauzou no longer has consonant cluster initials (although it does have affricates). (A) Single Consonant Initials
Table 26: Initial single consonants Anong (Nujiang) Nusu bilabial labiodental alveolar sibilant alveolar retroflex palatal velar glottal p p b m m fv ts ts dz s z t t d n n l t t d t t d k k g x h p ph b m m f fh v ts tsh dz s sh z t th d n n l t th d h t th d h k kh g x h Zauzou p ph m fv ts tsh s z t th n l t th k kh x Trung p ph b m w f ts tsh dz s z t th d n l t th t th d j k kh g x

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For Trung we have used the Nujiang dialect of Trung, who are of Nung ethnicity. Their autonym is Anong, and they described themselves as the same people but speaking different languages. The data used are from Nujiang dialect of Trung. Through comparison, we can see the differences among these languages in terms of consonants. First, Anong has retroflex stops, nasals, and a retroflex lateral that the other languages do not have; its voiceless nasals have a high frequency of occurrence. Nusu has voiceless fricatives while the other languages do not; its voiceless nasals also have a high frequency of occurrence. Zauzou has lost all of the voiced stops and affricates. It has not developed any retroflex consonants yet. It does not have voiceless nasals or voiceless lateral. The retroflex and labiodental consonants in Trung only occur in Chinese borrowings and have a low frequency of occurrence. It has neither voiceless nasals nor laterals. It has developed bilabial and palatal glides. Second, in terms of complexity and quantity, Zauzou has the least complex and smallest in number consonant system, with a total of 22 consonants, followed by Trung with 33 consonants. Both Anong and Nusu are complex in their consonant systems with more than 45 consonants. (B) Consonant Clusters
Table 27: Consonant clusters Anong +C b d g dz d d m n l , b p p b m f v k g x Nusu m n l Zauzou Trung

C+

p ph b m m f v k kh g x

p ph b m k kh g x

C+l

pl phl bl ml kl khl gl

First, Zauzou no longer has consonant clusters. Anong allows clusters consisting of a glottal stop followed by a consonant, a consonant plus a glide, and even a glottal stop plus consonant plus glide combination. Nusu is similar to Anong though it only allows a glottal stop plus either

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a nasal or a lateral but it no longer allows glottal stop plus stop clusters or affricate clusters. Trung does not have glottal stop plus consonant clusters; however, it not only has consonant plus glide clusters but also allows consonant and lateral liquid clusters, the latter being a remnant of Proto-Tibeto-Burman. Second, remnants of the old Tibeto-Burman consonants clusters can be seen in the consonant clusters of the Nung languages. Zauzou lost its consonant clusters the earliest, followed by Nusu, which still retains some. Anong and Trung both still possess some unique features: Anong still allows glottal stop plus consonant clusters and CCC- consonant clusters, whereas Trung still has consonant clusters that consist of a consonant and a lateral liquid. These features are the last remnants of an old system. (2) Finals Finals are made up of simple vowels, diphthongs, and vowel plus consonant combinations. (A) Simple Vowel Finals (Broad Phonetic Transcription)
Table 28: Simple vowel finals Anong plain nasalized retroflexed constricted constricted & retroflex constricted, nasalized, & retroflexed constricted & nasalized short iea ouy developing Nusu ieo uy e o Zauzou ieao uy a o Trung ieu y

What is common among these four languages is that they all have a rich simple vowel series. Many differences exist among these languages in their vowel systems.

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First, Anong has both a simple vowel series and a nasalized simple vowel series, and there is evidence that Anong is developing constricted vowels (see Chapter five for details). Nusu and Zauzou, as members of the Yi (= Loloish) subgroup, both have constricted vowels, which is characteristic of Yi (= Loloish) languages. The nasalized vowels in Nusu and Zauzou are remnants (of earlier vowel plus nasal combinations), which indicate that those two languages are more conservative among the Yi languages. Nusu not only developed retroflex vowels but retroflex nasalized vowels as well. In addition, it has developed retroflex constricted vowels. These features result in a complex vowel system for Nusu which has a vowel inventory of 35 for simple vowels alone, making Nusu a language with the most complex simple vowel system among the Sino-Tibetan languages. Trungs simple vowel system has not developed as many contrasts. However, it does have a long vowel versus short contrast, a relatively rare feature among Tibeto-Burman languages. Second, the vowel systems of those four languages indicate that changes in the syllable structure, that is, the reduction in both the onset and coda positions of the syllable, correlate with the degree of complexity in the vowel system. Thus, since the endings in finals are largely retained, the four languages have not undergone much vowel splitting and their vowel systems are not as complex. As a result, their vowel systems are not as complex. In this respect, Anong is in the middle while Nusu has the most complex system. Zauzou has already passed the most complex stage and is now undergoing simplification. This cycle of sound change constitutes a continuum, which correlates with the contact patterns of the languages in question. Zauzou is the closest to Chinese speaking regions and began to have the earliest contact with the outside, followed by Nusu, with Anong and Trung being the most isolated.

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(B) Diphthongs and Triphthongs:

Table 29: Diphthongs and triphthongs Types i+V Anong ie, i, ia, i, io, iu, i, i, i, i ui, ue, u, ua, u, u, u Nusu ie, i, i, i, io,iu, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, io, ie, i, i, i ui, ue, u, u, u, u, u, u, u, ue, u, u, u, u, u, u, u, u yi, ye, y, y, y, y, ye i, e Zauzou ie, i, i, ia, i, i, i, io, io, iu, i ue, u, ue, ua, u, ua, u, u, u, u, u, u yi, y, ye, ya, y, y Trung i=j

u+V

u=w

y+V +V V+i V+u triphthong

yi, ye, y, y i, u ei, ai, i u iu, ui

ye i, i, ui, i, i, i, i, i

There are a lot of similarities between the four languages in terms of complex vowels, but there are also some notable differences. First, Nusu and Zauzou have not developed diphthongs that begin with the central vowel and then transition to i or u yet; both Anong and Trung have both types of diphthongs. Some of the diphthongs that end with i or u came from Chinese borrowings. Second, Nusu has a few instances of diphthongs that begin with the transitional vowel , which is uncommon among Tibeto-Burman languages. Diphthongs that begin the transitional with element y in Trung occur only in Chinese borrowings. In Anong, the frequency of occurrence of diphthongs that begin with the transitional element y is quite low. This means that in Trung and Anong, diphthongs with y as the onset are a new development. Third, diphthongs in Trung that begin with i or u are treated as combinations of the semivowels y or w followed by a vowel and are realized as the palatalization or labialization of the vowel. In actuality, there are no qualitative differences (between such combinations and the diphthongs in the other languages).

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(C) Finals with Consonantal Codas Differ Among the Four Languages
Table 30: Finals with consonantal codas Anong -p -t -k - -m i, , a, , o, u, , io u, u im, im, em, m, m, am, am, om, om, um, m, m, uam, um in, in, en, n, an, an, n, un, n, n, n, n, in, ian, uan, un , a, , i, , i, e, , a, , o, u, , , , i, i, iu, i, u Nusu Zauzou Trung ip, p, ep, p, p, p, p, p, p it, t, et, t, t, t, t, t, ut, t, t, t ik, k, ek, k, k, k, k, k, uk, k, k, k i, , e, , , , , u, , , em, m, m, m, m, m, m, m, m, m, m, m, m in, n, en, n, n, n, n, n, un, n, n, n, yn, yn, n, n, n, n, n, n i, , e, , , , u, , , , i , , , , , el, l, l, l, l, l, ul, l, l, l , , , , ,

-n

- - -

-l -

The above table shows enormous contrasts in the codas across the four languages. First, Nusu and Zauzou, the two Yi languages, have lost all of the consonants in coda position. Second, Trung has retained the original Tibeto-Burman coda position consonants including the nasals, the stops, and the lateral. The only consonant that does not occur in the coda position of finals is [s]. The retroflex [], we suspect, is a variant of the earlier coda [r]. In Anong, all instances of stops, fricatives, and laterals have been lost in codas. The glottals in the coda are the remains of earlier stops. And

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the vowels plus nasal combinations are in the process of becoming nasalized vowels. Anong has developed finals with retroflex nasals and palatal nasals. Where they came from can be figured out by comparing the forms with forms from other Tibeto-Burman languages. Third, both Anong and Trung have nasal finals followed by glottal stops. Although Tibetan and some other Tibeto-Burman languages have finals with consonant codas, it is not clear whether the finals with glottal stop codas in Anong and Trung are cognate to these. Fourth, the sound changes in those four languages have played an important role in determining the independent status of Anong. At least, phonologically, they set Anong far apart from the other three languages. (3) Tones The tones of those four languages are also different, which are manifested in the following two ways. (A) Number of Tones The number of tones differ among those languages, which can be seen from the table below.
Table 31: Number of tones Anong high level 55 mid level 33 low falling 31 high falling 53 high rising 35 low rising 13 / / / / / Nusu / / / / Zauzou / / / / / / Trung / / /

Trung has only three tones. Nusu has four, while Anong has five. Zauzou has six which is the highest number of tones among those four languages. All four have a high level tone, a mid-falling tone, and a high falling tone. Three of the languages have a mid-rising tone, and two languages have a mid-level tone. Only one, i.e. Zauzou, has a low rising tone. These patterns show tendency toward tone development. Very few of the Tibeto-Burman languages have developed contour tones, which is an indication that Tibeto-Burman languages are more conservative in tone development than Chinese, Hmong, Mien, and Tai-Kadai languages.

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(B) The Functional Load The functional load of tones in those four languages differs in the following ways. First, although there is a correlation between the number of tones a language has and the functional load of the tones, it is not always true that the more the tones and the higher the functional load. For instance, Anong has more tones than Nusu. However, this does not mean that tones have a higher functional load in Anong than in Nusu. It is clear that Trung has the lowest functional load for tones whereas tones in Zauzou have the highest functional load. Second, the functional load of tones is determined by their frequency of occurrence for making meaning distinctions. Although we have not done a thorough investigation of this, it is easy to find many examples in Zauzou where tones are used to signal meaning distinctions with otherwise identical forms. It is also relatively easy to find such examples in Nusu. However, it is hard to find them in Anong and Trung. Third, our investigation reveals that tones in Zauzou and Nusu are relatively stable. Few instances of variation in the tone of the same word occur in either language. This is not so in Anong and Trung. Tones on the same word vary quite freely, and this is especially true in Anong. Fourth, Trung and Anong are predominantly polysyllabic, while Nusu and Zauzou are basically monosyllabic. In Trung and Anong, tones have a relatively low functional load but in Nusu and Zauzou tones have a much higher functional load. Fifth, Trung and Anong have complex sound systems with a high number of consonant clusters and finals. Nusu and Zauzou have relatively simple sound systems with many homophones making it necessary to use tones to signal meaning distinctions, which led to the increase in their functional load. (4) Syllable Structure There are two marked differences between those four languages in their syllable structure. First of all, as members of the Yi subgroup, Nusu and Zauzou have predominantly open syllables because of the loss of consonants in coda position. In contrast, Trung and Anong still have numerous consonantal codas resulting in more closed syllables. The other major difference is that Trung and Anong are rich in prefixes and suffixes, which is why quite a number of the words in the basic word list are polysyllabic. Consequently, words in Nusu and Zauzou are mostly monosyllabic while Trung and Anong, which belong to the

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Jingpo subgroup, are predominantly polysyllabic. Lets compare syllable structures in the four languages (T=Tone; C=Consonant; V=Vowel).
Table 32: Syllable structures in the four languages Anong CT VT VVT VVVT CVT CVVT CVVVT CCVT CCCVCT VCT VVCT CVCT CVVCT CCVVT CVCCT CCVCCT / / / / / / / / / / / / / Nusu / / / / / / Zauzou / / / / / / Trung / / / / / / / / / / / /

The table above shows that Anong has 14 different syllable types. Nusu and Zauzou have six each and Trung has a total of 13. The cause of the differences in syllables is the differences in consonant clusters and the differences in the occurrence of consonantal codas. Phonologically, the four languages can be divided into those that allow consonantal codas and those that do not: The languages that allow consonants in coda position do not have a constricted versus non-tight vowels contrast. Languages that are now without consonantal codas have a tight versus non-tight vowel contrast. The languages that allow a full range of consonantal codas have short vowels contrasting with their long counterparts. Languages that allow consonantal codas and tones have tones with a lighter functional load whereas tones in languages without consonantal codas have a higher functional load. Languages with consonants in coda positions have complex syllable structures, while those without consonants in coda positions have relatively simple syllable structures, and so on.

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In terms of differences in lexicon, Nusu and Zauzou are both predominantly monosyllabic languages, while Trung and Anong are mostly polysyllabic. All four languages share considerable basic vocabulary, as is evident in the clear correspondences between forms, which can be seen in the following table. An examination of these data provide evidence that Anong and Nusu are in one subgroup and Zauzou and Nusu are in the other. See immediately below the table for an explication of the numbers in the column on the right.
Table 33: Cognate sets in basic vocabulary (100 words) Anong sky sun moon star wind rain water earth mountain stone gold silver iron fire ox horse goat sheep pig dog cat bear rat chicken fish snake egg tree bamboo fruit mu55 l31 nm31 s31 l55 ko31 i55 31 bu31 ts31 t31 35 l31m55 z31u55 lu55 33 pu55 31 k55 t31 mi55 n31 u31 ma31 31 b55 31 i31 o55 d31 g55 m31 i31 55 p31 31 din55 k55 u55 b31 o31 lim31 55 dz55 km55 55 33 Nusu m55 i3555 31 ke31 l35 m55 31 i35 m5531 u55 i31 g53 mi3555 u35 55 lu53 t35 55 ui35 55 35 mi55 n55 m31 l55 th55 i55 v53 khui55 m35 31 khui55u35 u53 p31 31 55 vi55 u31 si53 dz35 v55 th55th55 Zauzou m33 mi31 l31 ki55zo33la31 m33l33 m33vu55 33 mi33ti33 ko53ti33 la53 t31 ue33 x55 mi33 nu33 mia33 the53 i55 53 khyi33 a55n33 55 vu53 o53 o33 31 vu13 s53tse33 kh33tse33 i33 Trung m55 nm53lu55 s31l55 gu31et55 nm53b 53 nm53z55 55 m55 l31kh55 lu55 se55 un55 m53 t31mi55 nu55u53 m31g53 tht55 j53 w55 d31gi55 n31me55 i55 dt55 kh55 nm31pl55 b53 kh31l m53 55 khm55 i53 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 3 1 1 4 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 4 2 2 1 4 4

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Table 33 (cont.) Anong grass root flower body head eye ear nose mouth tooth tongue hand finger heart liver lung blood bone person name house clothes hat; cap shoe cloth rice; food meat oil salt road bridge ghost, spirits eat see blow on (fire) read sit ride (horse) go; walk die big small tall; high in33 55 z33 55 vn55 dz31 g31 l31 pu55 i55 lu55 31 n31 s31 n55 m55 du31 31 s31 p31 l31 31 vu35 31 tim55 i55 m31 b31 in33 i31 s55 33 31 ko53 31 ts31 31 nu31 tim31 g31 m31 d31 mo55 31xa55g55dm55 m33 xu55 b55 d31 33 31 su55 s31 l55 ti31 z31 go31 55 p31i33 m53 d55 u31 31 pu31 s31 z31 u31 go55 n33 d31 dz31 dz53 31 u55 d31 ti55 l55 u55 m31

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Nusu m53 g55 v53 55 thi35 g31 u31 phu55 mi53 di31 n55 sh35 n55 k35 n55 k35 shu55 f35 l53 l53 n55 31 l53 tsh55 tshu35 sui55 55 su35 nu35 su35 i35 g53 d55 n55 ko31l35b35 tsh31 phi35 tshi55 kh35 55 tshu55 55 tsh55 kh35ph35 gu55 dz35 yi35 dz55 u31 si35 31 i35 dz31 shu55 31 i35 i55 31 31 m53 m 31

Zauzou pi13 thi55ka33 ua53 k33tse33 13tu33l33 mi53s33 na33s33 na35ka35 m55i31 tyi13 lio55t33 lo53 lo53na33 na35thu13 se33 tshue55phu33 ue33 xo33ka55 tsu33 z55zo33 i33 me33 tsha33ko55 thi55ki55 sa13so53 tso33th53 xo33 m31 tsho33 kho55m31 kh33ts33 p31ta13 tso33 i55 me53 za55 i33 t33 i55 i55 i33 33 mia55

Trung in53 3153 min31t55 g53 u53 ne55 31n55 s31n55 i31g55 31s53 p31li53 u55 u55xm53 31m55 p31in53 31s53 i55 3153 31tsh53 31nu53 t m53 j55 u31w55 l31gu53 e31bp55 31z55 53 t31m55 s31l55 m31l53 zm55 pl55 khe53 j53 mit55 dn53 53 n55 31g i55 i53 k31te55 k31ne55 x53 2 2 4 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 3 4

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Table 33 (cont.) Anong low long short red white black sweet bitter one two three four five six seven eight nine ten I you he, she who where what not dont and; with ti55 im31 u55 i31 ti55 55 tsa35 si55 b55 55 k53 k33 ti55 31i55 31som53 b53 p31 ku55 s35 55 d31g31 ti55tsa55 31 io31, 31 31 31 k31 io55 k55 k31 k55 t31 m31 t31 si55 Nusu i53 x31 31 d53 xi35 55 b55 b31 n35na53 th35 kh53 thi53 m55 s35 vi35 55 khu53 n55 53 g35 tshe35 35 o55 o55 khe31 kh35 b31 thu31 m31 m55 th55 le31 Zauzou 53 e55 to33 ne33 phi33 n53 th55 kho33 t31 n53 s33 yi33 o33 kha53 ne55 ia33 k33 tshe55 u55 o33 tu55 kh35 xa55ka55 se55i55 a31 tha31 ni33 Trung

155

thi53 m53 thi53 p31si53 b53 n55 53 kh53 ti55 31i55 s m53 bli53 p3153 kh55 s31t55 t55 d31g53 ti31tshn55 g55 n53 53 k31me55 kh55d31 t53 m31 me31 i55

4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 3 4 4 3

The table above contains 100 core vocabulary of Tibeto-Burman languages, most of which are cognates within the Tibeto-Burman subgroup. In fact, they are mostly cognates among Sino-Tibetan languages. A syllable count indicates that out of the 100 lexical items, the percentage of monosyllabic words are as follows, 70% for Zauzou, 61% for Nusu, 50% for Trung, and 33% for Anong. 1. In terms of cognates, 44 words are cognates in all four languages (marked as 1), although there are considerable differences phonologically among them. 2. There are 26 items that show cognates between Nusu and Zauzou, and between Trung and Anong (marked as 2). It should be noted that there are a couple of exceptions. For instance, the forms for he show cognates in Anong and Trung but not in Nusu and Zauzou. On the

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other hand, the forms for sweet show cognates in Zauzou and Nusu, but not in Anong and Trung. 3. Seventeen of the 100 items are definitely not cognates among the four languages (marked as 3), though some of them are somewhat phonologically similar. Some of those seventeen items are borrowings from the same lending language while some others may be borrowings from each other. 4. The thirteen items that are identified by the number four show a complex cognate relationship among the four languages. Notice that forms for other, high and low are cognates among Anong, Nusu, and Zauzou, whereas the forms for bamboo and fruit/seed are cognates among Anong, Zauzou and Trung. It should be pointed out that here we have limited the comparison to the first 100 core vocabulary items, which is why we have a relatively high percentage of cognates among the four languages. If we expand the vocabulary to include 2000 to 3000 basic vocabulary commonly used for subgrouping purposes, then the percentage of cognates would be much lower. 6.3. Grammatical comparison Similarities in grammatical structures are an important basis for determining genetic relatedness among languages. Our examination of the grammatical structures among the four Nung languages reveals that Zauzou and Nusu are close to each other, and Anong and Trung are close to each other. In terms of grammatical categories and the means through which they are indicated, we also see clear differences between those languages. Both Zauzou and Nusu have relatively simple grammatical categories, mainly marked analytically with function words. In contrast, Anong and Trung both have rich systems of prefixes and suffixes, some even involving consonant and vowel alternations. In addition, Anong displays certain unique characteristics not present in the other three languages.

anong in tibeto-burman 6.3.1. Plural Marking

Table 34: Markers of noun plurality Anong marker usage form origin z3131, m53 countables auxiliary not same source Nusu vi3555 animates auxiliary not same source Zauzou t31, mo31 countables auxiliary not same source Trung

157

m55 demonstratives auxiliary not same source

First, as is shown in the table above, all four languages utilize particles after the nouns to mark plurality. However, the source of the plural markers is different for each of the four languages. The plural marker in Anong comes from a measure word, whereas the plural markers in Zauzou and Nusu originate from indefinite numerals. The origin of the plural marker in Trung is unclear at this point. Second, we see differences in the way the plural markers are used in each of the languages. For instance, in both Anong and Zauzou, the plural markers can occur on all countable nouns, whereas the plural markers in Nusu and Trung are more restricted. In Nusu, only animate nouns can take the plural marker, while in Trung only human nouns can be marked as plural. 6.3.2. Nominal Diminutives All four languages possess diminutive suffixes for nouns denoting cuteness or diminution of the entities referred to by the noun. Their function is similar to the diminutive markers, such as r and zi , in Chinese.
Table 35: Diminutives Anong diminutive tn31 usage widely form grammaticalized suffix < son origin Trung Nsusu z55 narrowly grammaticalized suffix < son Zauzou Zauzou zo31, a55 narrowly grammaticalized suffix < son; daughter Nusu Trung thl53 widely grammaticalized suffix < son Anong

First, the diminutive suffixes in Anong and Trung are cognates while the ones in Nusu are cognate with those in Zauzou. However, the diminutive marker a55 in Zauzou does not have a cognate in Nusu.

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Second, all of the diminutive markers originate from content lexemes meaning son or baby through grammaticalization. They are either part of the full-lexeme or have undergone phonological changes in the process of grammaticalization. Third, in terms of the breadth of their distribution, we see differences among the four languages. The terms of wide and narrow used in the table are relative in nature. We have not done a statistical survey of the frequency of occurrence of all of these diminutive affixes. The wide versus narrow labeling merely reflects our estimate of their distribution based on the data we have on the situations in which such markers were used. 6.3.3. Possessives Some of the Tibeto-Burman languages have a possessive marking system. All four languages retain remnants of an earlier possessive marking system. The systems show identity in origin: all four of them are reduced forms of the personal pronouns. All four of them mark first, second, and third person distinctions. And, all share distributional restrictions: Anong and Zauzou do not prefix them to kinship terms or personal names, while Nusu and Trung rarely prefix them to kinship terms or personal names.
Table 36: Possessive marking Anong possessive remnants from pronouns kinship or personal names yes yes no Nusu yes yes rarely Zauzou yes yes no Trung yes yes rarely

Several comments are in order. First, few languages in the TibetoBurman subgroup still retain possessive markings. About ten such languages can be found in China, which include the four Nung languages in question. Even in those languages, the possessive marking system is on its way to being lost. They are becoming less and less productive and their occurrence is more and more restricted. Second, the possessive markers in Nusu and Trung only occur with kinship terms. However, in Anong and Zauzou, both kinship and nonkinship nouns take the possessive marking. This indicates that possessive marking in Anong and Zauzou is more productive than that in Nusu and Trung.

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Measure words in Tibeto-Burman languages display marked differences from language to language. Therefore, the characteristics of classifier words can be a good indicator of the closeness between Tibeto-Burman languages. Classifier words in the four Nung languages are quite similar in nature but there are some differences.
Table 37: Classifiers (measure words) Anong number rather plentiful functional load rather large used alone generally not for classification beginning to be auto-classifiers rather many Nusu very plentiful very large sometimes beginning to be remnants Zauzou especially plentiful especially large fully possible very clearly not have Trung rather plentiful rather large not possible no very plentiful

The most obvious difference in the behavior of classifiers among TibetoBurman languages is word order. Another difference is the number of classifiers a language possesses. And there is an interesting correlation between those two points. Some of the Tibeto-Burman languages have the classifier word-plus-numeral order while others have numeralplus-classifier word order. The former type of languages tend to have a relatively small number of classifiers with a limited functional load while the latter type of languages are usually rich in measure words with a heavier functional load. The four Nung languages under discussion are quite consistent in this regard, which is why we consider them to be similar in general. When we say that measure words may occur alone we mean that when a classifier co-occurs with the numeral one to modify a noun, the numeral can be omitted, which means that the classifier retains the connotation of one. This only occurs in languages with a rich classifier system. The classifying function refers to the phenomenon where nominals denoting different categories of entities take different classifiers. For instance, different classifiers refer to various types of entities such as rigid, two dimensional things, three dimensional things (which are further divided into rigid vs flexible and thick vs thin), round things, flat things, liquids, animals, plants, humans, and so on. Auto- or self-classifying classifiers refer to instances where the classifier is the same in form as the nominal, such as i55lu55 ti55 lu55

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eye one eye: one eye (partially identical), pan33 ti55 pan33 leg one leg: one leg, vn55 ti55 vn55 flower one flower: one flower, and so on. This is characteristic of those Tibeto-Burman languages in which measure words just started to develop. 6.3.5. The Formation and Characteristics of Reflexives All four languages have reflexive pronouns. However, they differ in terms of how they are formed and used. Although reflexive pronouns are a relatively new phenomenon in Tibeto-Burman languages, they are quite common across the subgroup with specific characteristics. All of the four Nung languages have reflexive pronouns. Trung has two basic forms of reflexive pronouns whereas Anong and Nusu have only one basic form respectively. Zauzou does not have a separate reflexive pronoun. Instead, it utilizes the reduplication process to indicate reflexive. In fact, using reduplication to express reflexive is not uncommon in Tibeto-Burman languages. Of the four Nung languages, three utilize the reduplication process to denote reflexive, though two of the three require the reflexive form in addition to reduplicating the pronoun. The reflexive forms in all four languages can be combined with pronouns to form singular, dual, and plural reflexive pronouns. The combination is tighter in some cases than in others. Some of the reflexive forms are from roots without the prefix while others are full forms. Also, some of the reflexive forms can serve as a constituent of a sentence alone whereas others cannot. 6.3.6. Verbal Grammatical Categories Verbs in all four languages can be marked for a variety of grammatical relations, and there are marked differences among the four languages in this respect. In some instances, the same grammatical category is marked very differently in different languages and the markings are not cognate. Seven verbal grammatical categories and how each of the four languages marks them is shown in Table 39. Among the four languages, only Anong and Trung have person and number marking on verbs and the two languages are quite similar in the sense that both use prefixes and suffixes to mark first and second person for singular, dual, and plural.

Table 38: Reflexives across languages Nusu 1. tu53m55 2. overlaps with personal pronouns uses 1, 2, 3, singular, dual and plural forms uses 1, 2, 3, singular, dual and plural forms and the interrogative forms with personal pronouns, inserts s31 in the middle overlaps with personal pronouns or interrogative pronouns 1. l55, 31d53 2. overlaps with person pronouns uses 1, 2, 3, singular, dual and plural forms Zauzou Trung

Anong

basic form

31lu5531

interaction with personal pronouns

drops the prefix 31; uses 1, 2, 3, singular, dual and plural forms with personal pronouns, inserts tu53 in the middle

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overlapping forms

none

simple overlap with personal pronouns

161

Table 39: Verbal categories across languages

162

Anong future gu35, duration di55, t55, i31, d31; finished g31, k31, past io35, d35 completed ku3131, i suppletive and analytic forms imperatives are analytic use directional verbs go and come analytic forms future ie33, immediate future mo35z31; progressive t53, 55; finished z31, experiential ku55z31, completed kuz 1, 2, 3 person suffixes future p55w53, present din53, finished lu55, completed b

Nusu

Zauzou

Trung

number

1, 2, 3 person suffixes

aspect

future b55, u55, progressive 55, no3131, finished d31, past ie31, completed

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voice

reflexive -31 causative s31-, mutual 31-

reflexive -31, causative s31-, mutual 31questions use -m55; imperatives use various affixes

mood

indicative , imperative l and lie31

optatives are analytic; questions use the prefix -ta53 use directional verbs go and come

directionals

centering suffixes: 31ie55, 31n55, 31 55, o31, toward periphery suffixes: b55, 31l31, , u55 31, khue35 i35, d, khui31

centering suffixes: 53, i53, t55; toward periphery suffixes: di31, downward dz55, upward lu55 t53, p31, tu33, su55 i33, ti13 s55, 31j55 n53

nominalizers

dm55, z55, su55

copulas

, o55, 31n, io55, dm55

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All four languages have the category of aspect with minor differences in how it is marked. None of the aspect markers is cognate across the four languages. Progressive, durative, present, and present progressive are essentially the same in nature, that is, the differences are more terminological than substantive. Also, past progressive and experiential are the same.2 All four languages have the category of voice with significant differences. Anong and Trung are very similar in both meanings and forms of voice marking. The only voice category Nusu has is causative. In fact, the causative prefix has been lost in Nusu with resulting sound changes in the verb roots. Zauzou no longer has any synthetic voice markers; it utilizes analytical means to indicate voice. Mood categories exist in all four languages but with significant differences. First, only Anong has indicative mood marking in the verb. Second, verbs are marked for interrogative in both Zauzou and Trung, but not in the other two languages. The interrogative markers in Zauzou and Trung are not cognates. Third, all the languages except Zauzou have imperative marking. Imperatives are marked similarly in Anong and Trung and the verbal inflections are all related to person. Nusu marks imperatives analytically. Fourth, all four languages mark requests, though none of those markings are cognates. Verbs in all four languages carry directional marking. Directional marking in Anong is very similar to that in Trung, and few of the markers in those two languages are cognates. In Nusu and Zauzou, the verbs come and go are used as directional markers, and the verbs are probably cognate. All four languages have nominalizers. The nominalizer su55 in Anong has a cognate in Lisu.3 The rest of the nominalizers do not seem to have any shared origins.

2 The reader, wary or not, should be aware by this point that the aspectual labels are unclear even within a given language description, let alone across descriptions. Sun himself makes that point in this section. While it would be nice to straighten all of the differing aspectual terminology out it would be neither trivial, nor possible, without sophisticated fieldwork on all the languages involved. 3 It is clear that Sun recognizes the cognacy of this term. Whether he would agree that the Anong form is borrowed from Lisu is another question. In any case, it is a grammaticalized form of a word for person.

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Existential (copular) verbs are present in all four languages, but only three of the languages have more than one with use distinctions.4 The copular verbs i35 in Nusu and i33 in Zauzou are cognate.5 6.3.7. Case Marking Particles Case markers (and other) particles in Tibeto-Burman languages are syntactic elements that function like cohesive devices to glue constituents together to form sentences. Table 40 below clearly shows that the four languages differ in the number, type, and usage of particles. Definite particles are found in three of the four languages. It is quite obvious that the possessive particles in Nusu and Zauzou are cognate. Agent and instrumental particles are found in all four languages. They are cognates in Anong and Trung, and Nusu and Zauzou respectively. What is curious is that the same particles have both causative and instrumental function in all four languages.6 Locative particles often indicate the position of the syntactic constituent in a sentence such as high, low, inside, outside, etc., which is why more often than not a language would have multiple location particles. Zauzou has five, Anong has four, Trung and Nusu both have two. The particles that indicate inside in Trung and Nusu are clearly cognate. Only three of the four languages have temporal particles, since we have not found any in Zauzou. The temporal particles in Nusu and Trung are very similar. All four languages have source or ablative particles, but they vary in number, with three in Nusu, two in Trung, two in Anong, and only one in Zauzou. The source particles in Nusu and Trung are cognates. Comparative markers are found in all four languages. Only Nusu differentiates two types of comparative marker.

4 The terminology is again a problem. Sometimes these verbs are labeled copular, sometimes existential, occasionally stative, and sometimes progressive. Their glosses vary in a similar way: sometimes glossed as be and other times as have. A search for cop, be, or have will yield numerous examples. 5 Sun notes elsewhere in the text that Anong 31n55 is cognate to Trung n53. 6 As Sun suggests elsewhere this simply might be ergativity.

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Anong and Trung have conjunction particles, while Anong and Zauzou have comitative particles. Only Trung has a prolative particle. None of those particles are cognates. Only Anong and Trung have definite particles and they are cognates, although Anong has a second definite particle 31 that does not have a cognate in Trung. Adverbial particles should exist in all four languages. However, at this point in time, we only found adverbial particles in Anong and Nusu, and they dont seem to be cognates.
Table 40: Case markers and other particles Anong genitive agent object locative ni55, k31 mi53 k31, b31 du55k31, s31, 55, p33 t35 k31ne55, ne55 5531 3131, t55ti55 z31 31, 31 Nusu e31 i31 n35 i31 do35, b31 Zauzou ze31 i33 k33 i33 k55, t33, ta55, ti31, k33 i33 Trung mi55, i55 le31 mi55 le31, d31

instrumental mi55

temporal source comparative conjunction comitative definite by way of adverbial

do35le31 do35le31, b31li31, b35le31

d31 le31, p55

d35n35, t33, t55t33 m31 k35n35, t5331 dm53w31 t35 mi53 n31

li31, 31, u33 kue35, m55, g35, de55

The comparison of the four languages spoken by the Nung ethnic group shows that each language has unique features that can be considered as evidence to show that they are independent languages. It is clear that Zauzou and Nusu are closer while Anong and Trung are closer.

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Tibeto-Burman has several hundred languages. Among the TibetoBurman languages spoken in China, the overall characteristics of Anong and Trung are close to those of the Jingpo languages. Therefore, it is highly likely that Anong can be classified under Jingpo.7 We will now discuss this issue based on data from Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in China. Although the Jingpo subgroup in Tibeto-Burman was established in the 50s of the 20th century, it had only one language in it at that time. No other languages were classified as members of the Jingpo subgroup because of Jingpos unique features. Views on this issue vary among scholars outside China. As more and more data and findings become available, scholars discovered some languages that seem genetically close to Jingpo, especially in terms of those typical characteristics. In 1960, we conducted our preliminary investigation of both Anong and Trung. We then set up a research team to specifically look at the classification issue of Trung. Two years study on this issue resulted in our tentative decision to put Trung in the Jingpo subgroup. Starting from the 70s of the 20th century, we have done extensive research on languages spoken in the Himalayan region. During the process of writing grammatical sketches of the languages being investigated, we ran into the issue of classifying Trung, Luoba, and so on. After further comparative studies, we became convinced that those languages belong to the Jingpo subgroup. Since Anong and Trung are close, we classified both under the Jingpo subgroup. So far, we can see that the languages in this subgroup are scattered with a relatively small number of speakers. Based on our statistics, this subgroup has less than 200,000 speakers. The main characteristics of the subgroup are discussed below. Quite a number of years ago, the American scholar Paul Benedict treated Jingpo as a language central to Tibeto-Burman.8 In his book titled Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus (1972), Benedict provided a family tree

The subgrouping here is typological, more than genetic. Benedict was interested both in genetic affiliations and in diffusion of characteristics from one language. His diagram is sometimes given a genetic interpretation and sometimes a diffusional interpretation. The centrality of Jingpo (labeled Kachin, a term which is ethnic rather than linguistic) is absolutely unambiguous in the diagram.
8

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for Tibeto-Burman languages, in which he placed Jingpo in the center surrounded by the following branches of languages. 1. Tibeto-Kanuri: a subgroup of Tibeto-Burman distributed over a region that includes China, India, Bhutan, Nepal, and Pakistan 2. Lepcha: a language distributed over an area that includes Bhutan and India 3. Bahing-Vayu-Newari, a subgroup found in Nepal 4. Abor-Miri-Dafla: a subgroup found in China and India 5. Bodo-Garo, a subgroup found in India and Burma 6. Konyak: a language of India and Burma 7. Kuki-Chin-Naga, a subgroup found in India and Burma 8. Luish, found in India and Burma 9. Nung(ish)-Trung, a subgroup found in China and Burma 10. Lolo-Burmese (Burmese-Lolo), a subgroup found in China, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos 11. Gyarung (=Gyalrong, =rGyalrong), a subgroup found in China This shows the significant position of Jingpo among Tibeto-Burman languages. We offer the following comments about Benedicts classification. First, it is still too early to definitively determine the position of Sulung and Bengru because in-depth studies of those two languages are still ongoing and the data collected so far are being sorted out. Comparison of those two languages with the surrounding languages has not been carried out yet. This is especially true with respect to Sulung which is the most unique language with considerable differences from all the other Tibeto-Burman languages. Classifying it properly is a challenging task to say the least. Second, most of the languages in the Jingpo subgroup are distributed over the middle and eastern parts of the southern portion of the Himalaya mountains. And some of them are found in the border regions of China, India, and Burma. In fact, most of the Tibeto-Burman languages are concentrated in that area. Although we have gained some knowledge about the language situation of that region, we do not have a full picture nor an in-depth understanding of all of the TibetoBurman languages of the region. Therefore, a thorough comparative study of those languages is not possible at this point in time. For this reason, our discussion on classification is confined to Tibeto-Burman

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languages spoken in China. It is possible that some of the languages may be closer related genetically to Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in India and Burma. Third, the nine subgroups of languages above are based on the fact that each has characteristics not found in the others. Some of those characteristics are unique while others are shared by some but not all of the languages in the same subgroup. We now look at the basic features of the Jingpo subgroup through comparing the sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical structures of the languages in the Jingpo subgroup.9 6.4.1. Phonological Features Generally speaking, Jingpo languages retained more of the Proto-TibetoBurman phonological features in their sound systems. For instance, stops and affricates do not have aspiration yet, the inventory of stops is smaller compared with other Tibeto-Burman languages, consonant clusters in coda positions are retained, and the phonemicization of tones is still limited. We will consider each of those characteristics in more detail below. 1. Consonant systems of Jingpo languages are relatively simple. One clear feature is that most of the languages have only two series of stops and affricates. Jingpo only has voiceless stops and affricates contrasting with their aspirated counterparts. It does not have any voiced stops or affricates. Trung, Bokar, and Sulung have no aspirated voiceless stops and affricates. They only have voiced stops and affricates contrasting with their voiceless counterparts. What is significant is that Anong and Trung are quite close. However, aspirated sounds in Trung are not phonemic yet. In contrast, aspirated stops in Anong contrast with unaspirated stops. We have specific examples of lexical items with inflectional prefixes in Anong clearly showing that aspirated stops and affricates came from consonant clusters in onset positions through phonological changes. This is strong evidence indicating that aspirated sounds in Tibeto-Burman languages are a later development. Needless to say, some of the languages in the Jingpo subgroup already have a

9 The Jingpo [labeled Kachin] in Benedicts diagram shows affiliations between Jingpo and all the rest of Tibeto-Burman; thus, Sun has to mean by his Jingpo subgroup a subgroup that shares characteristics with Jingpo to the exclusion of other TibetoBurman languages, that is, he is arguing for a special relationship between Jingpo and his languages.

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three-way contrast between voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops and affricates. 2. Comparative studies of Sino-Tibetan languages yielded findings showing that affricates are developed later in Sino-Tibetan. The same is true with affricates in Tibeto-Burman languages, although there is considerable variation among Tibeto-Burman languages in this regard. Some have more affricates than others, with the highest having five series including apical, retroflex, laminal, alveo-palatal, and palatal. Qiang languages usually have four series, namely, apical, retroflex, laminal, and alveopalatal. Tibetan and Yi (Loloish) languages usually have three series which are apical, retroflex, and alveo-palatal. Jingpo languages usually have two series, with Bokar having only one series. In many of the languages in question, retroflex affricates only occur in Tibetan borrowings. 3. Except for Bokar, most of the languages in the Jingpo subgroup possess consonant clusters made up of stops, fricatives, or nasals combined with a liquid [-l]or [-r]. Some of the consonant clusters begin with a velar nasal. Hardly any of the consonant clusters begin with a fricative, a lateral liquid, or a trill retroflex liquid. Some of the languages even have palatalized and labialized consonants. Details are shown in Table 41 below.
Table 41: Clusters, palatalized sounds, and labialized sounds Jingpo Trung p ph k kh pj phj mj kj khj j pl bl ml kl gl p b m g x pj bj mj tj lj tsw sw tw lw kw gw xw w

Anong p p b m f v k g x b b d g dz d d m n Kaman ph phl bl kl khl gl p ph b k lh g x mph nth ntsh nth kh mphl mph khl kh Darang pl phl bl ml kl khl gl p ph b m k kh g x Idu Bokar pl bl p ph b m k kh g h mb nd g ndz nd nd mb g pj bj mj

Bengru pl phl bl kl khl gl pr phr br kr khr gr Sulung pl bl kl gl hl l pr br kr gr fr sr hr r xr hj j lj bw

Table 41 shows the consonant clusters in all of the Jingpo languages. We can see the changes that have taken place in those languages with respect to consonant clusters, except for Anong which is unique in

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having glottal stop as the first element of consonant clusters. In Bokar, liquids [-l] and [-r] no longer occur in consonant clusters. It only retains a few palatalized consonants. Jingpo and Anong no longer have consonant clusters that end in the lateral liquid [-l]. Comparative studies on Tibeto-Burman languages clearly show that consonant clusters that end in liquids [-l] and [-r] correspond with consonant clusters that end in a palatal glide [-j] or palatalized consonants. Table 41 also enables us to see the relationship between Jingpo languages and the other languages in Tibeto-Burman with respect to the situation of consonant clusters. 4. There is considerable variation among Tibeto-Burman languages in the presence and absence of consonants in coda positions. Some languages basically retained consonants in coda positions while other languages only allow some consonants in coda position. There are also languages that have become open syllable languages since consonants in coda positions are completely lost. Languages in the Jingpo subgroup still allow consonants in coda positions shown in the table below.
Table 42: Coda consonants stops Jingpo Trung Anong Geman Darang Idu Bokar Bengru Sulung ptk ptk ptk ptk tk nasals mn mn m n ny mn mn mn mn n n laterals l l h retroflexes fricatives

We can see from Table 42 that all languages in the Jingpo subgroup retained consonants such as stops and nasals in coda positions. However, few of the languages still allow the lateral and trill retroflex liquids to occur in codas. Fricatives in coda positions have basically been lost in all of the Jingpo languages. 5. Tones are a later development in Tibeto-Burman. Jingpo languages are in the process of developing tones, which is why there is considerable variation among them. Tones in Jingpo languages and their functional load for meaning distinctions between words and for marking gram-

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matical categories are still limited. The distribution of tones in Jingpo languages is as follows.

Language Bokar Bengru Sulung Jingpo Trung Darang Geman Idu Anong

Number of Tones 0 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5

The tones in Bengru and Sulung must have been developed very recently. They do not have clear contrasting functions yet. In other words, tones in Bengru and Sulung are not phonemic yet. Although both Jingpo and Trung have three tones, tones in Jingpo carry a higher functional load for meaning distinctions. One of the tones in languages with four tones only occurs in prefixes and it does not seem to have a contrasting function. Anong has five tones. Its mid-mid (i.e. 33) tone is the result of influence from Lisu. Please see the sound changes section for details on this issue. 6.4.2. Morphological Characteristics The most prominent feature of Jingpo languages in terms of morphological structure is that all of the languages have prefixes (which are called weakened syllables, or half syllables or secondary syllables by some scholars). This is one of the most important features separating Jingpo languages from the other Tibeto-Burman languages. The following table shows the prefixes in Jingpo languages.

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Table 43: Prefixes (weakened syllables)

Jingpo Trung

pa31 pha31 ma31 wa31 tsa31 sa31 la31 n31 ta31 a31 ka31 a31 p31 b31 m31 ts31 dz31 s31 z31 t31 d31 n31 l31 31 ti31 di31 i31 i31 ci31 31 i31 k31 g31 31 31 31 31 b31 b31 p31 p31 m31 s ti31 t31 di31 d31 d31 31 31 n31 n31 l31 t31 ti31 i31 31 i31 g31 31 i31 o31 p31 p31 ph31 ph31 b31 m31 m31 w31 s31 t31 t31 th31 th31 d31 d31 n31 n31 l31 l31 31 t31 ti31 di31 31 k31 k31 kh31 g31 g31 g31 x31 x31 31 p31 p31 ph31 ph31 b31 b31 m31 m31 dz31 s31 t31 t31 th31 th31 d31 d31 n31 l31 31ti31 d31 31 k31 k31 kh31 kh31 g31 g31 x31 31 p31 p31b31 b31 m31 t31 d31 l31 i31 j31 k31 k31 k31 kh31 kh31 g31 g31 h31 31 i55 e55 p m ta n la l l a i ja ka k i e a o u pa31 m31 dz31 s31 d31 n31 l31 31 k31 g31 a31 p31 pi31 b31 b31 bo31 m31 m31 si31 t31 ta31 l31 ta31 i31 a31 k31 ki31 ka31 ga31 g31 xa31 ha31 a31

Anong Geman

Darang

Idu Bokar Bengru Sulung

1. Although this is not an exhaustive list, it clearly shows the systematic correspondences and the phonological features shared by all of the languages in terms of the phonological structures of those prefixes. 2. The cognate words with prefixes in those languages show some differences among the prefixes, but we can still see clear sound correspondences between the prefixes. 3. A considerable number of lexical items in Jingpo languages have prefixes (though the percentage varies greatly from language to language), their lexicon has become predominantly polysyllabic. 4. There seem to be three sources for the prefixes. One source for the prefix is through an insertion of a weak vowel after the first consonant of a consonant cluster in the onset position. Prefixes that came into existence this way do not have clear meanings or functions. Another source has to do with an inflectional prefix that has lost its grammatical marking function and turned into a derivational prefix with a vague residual grammatical meaning. A third source is through grammaticalization from full-fledged lexical items. Although they

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have undergone phonological changes, we can still easily discern their original meanings. 5. Those Jingpo languages that have prefixes are distributed over the bordering region between China, India and Myanmar where their contiguous languages are mostly polysyllabic southeast Asian or IndoEuropean languages. This seems to point to the possibility of language contact as the cause for those languages becoming polysyllabic. We illustrate the situation of prefixes in Jingpo languages by looking at some numerals given in Table 44 below.
Table 44: Numbers and prefixes two Jingpo Trung Anong Geman Darang Idu Bokar Bengru Sulung l55kho31 31ni55 31i55 k31jin53 k31n55 k31ni55 a i k31ai55 ni55 three m31sum33 31s m53 31som53 k31sm53 k31s55 k31so55 a um g31d55 k35 five m31a33 p3153 p31 k31len55 m3155 m3155 o o bu55 wu55 seven s31nit31 s31t55 s35 nn53 we53 i55o53 k n muai53 lie55 nine t31khu31 d31g53 d31g31 nn55mu53 k3155 k55i55 ko no s31t55 dua33ar53

All of the numerals in Table 44 are cognate. However there are some questions about the prefixes. 31, a, k31, k31, ko, g31 are cognates; m31, p31 are cognates; s31, s31, i55, s are cognates; d31, t31, l55 are cognates. There are two possible reasons why the prefixes are different. First, historical change led to substitution of some of the prefixes. Second, the prefixes underwent sound changes. Another noteworthy point to be made has to do with Anong and Bengru. The consonants in coda positions of p31 five and s35 seven used to be the initial consonants in the onset positions of earlier roots which lost their finals resulting in the initial consonants to become part of the finals of the prefixes. The form bu55 five in Bengru underwent the same process. 6.4.3. Grammatical Characteristics There is considerable variation among Jingpo languages in terms of grammatical categories and inflectional markers. It is very difficult to

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reconstruct the proto-forms for these grammatical markers, which is the main reason why people question the inclusion of certain languages in the Jingpo subgroup. However, we can still detect features shared by those languages. Several points are to be made in this regard. (1) Classifiers Jingpo languages are similar with respect to the stage of development of classifiers. As is generally known, classifiers in Tibeto-Burman languages are a recent phenomenon. We can tell what stage a language is at by looking at the number of characteristics of classifiers such as the number, word order of classifiers and numerals, whether classifiers can occur with nominals alone, whether classifiers can be omitted when expressing quantity, and the functions of classifiers, etc. Although the number of classifiers and their functional load in a language are not reliable indicators of relatedness between languages, there are features that can be considered as strong evidence of genetic relatedness. The following are a few examples. (1) In Tibeto-Burman languages, the order of classifier and numeral modifiers that modify nouns and verbs come in two types: classifier word+numeral and numeral+classifier word. Languages that have the former order have a relatively small number of measure words with a limited grammatical functional load. Languages that have the latter order are rich in measure words with a heavy grammatical functional load. Among the Jingpo languages, Jingpo, Darang (Drng), Kaman (Gmn), Idu (Ydu), Bokar (Bgr), Bengru (Bngr), and Sulung (Slng) have the classifier word+numeral order, whereas Trung and Anong have the numeral+classifier word order. (2) Another point which is related to the point above has to do with omissibility of classifiers when they are used to modify nouns and verbs. In other words, whether the language allows numerals to be used to modify nouns and verbs without classifiers. It turned out that when the order is numeral+classifier word, the classifier cannot be omitted, but if the order is classifier word+numeral, then the classifier usually can be left out. This is because classifiers came from nouns and verbs. In languages that have the classifier word+numeral order, nouns and measure words are closely related in many ways and classifiers have not completely evolved from their earlier full lexemes yet. Even in languages such as Trung and Anong, which have evolved into numeral+classifier word order, we still see intricately bound relationships between the

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nouns and the classifier in mirror classifier word constructions. For instance, in Anong, we have the following constructions: pan33 ti55 pan33 leg one leg: one leg, vn55 ti55 vn55 flower one flower: one flower. Similar examples can also be found in Trung. (3) Only languages with well developed classifier systems would allow classifiers to occur with nouns alone without numerals. Among the Tibeto-Burman languages, only the Yi languages have this characteristic. In those languages, classifiers not only have quantifying functions but classifying and demonstrative functions as well. Languages in the Jingpo subgroup do not have such functions yet. (2) Person Marking on Verbs Verbs are marked for person in several of the languages in the Jingpo subgroup, which is a remnant of Proto-Tibeto-Burman. Jingpo, Trung, Anong, and Kaman have person marking on the verb. All of the markers are closely related to the personal pronouns. This is a uniform feature among those languages. The marking not only indicates agreement between the subject and verb but shows up in imperatives and possessives as well. The rest of the Jingpo languages do not have person marking on the verb. (3) Directional Marking on Verbs Verbs in Tibeto-Burman languages take directional markers. However, there is considerable variability in this regard among Tibeto-Burman languages. For instance, prefixes are used in Qiangic languages to mark the direction towards which the action is moving. The number of directional prefixes among those languages varies a great deal, ranging from three to four to as many as a dozen or so. Directional marking has similar functions in Jingpo languages. However, in Jingpo languages, directional markers are all suffixes, which are illustrated in Table 45 below.

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Table 45: Suffixal directional markers away from towards it55, in55, a55 53, i53, t55 31ie55, o31 lit55, n55 bi35, n55, bo35 55bi35, mu35 upwards lu31 55, 31n55 ti55 tiu55 55tiu55 downwards dz55 3155, 31l31 pu55 dz31 55dz55

Jingpo Trung Anong Kaman Darang Idu

sit55, su55 di53 31b55, u55 wit55, lo55 gie53, bo53n55 ge55, g53b53

At this point in time, our data do not show any directional markers in Bokar, Sulung, and Bengru. Therefore, we cannot determine whether those three languages have directional marking. Table 45 shows the similarity in function and form of directional markers among six of the Jingpo languages. Some of the forms are clearly cognates because they are the same in grammatical meaning and are very similar in phonological shape, with obvious correspondences in some cases. This can be seen in the following sets of examples.
Jingpo Trung Kaman Trung Darang Idu Darang Idu it55 t55 lit dz55 dz31 55dz55 gie53 bi35 ge55 55bi35 tiu55 55tiu55 in55 i53 a55 53

The forms above show clear correspondences indicating that they came from the same source. 4. Noun phrases with adjectival modifiers are head initial in TibetoBurman languages. In Jingpo languages, monosyllabic adjectives also come after the head noun they modify. However, polysyllabic adjectives and adjectives with particles can be placed before the head noun. 6.5. Conclusion In this chapter, we have discussed with examples the characteristics common to all of the languages in the Jingpo subgroup to show

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genetic relatedness among those languages. However, we have not had the opportunity to compare these languages with related languages spoken outside of China. Consequently, our classification decision is preliminary in nature at this point in time. More in-depth studies are needed to make a more accurate decision on the issue what languages the Jingpo subgroup should include. References
Benedict, Paul K. 1972. Sino-Tibetan: a conspectus. Cambridge University Press. Bradley, David. 1994. A Dictionary of the Northern Dialect of Lisu (China and Southeast Asia). Pacific Linguistics Series C-126. 2003. Lisu. In G. Thurgood and R. J. LaPolla (eds), The Sino-Tibetan Languages, 222235. London, New York: Routledge. 2007. East and South-East Asia. In Christopher Moseley (ed.) Encyclopedia of the Worlds Endangered Languages, 379422. London: Routledge, p. 393. 2008. Birth-order terms in Lisu: inheritance and contact. Anthropological Linguistics 49/1: 5469. Cho, Taehong and Peter Ladefoged. 1999. Variation and universals in VOT: evidence from 18 languages. Journal of Phonetics 27:207229. Gordon, Matthew and Ian Maddieson. 2004. The phonetics of Paici vowels. Oceanic Linguistics 43:296310. Gordon, Matthew and Peter Ladefoged. 2001. Phonation types: a cross-linguistic overview. Journal of Phonetics 29:383406. Gordon, Matthew, Paul Barthmaier and Kathy Sands. 2002. A cross-linguistic acoustic study of voiceless fricatives. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 32:141174. Halle, Morris and Kenneth N. Stevens. 1997. The postalveolar fricatives of Polish. In S. Kiritani, H. Hirose and H. Fujisaki (eds.), Speech Production in Language: In Honor of Osamu Fujimura, 177193. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Ladefoged, Peter. 1983. The linguistic use of different phonation types. In D. M. Bless and J. H. Abbs (eds.), Vocal fold physiology. Contemporary research and clinical issues, 351360. San Diego: College-Hill Press. LaPolla, Randy J. 2004. Reflexive and Middle Marking in Dulong/Rawang. Himalayan Linguistics 2 (on-line journal), December, 2004, (251kb) http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/ CIE/Himalayan Linguistics/Journal 2004/LaPolla_HLJ2.pdf. Maddieson, Ian and Peter Ladefoged. 1985. Tense and lax in four minority languages of China. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 60:5983. Stevens, Kenneth N. 1998. Acoustic Phonetics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sun Hongkai. 1982. Dulongyu jianzhi (A sketch of the Dulong [Trung] language). Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe. 1988. Notes on Anong, a new language. Translated by Fengxiang Li. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 11:2763. 1998. On the category of causative verbs in Tibeto-Burman. Minzu Yuwen 1998. 111. 1999a. Ji Anongyu: Dui yige zhujian shuaiwang yuyan de genzong guancha (Notes on the Anong language: Observations on a language that is gradually dying). Zhongguo Yuwen 272.5:352357. 1999b. The category of causative verbs in Tibeto-Burman languages. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 22.1:183199.

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2000. Anongyu gaikuang (A brief introduction to the Anong language). Minzu Yuwen 4:6880. 2005. The Anong language: studies of a language in decline. Language Endangerment in the Sinosphere. (David Bradley (ed.)). International Journal of the Sociology of Language 173:143157. Thurgood, Ela. 2007. Phonetic variation in Anong vowels. In Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, edited by Jurgen Trouvain and William J. Barry, 609612. Saarbrcken: Pirrot GmbH, Dudweiler. 2009. Coronal contrasts in Anong. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 39:5366. Xu, Ching X. and Yi Xu. 2003. Effects of consonant aspiration on Mandarin tones. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 33:165181. Yunnan Sheng Bianji Weyijuanhui Bian [Compiled by the editing committee of the Yunnan Province]. 1981. Nuzu Shehui Lishi Diaoca [Investigation of the Social History of the Nu Nationality]. Guojia Minwei: Minzu wenti wuzhong congshu [National Nationality Affairs the Five series on nationality issues]. Kunming: Yunnan renmin chuban she [Yunnan Peoples Press], pp. 4773.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

THE ANONG LEXICON The lexicon at the end of Suns grammar consists of only the lexical items typically found at the end of all the grammars in that series. This lexicon, in contrast, contains all the Anong vocabulary in Suns original lexicon, in Suns various articles on Anong, and in all the published and unpublished wordlists and articles we know of. It is as close to a dictionary of Anong as is likely to ever exist. This lexicon is panchronic, that is, as the original sources represent words collected over a forty year period, a period remarkable for its incredible degree of lexical and phonological change. All the sources, with the exception of a subset of one of the wordlists, mix forms from different time settings. At least in part, this was unavoidable as the language consultants exhibited consideration variation, not just diachronically, but synchronically as well. Thus, in the same list some forms reflect an older stage, while others reflect a later one. Even the forms in the oldest documentan older wordlistseems to have a mix of forms. As Suns comments at various places makes clear, there is enormous variation in the lexicon, and hence there is enormous variation in this master lexicon. Wherever it was obvious, the oldest attested form was put in the lexicon. However, it is not always obvious. Many roots have variants in two or even three tones, with clusters and without, and reduced or merged in various ways. While many of these variants occur in this wordlist, not all of them do. An attempt to sort them out will be made to clarify this in the next year or two, but it will neither be trivial, nor easy. That task, however, will require a reconstruction of the linguistic subgroup that Anong occurs in. Two other features of this lexicon merit a comment. First, forms sometimes occur in several places, depending upon how they are translated. Second, both words and phrases have been included. Numerous entries are phrasal; of these some appear compositional, that is, the meaning can be predicted from the some of meanings of the parts; others are clearly not compositional, that is, the meaning of the whole cannot be predicted from the sum of the meanings of the parts; and,

182

appendix a

of course, for many, more would have to be known. In any case, the phrasal utterances are certainly valuable for the structural information that they provide.
10 liters, d55 100 catties, za55ga55hm35 101, ti55 55 ti55 200, 31i5555 300, som3155 400, b5355 500, p3155 600, ku5555 700, s3555 800, 5555 900, d31g3155 a few months after, b3131ti5531s31l55 a few month before, d55s31u55u31s31l55 a kind of black, mi55m55xu55 a little bit, l55; 55l55l55 a little (water), bn55 a little while, ti55 so33 (dz53) a months (work), ti33s31l55 a nights (work), ti33i55 a single (e.g., shoe), p35 a team (of oxen), tsi55, u33 a well trap, 31dim33dm55 a while, ti55so31 a years (work), ti5533 abacus, su35pn31 abbot, d31xa31zo31mn55su55 ability, z31 ability, capability, b31 31 so55 ability, capability, p55 s35 (Ch.) ablative (abl), k31ne55, ne55 able, can, d55 able, capable, competent, di31z55 aboriginal, 31im5531 ts31 about, approximately, almost, ta31lu55 above, the top; (from) above, 55 above; on top of, g3155 abuse, o31 abusive language, d31g55 o5531! (Messy dog!) accept, lu35 accept a bribe, ku55ki31 accomplish, succeed, 55d35

the anong lexicon

accounting, kui35ti35 (Ch.) accumulate, 31m31d55so31m53 accurate, tum55 accurate, d55 accustomed to, have habit of, d31; d3155 acne, io55dz31 across; horizontal, xm5555 act as go-between, k55i31u31u31 act in play, 55sn55su55 act as midwife, t55mu55u31 act as peacemaker, 31sn55su55b31k31u31 act voluntarily, 31lu55 3155 s31 actor, 55u55su55 actor who takes female role, u55sn55su55 acupuncture, vm55si35ni33o35 Adams apple, bi55 to35 (Lisu) add, zm31 add (water), dilute, p31mn53 add, increase, 31nu55 u31, sa33 mo31 add, to, p31nn53 > p31 nn53 additionally, 31ki31 additive (Eat some more!), 33 addicted, 55 m31a55 address, tim31z55 address (someone), 31du31 ln55 u31 admire, envy, mi35 u31 admire, envy, mi31o31 admit, ts31zn35 admit ones mistakes, m31du3131so53 adopt, a31i31di31kom35 adult, 31a55 advance, m55u31k55dz33 advance (military), b55u31k53dz55 advantageous, s31l55dm5531n55 adverbializers, -u33, li55/31, 31, -u33li31, li31 advise, ko55 u31 (Lisu) advise, persuade, k31u31; ku31 after, i55i31 k55 after (time), i31p55 afternoon, 3155 k55 afterwards, later, i31p55, m55u31k55 again, 31pi55 again; anew; afresh, 31pi55 i55 d31; d31, be55 against the current, t3155i33b53 against the wind, n31bu31di33b53 age (years old), 3155 agent (agt), mi53

183

184

appendix a

agentive, -su55 < Lisu agreeable, i31m31 l5531du55 agree on, arrange, 31dn55 aim at, 31 tu31 air, 31s55 airplane, di33 hi33 (Lisu), dm55 tim31 alive (fish), 31n55 s33 alive or active, become, 31ku33 all get together, d31si55 all of us, 3155 all, 3155, 3155, do35do31 all the time, n55n55 all the time, du55du31 allergy, t55pu55ba33 alone, 31ts31ti55io55 along (the street), u55 allow, to, d5533 almost, about, ta31 lu55 (i33) along, in the same direction as, ti55 t31 ti31 already, t31 m53; ti55s31di55 already, 3155 alter, change, i33i33 altogether, 31d55 also, g55/31/33 also, again, 31pi55; 31pi55d31 alter, change, s55tn31s53u31 although, i3333g33 . . . always, k55di55g53 always; all along, 55 n55 du55 du31 amateur, 55le55g31 mm 31so53 ambush, m5531 amiable; kind, 31di31 d55 d55 amiable; kind, 55 31 Amidha Buddha, 55mo31 among, between, di31di55 ancestors, 31p31 (Lisu) anchor, 31s31k55v31dm55 and, with, s55; si55 angry, get, 31mn55 anger someone, i31gn55 angry, get, 31mn55 (s33/33) animal, wild, 55, 31dm31 55, 55 anklebone, a31 xa35 ti31 i55 Anong (autonym), 31nu31 Anong nationality, 31nu31t55 answer, to, 3131 31i55 ant, so31zo55

the anong lexicon

ant, white; termite, s31zo55b55 antiquity, ancient, 31ke31 m35 antler, pilose (of young stag), 33 k33 anus (hole), i31 ku55 ku31 anvil, 55um55 z55 any; whatever, k55 t31 g55 anyway; whatever, k55 t31 g55 anyway, after all, 55m3155g55 anxious, u5531kom55 apart, cm53wal53 ape, g55g31 apologize, p31 li31 31bi53 appear, to, l5331n33 appearance, shape, o55 31d31 t55 appendix, p31i55 di31 k55 appetite, p31in3155 applause, 31vu55 tm55 apple, pi31 ko53 (Ch.) apply, to, 3135 apply medicine or paint, dzm5331 35 apply (ointment), zm53 apprentice, tn31su55 apron, l31t55 approximate marker (appr), several, 55 approximately, t31lu55 April, b31 l55 apron, l31 t55 apron, ti31 x35 (Lisu) Arab (self-designation), 31nu31 arbitrate; mediate, k33i53u31 arc of bow, t31n55 p55 arch of foot, a31xa35 pam55 31 31 argali (wild sheep), sie33 argue, 31sn55 arm from wrist up, 31vu35 tu31 arm, 31tsu55 arm, 31vu35 (ti31 i55) arm (part of), ti31i55 armpit, gu31 lu55 arm muscles, biceps, 31vu35tu3153 arm of chair, 31vu55di31bu5531 armor, 31d53g31m31 armspan, the length from finger tip to finger tip with arms spread, lm33 arms akimbo, 31vu35di31b5531 army; troops, soldier, i31; i31mm55su55 army cap, i31 d31mo55 around, i55dz55(b31)

185

186

appendix a

arrive, 31 arrogant, conceited, di31 ts3155 arrow, t31m55 arrow (nonpoison), p55 55 arrow bag, ko55 d55 arrow groove, t31m55 t31 arrow head, t31m55 l31pu55 arrow shaft, t31m55 arrow tail, b55 ti31 arrow, t31m55 arson, t31mi55v53u31 arteries, veins, 33 b55 artillery, t35 po35 (Ch.) as soon as, k31t31 . . . g31 . . . ascend the stairs, l31b55t55 ascend; climb, n31k55(dz55) ascend; up; above, k31 t55 ascend or climb a hill, mo31gu5555 ash; ember, ni33 i53 ashamed, embarrassed, 3155m31dz55, 55 ashes (fire), p31 i31, i31k55 ashes, become, p31i3131po55d35 aside, 33 ask a guest to stay, no31 i55 ask for, request, g31nu55 ask for leave, ti55t53 ask, zn53; ask each other, 31zn53 askew, awry, go31l55 asparagus lettuce, o55 si55 (Ch.) aspect (asp), d31, -u31, b3331 assertive, to seize floor to speak, tin55 assess, estimate, tsom53 assign a theme or composition, ti31mu31 assistant; aide, di31b33su55 asthma, s55 31pn35 astringent, tart, pa55 at any time, k55gm53 at first, 31mo55t35 at first; first of all, b55u31 at one time . . . at another . . ., ti55so3131 . . . ti55so3131 . . . at the same time, simultaneously, l31 55 . . . l31 55 . . ., m31n31 . . . m31n31 . . . at night; evening, 31 31i35 (dusk) at your convenience, 31t55t55 athletes foot, ts31dz31b31s3155 atlas, di35tu31 attend class, i31 in55 u31, s35 ko35 (Ch.)

the anong lexicon

attend meeting, kai55 xue35 (Ch.) attend or hold a meeting, kai55xue35 audit (accounts), ts35d53u31 August, n55 l55 aunt; fathers married sister, 31u35 aunt; wife of fathers older brother, u31 m31 aunt; wife of fathers younger brother, m55 io55 aunt; wife of mothers brother, 31u35 aunt and uncle, o55p31u31m31 avenge a grievance, 31pu35ti31u31 avoid certain food, 3131s53 automobile = car, mo55do55 automobile, i55li31li31tim31 automobile road, mo55do55 ti31z31 awake from a drunken stupor, bu31 31i55 awake from drunken stupor, to55 gu55 awaken; wake up, 31s55 awaken; wake up, bu3131i55 aware, 31d5531 aware, become, to31u35 awl, s31do31i55u31 axe; hatchet, va55, v55 azalea, m55l31vn55 baby; infant, 31i31 l31; 3155l55 baby finger, 31 tim55 tn31 babysitter, t55ma55d31su55 bachelor, gu31ta55ti31io55 back (of body), i55z31k53 back (of body), 31 gu31 55 back of hand, 31vu35 55 back, z3531bo55 back basket, d31gu55 back door, l33t55i31 k53 back of chair, go55no33dm55k31nm5531 back of hand, 31vu35 55 back of knife, m31 d31gu31 back of neck, occiput, go31lo53b55 back up, retreat, in5531 backbone, 31gu31 t31 backpack frame, 31 xm55 dm55 backyard, tim31z31k55d31xm35 bacon; cured meat, 33 55 bad, m3133 bad (person), m31s31 la33, m3133 bad-tempered, pi31ti35m3155 bag of sugar, d31 p31 u31, p55 (bag)

187

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appendix a

bah!, pe53 Bai person, l31b31 p31 (Lisu) bake in glowing embers, p31 ki31 u31 55 gu55 bake, roast, lim55 balance (n.), b55 ti31 pn31 dm55 balance hook, 31 tim55 dm55 balance, scale, 31 dm55 balance scale with capital, i55ko313155 bald headed, l31pu55 ta55 bald, bare, t55 t55 ball, a, pi31t31ball, a, 55sm31u5 ball of dough, ti31pn55 balloon guitar, ti55b55 bamboo, 31ban55 bamboo, km33 bamboo basket for rice-washing, 55 b31lu31 bamboo (cane), hi31z31 bamboo flute, di31 li31 bamboo joint, km55 ti31 i55; tan55 bamboo (mountain), ti31m31 bamboo (poisonous), 31u55 bamboo root, km55 t55 bamboo (rubber), t3131 bamboo shoots, 31m55 bamboo skimmer, i31 u31 bamboo slices, 31im55 bamboo, solid, 31tn55 bamboo strip, thin, 31lm31 bamboo, strip, 55p31 bamboo, dragon, t31u55 bamboo, gold, km55 bamboo, mountain, ti31m31 bamboo type, s31mn55 bamboo type, 31lu31 bamboo type, 31bn55 bamboo type, 31bn55x35 bamboo type, m31m55 bamboo type, 31d31 bamboo type, 31v55 ban, forbid, prohibit, kuu31 band (clothing), mu55dm55 bandit, m3155u33su55 bandit; brigand; tu55fei55 (Ch.) bank (money), d31 x31 l55 tim31, i31x55 > i31 xa55 (Ch.) bank (river), di55 ti55 bank (river), to31 u31s55

the anong lexicon

barber, 31i55 i31im55su55 barefooted, 31xa35ta55 bark (tree), 55ti55, 55ti55 bark, d55 u31 bark, yap (dog), lu55, kyi53 u31, d35 barley, 5531 barley, highland, k31s31u55 barnyard millet, to55b55 bashful, a5531 bashful, shy, 3355t3155 basin; washbasin, m55dn55dm55 basket (back), d31 gu55 basket (bamboo) (rice-washing), 55 b31 lu31 basket, large bamboo/wicker, pa33 basket, shallow, l35 d31 basket, small, p55p55 basket, xa55 basket, p53 basket for fowls, k5531 bat, b55 s55, u31 l31 (Lisu) bath towel, z31g31dn5531in31dm55 bathe, z31 g31 dn55 bathhouse, z31g31dn55dm55tim31 bathtub, z31g31dn55d35ku55 battlefield, 31sn55z55 bayberry, red, k31lu55 bayberry, red, small, mo31om31 be at, stay, no33 be at home; be in, no33 be in heat, i5555 31 be sad, feel sorry, im31 pi31 31 be, i3355 be, 55 be or become a wife, t31m55u31 be, not-; false, m3155 beach, d31 beak, bill, 55dz31 beak, bill, 55dz31 beam, l31b55 gu31 beam or ridge of roof, 31d31 z55 gu31 beam of a steelyard, 31 dm55 l33 bean curd, 31no55di31zi55 bean curd, 31no55 pn55 bean sprouts (a dish), 31no55 bi31 li31 31m55 bean thread, fn55tiu31 bean, broad, nu55di31 (Lisu) bean, mung, nu55pu55 (Lisu)

189

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appendix a

bean, red, 31no55b31si31 bean, string, do31 b31 bean, white, 31no55b33 beans, peas, soy beans, 31no55 bear (n.), 55 p31 bear, black, 55p31 bear gall, 55 d33 k55 bear grudge, im31 z55 u31 bear (fruit), 3133dz33; dz33 bear (fruit), 31n55vn55 beard of grain, a31a31 min33 beard, full, b31 ti31 (Lisu) beard, m31 ts55 (Lisu) beast, i5531, xo55 beast, 31dm3155 beast cave, 5531 beat to death, do31 s55 u31 beat with fist, du35i55 beat, rap, tap, om55 beat, thump, ko31o55 beautiful, 31nm55 beautiful, handsome, 31nm55m55 because, l53 beckon, wave, 31ti31 v55 beckon with hand, 31vu35 become, t33, 31do55 become a Buddhist monk or nun, tim31du55m 31no33 become good; reform, 31po55 become moldy, u55 become, change, po35; 31 po55 31 ti55 u31 become, change, 31po55 bed edge, im55z55 di31ti55 bed made up, 3131u55u31 bed plank, im55 z55 l31 bed, im55 z55 bedbug, m53 bedbug, m31 x31 (Lisu) bedding = bed, im55z55 bedroom, im55ku55 bee sting, s31l55 bee; honeybee, 55 ku55; ku33 beef, no31u31 33 beef stomach, no31u31p53 beehive, honeycomb, ku55pm55 beetles, class of destructive ones, 55om55 before (time), m55u31k53 before; formerly, 31ke31 m35, 31k31zm55, u33u55

the anong lexicon

before noon, 31s31k55 beg, vu31 55 beg (rice), b55d31vu55 beggar, b55d31vu31su55 beggar, di31dz31p31 begin class, s35ko35 begin class, i31in55u31 begin; start, mi55 u31 begin; start, o33 mo55 beginning of the month, s31l55mo55 beginning of the year, o3155mo55 behead, b55 tan55 nu55, p31 dzn55 u55 behead, l31pu55 tan55 behind, i55z31k53 Beijing, pe31tin55 (Ch.) belch, x3355 belch, hiccup, di31 g31 v31 believe, 31d31 believe, trust, 55i35 bell, 55 t55 (Lisu) bell, musical, n55li55 (Burmese) bellows, di55 fu31 belly; abdomen; stomach, p55 bellyband; girth, ma31 p55 m55 dm55 below; following, g31p33; p33 belt for carrying baby on back, t55p33 belt for carrying baby on back, bu31lu31 bend, i31u31 bend over, d55gu55 bequeath, b31sn55, b31sn31 beside, by the side of, s31 bet, to, 31dzon55 bharal, blue sheep, 31dzu55 big, u5531, u55d31, t53 (Ch.), 53 (Ch.) big, become, u55d3131po55 bicycle, bike, tn55ts55 bicycle, to, tn55ts55di31dz3155 Bijiang River, pi31t35 bile, d31 k55 t31 billfold, pu55d55gu55 bind around, t55 bind feet, 31xa55xu53u31 bind with hoop, xuu53 bind, tie up, t55v31u31; t55v31 bind, tie up, pn31 birch, 31da55 bird cry, cackle, gu31l55 31

191

192

appendix a

bird cry, se55, si55li55 si33li33 u31 bird nest, t5531 bird, baby, t55 tn31 bird, kind of, m55gie55 bird, t55 birth, born; give birth, 31 kom31 birthday, m55z55so31i5531 bitch, d31g33m55 bite, ki55, ki53 (u31) bite (by dog), ki5531i31 bite, to, d55u31 > d53 bite (melon seeds), 53 bite (mosquito), to, ki33 bite; bark, d55u31 bite and hold on to, gi55u31li31m31i31 bits-and-pieces, 3155 bitter, k33 bitter, very, 31k55 k33 black bean, 31no5555 black bear, 55 p31 black snake, di31 s31 b31 black, 55; x5555; i35x55n55 black, become, na55xa55n5531po55 blackboard, x31pn53 blacksmith, 31 k55 zm55 su55 bladder, (31)b55pu31 blame, to, xo53u31 blame, to, m31d55l31 bland, plain, m31k33 bland, plain, s31l55m31ku55 blanket, d55 p33 blanket, cover, 3131d31 p55dim55 blighted grain, to55ba55 blessing, 55 p55 blind person, i55 da55 blind, become, i55 d55 blindly, m31z31u31 blink, to, 55tim55u31 blister, 31pm55 bloated (with urine), lin35 block (the wind), di31g53u31 block way, n31 block up, plug, obstruct, u31 blockhouse, 31d55 tim31 blood vessel, 33 b55 blood, 53 > 33 blood vessel, 31b55

the anong lexicon

bloom, sprout, 55vn55; vn55 blossom; bloom, 31vn55 vn55 blossom; to flower, vn55 blow, to, gm35 blow (nose), im55u31t31; im5531t31u31 blow (wind), fin55; xo31o55 blow air, s55 31pu35 blow brass instrument, m55 du31 mi55 u31 blow the trumpet, s55l55min55 blow tube (for fire), t31mi3131pu55dm55 blow on, mt55 ? blow (on fire), to, 31pu31 blow up (rock), di31bo3 blue, dark or deep, t55 p31 31 blue-bottle fly, b33su5531 blurred vision, i55m31zu35 boar, o55 p31 board game, ti31 (Ch.) board; plank, 55 l31 board; plank, t31s55po44pi31, 44pi33 board; plank, boast, brag, i53 31m55 boat body, 31s31 z31g31 boat made of animal hide, 55sm31 31s31 boat, 31s31 boat, small, 31s31tn31 boatmen, 31s31g55su55 Bodhisattva, Buddha, 31s33 p31 i55 body dirt, i55 body odor, l31 bu31 ts31 nu33 body odor, l31bu31p31lm31 body, dz31g31, z31g31 boil (water), 31su31; lim33 boil water, t315531sv31 boil, stew, d55 u31, kin31 boil, to, 35u31 bold, 31d31k55da31 bold, audacious, im31 u55 31 bolt (door), to, ti31 zn31 u33 bolt (cloth), clf., m31xu55ti31xu55 bone see fish bone bone soup, 53 31 ko55 t31 bone, -31 in bone soup bone, 31ko53, 31ko53 book, 55v31, 55 bookcase, 55v3131zu5531ti53u bookshop, s55v31vn55z55

193

194

appendix a

boots, 55 sm31 g55 dm55 bore (breeding), sire, o55 d31 bore a hole, i55; i35 bore, to, 55u31i55 born, be, ma55l3131 born fifth (female), 55ku31 born fifth (male), 55gu31 born first (female), 3155 born first (male), 31pu55 born fourth (female), 55du31 born fourth (male), 31tsn55 born second (female), 31i33 born second (male), 31d55 born third (female), 55t33 born third (male), 55kim33 borrow money, di31 t31 u31 borrow, lend (e.g. bowl), h55 u31, 55 both, 31i31io55 both sides, 31i33t55 both . . . and . . ., g33 . . . g33 . . . bottle of (wine), pin31 (Ch.), du55 bottle, vi55 k31 (pin31ts55) (Burmese, Ch.) bottom of water, t3153 u55 bow (boat), 31s31l31pu55 bow button, t31n55gu33tn55dim55dm55 bow button string, t31n55 gu33tn55 dim55dm55 bow groove, t31 n55 t31 bow groove system, 31t31-31zu35-li33 bow point, t31 n55 l31pu55 bow pole, t31 n55 ku55 bow shaft, t31n55 ku55 bow spring, t31 n55 p55, dz55li33 bow string, t31n55 va55 bow trigger groove, t31n55 go31 o55 bow, b31 da33 bow, a, t31da33 bow; crossbow, t31n55 bow, to, tim3155 bow; prow, 31s31l31 pu55 bowl, di31 ki33 bowl, i31 u55 (western porcelain) bowl, b5531hi35 (wooden) bowl (rice), 31g33hi35 bowl (tobacco), dm55 bowl, wooden, 31hi35; 31xi35 box (large); chest; trunk, k55 xa55 box (bamboo), k55

the anong lexicon

box, xo31 (Ch.) box, l31k35 boy, gu31ta55tn31 boy/girl friend, t31 ku31m3135 lo31 bracelet, l33 t55 braces; suspenders, bu31 lu31, t55 p53 bracken, l31k31 brag, to, 31t55t55tim55 braid, plait (hair), bn5531 braid; plait, mu31 dzu55 brain of pig, o55ko31o55 brain, ko31lu55 brake = bracken (fern), l31 k31 bran (wheat), 31 31 ti55 branch road, ts31 31di31 ba55 branch; twig, 55 di55 kn55 f? branch; twig, ti55lu55 branch, -k55 brass wind instrument, bu31 lu55 (Lisu) brassmarks on a steelyard, 31i55lu55 brazier, t31mi5531gi55dm55 break, k55 break (bowls), k5555; k55g55 break an engagement, di31t31u31m31tm55 break in two, 31ten55 break money, d31x313155tin3155 break off with fingers, l55u31 break out (chicken pox), l53u31 break out with smallpox, k33 l33 b31 break neck, di31 t31 break into pieces (grain), g55i55 break up family, t31mi5531gi55dm55 break up family (by oldest son), k55 break up, scatter, di31p35b55 break up, end, 31 break (thunderbolt), mo55da55li33 go31lo315531 break off with fingers (corn), l55u31 break out in smallpox, n33 do33 (Lisu) break out in smallpox, k33 l33 b31 break, smash, 313131 tm53; 31xum53 break, to = break up, end, 31 break, to, p55l55 breakfast, 31s55tu55pi31 breastbone, sternum, dm31ti55 breast-feed, suckle, d3155 breast, 31tu55 breast, chest, g31pm55

195

196

appendix a

breath, life, s5531x5531 breathe in, s55 ti33 mu55 breathe out, s55 31x31 brew, make (tea), du53 bribe, to, k31tu55 brick, to55 (Lisu) bricklayer, tim31di31dz55su55 bride, t31m55l55 bridge, go31a55 bridge, rattan, di31b31, d31b31 bright (room), x55 x33, p31 g55 bring (as a tray), 31gi35i55 bring up (children), 31in33 bring, to, 55 31io33, lu35 broom (of bamboo), km55mi55im31 broom, m55 im31 broom, small, m55 im31 tn31 broth, juice, t31 brother (older), p55dz55m31 brother (younger), 3155, t3155] brother, younger (citation), t3155 brothers daughter, s55m33 brothers term for sister, 3155 brothers son or daughter, bu31 du33 brothers and sisters, t31 55 p55 dz55m31 brothers, g31i53 brothers, p55 dz55 m31 brothers, t3155 brothers, t55m55 browbeat, m31km35 brush (liquid), xa55, ha55 brush teeth, 31s31xa55 brush dust, p31k55u31 brush, u31 ts55 (Ch.), in33 dm55 brush, a, pi31 brush, to, in55 brusque, m315531 bubble, t31 35 d31 bo55 bucket, clf., tu33 bucket, d31 p55 bucket, hand, 31gi55dm55b31tu55 bucket, tub, pail, b31tu55 bucket, water, 55 tu31 buckle up; button up, xu5531 buckle up; fasten up, pn31 buckwheat flour, po31u55 u55 t31 buckwheat flowers, po31 u55 vn55

the anong lexicon

buckwheat husk, po31 u55 tin55 buckwheat powder, po31 u55 u55 t31 buckwheat, bitter, u31 k31 buckwheat, sweet, po31 u55 bud, 55vn55tim31 bud; sprout, 31m55 Buddha; Bodhisattva, 31s33 p31 i55 Buddhist priest or nun, tim31du55m31no33su55 bugle, b31l55 build (house), tim31ue35/ve35 build (house), dim33; tim31dim53 build (hut), 31di31tim31ue35 build (road), ti31z31 o31mn31 build (rack), di31dz53o53 build wall, d35om35 bulb of fritillary, an ingredient used in Chinese medicine, p31mu33 bull, no31u31 p31 bully, treat someone roughly, 55o31 bullet, dzu31 i55 bullet, po55lo55 (Lisu) bully (a child), to, 55 u35, m31km35 bumpy, rough, m31m31im31im31 bun, steam and stuffed, pu55 ts33 (Ch.) bun, steamed, 31 31 p55 bundle, an33-dm55 bundle (hay), bundle of branches for kindling a fire, 3155p55l55 bundle, tie (firewood), b31 u31 bundle, to, 31u31 buns, steamed buckwheat, po31 u55 l55 burlap pocket, mi55 xu55 k55 burlap; sackcloth, di31 d55 p33 burlap; sackcloth, 31m31(xu55) Burma, lo31 mi31 m31, mi31 di55 n31 burn (firewood), fa53 u31 burn (something), to, di31gu31; di31g31u31 burn incense, o55 tu55 burn incense, o55v53u31 burn wasteland, 31m31in55 burn, to, 31b31 31ni55 burn, to, k35 burn; light (fire), f53u31; f31 u31; v31 burnt (e.g., rice), sm55 bu31 di31 31 burnt alive, t31mi31din55li3131d35 burnt rice that adheres to the side of the pot, d55xi55 burnt, scorched, bu55d35 burst out of skin (insect), xom55

197

198

appendix a

bury, cover up (animal), to55 lim31 bury, cover up (fire), im31, lim31 bury, lim31, lim53, im31 buscuit; cookie, pin55 g55 (Ch.) bush, shrub, i55 s31 x35 busy, d31 dzn31 u31 but = although, i3333g33 . . . butcher, o55sn55(su55) butler, thim31k55 p31 (Lisu) butter, no31u31 tu55 t31 butter; cow fat, no31 u31su53 butterfly, l31 b35 (Lisu) butterfly, d31pu55ti55gu55 buttocks, i31 ku55 d31 bn31 buttocks, t31 button (on machine), g31 m31 tim55dm55 button, g55 t55 button, g31m31 tim55dm55; g31m31tim55 buy or sell on credit, ko33 o55 buy, vn35, vn33 (nu55) buy (cooking) oil, s55su55vn35 buy Chinese drugs, 55z31n55 ts31vn55z55 buy cloth, m33xu55vn55 buy liquor, 31vn55 buy meat, 55vn55 buy rice, d3155ta55nn33 buy vegetables or groceries, kn55vn35 by land, 31s31dm55ti31z31 by water; waterway, t315553 dz55ti31z31 cabbage, Chinese, l31 tsu33 ba55 cabbage, o31ku55 (Lisu) cable yoke on metal bridge, 31v55 cackle (hens), to, g31d55 > gu31d55 cage, l31k55 call for a car, tn55tim3131g55 call help! s55t5331ie53 call together, 31d55g53 call, to, 5531 called; be called, g53 called; named, ln53; ln5331 calyx of a flower, 31vn55tim5331 cakes of tea, l31t55 l55 calamus sweet flag reed, mi55ti31 calamity, disaster, d31k55 calculate, count, so55 calf of leg, b31 bm55

the anong lexicon

calf of leg, lower leg, a31xa35 tu31 calf; small ox, no31u31 tn31 camel, lo31 to31 (Ch.) camera, di3131d55dm55 can, able, so55 o31 can hold, s33d3331 can, may, 31du3133 can (ability, permission), du31, m55 (1sg) candid, forthright, tu35 tu31 lu35 lu35 candle, l31tsu55 (Ch.) cane bamboo, hi31z31 cangue, 31vu55b31so55ni33o35 cangue; pillory; yoke, n31 ku31 canine teeth, d31/d31 g5531s31 cannon, t35pa35; t35pa55u cannot, m31 = not cannot bear to part, m31z35u31 cap, army, i31 d31 mo55 capable, d55 capable, di31z5531 capable of; know how to, so53 = so55 capital, i55 ko31 (Lisu) capon, k55dim55 capture a prisoner, k55i55tm55du35 car, tn55tim31 car, mo55do55 (i55), li31 li31 tim31 carbon, x31 (xn31) carcass (animal), 55m31 cards, pu55k31 care for (child), l55u31 care for (child), in35 careful, (31)d55 31 careful, cautious, 31d5531 careless, 35nm55 careless, casual, 31t31 t55 u33; (31)t55 carp, u55du55 carpenter, 55io31mun55su55 carpenters ink marker, m55 n33 tu31 (Lisu) carrot, 31tsu31di33pu31b31si35 carry, l55 carry (child) on back, 31b55u55 carry, lift up, k31u31 carry; lift (with pole), 31giu31; 31gi55 carry (small child), l55u31, in35/31 carry (two people), 31gi31 carry in shirt tail, t31u55 carry on back (child), pa33 tn31

199

200

appendix a

carry on back (clf), o31 carry on back, s53 carry on back, bu31lu3131b55xu31u carry on back (firewood), z55 (u31), s55 (u31) carry on back (grain), z55 u31 31tn53 (child) carry on head, d31 b53 u31 carry on head, h5531 carry on pack animal, xm35, di31 bo53 u31 carry on shoulders, z/a55g55t5331gi31u31 carry piggyback, za55g5353di31dz31s55 carrying pole, t31 carrying pole, 31gi55dm55 cartilage, grist, dm31ti55p55 carve a seal, du3131d55dm55tu53 carve, engrave, tiu55 k31 (Ch.) carve, whittle, 31tsu35u31, 31tsu55 carve; engrave, gam55, gm55 cash; ready money, l31gu31 l31 d35 (Lisu) cast, sprinkle, ba31u55 castrate, 31tu55tn35 castrate (chicken, sheep), t31nu55, 55n55x31 (Lisu) castrate (bull), ko31lo35o55 casually; carelessly, 31t55 cat, female, m31 i31 m55 cat, male, m31 i31 gu55 cat, m31 i31 cat, small (kitten), m31 i31 tn31 catch (chicken), i33 (u55), i55 catch chill, mm 31d5531b31 catch cold, ti3131dz55 catch on fire, dzu31 u31; t31 mi55 dzu31 catch on fire, t31mi5531gu53ni33 catch up, ko55d55(31n55) catch up with (cow), k31 b55, ko55 d55 31b33 (overtake) catch up with, z31u31, s31 u31 catch, capture, i31u55 catch, seize, i5555 tm55 u31 catch, to, t31o55 catch; chase; drive, i33u55; k55i31u31 caterpillar, b31 l33 s55 cattle herder, no31 u31 31tu53su55 catty, ti31gm55 cause to sweat, in55in55 causative (caus), mi53; s31-, i31-; d31-; p31-, p31cave in, sink, 31d33 cave, cavern, z31 u55 ku31 ceiling, l31 b55 l31

the anong lexicon

celebrate New Year, ko31 31 (Lisu) celebrate, 55g31 (Lisu) celery, m55ti35li33 cement, sue55i31 cent, i55fn55 center, middle, di31d31, 31 center of a flower, 55vn55p3155 centipede, k31x55l31m55 certainly, k31 i55 g31, k31di55 g31 certificate, pi31e3155v31 chaff, thin, x55 tn31 chair, i35ts31 chair, go55 no33 dm55 chair cushion, i31n55dm55 chalk, fn55pi33 change back into, come back, 3155 changeable; fickle; capricious, 31d31m31ku55 change clothes, ti31 ku55 u31 change clothes, g31m3131tim31 change, to, 31ti31, ti33 change, to, tu55 change, to, a31vn33 change, transform, 31po55 change, transform, 31ti55 u31 change; transform, po35 changeable; fickle; capricious, 31d31m31ku55 channel or direct, in31 characters and script, 55 v31 characters, Chinese, h31 55 v31 charcoal, xn31 charcoal, i31gu55 charcoal, i31 xi55 charcoal kiln, xn31 s31 m55 z55 chase after, sa31u31 chase after, hunt, 31ki55i31i55 chase away, 31ti31 chase away, sa31do53 chase, drive away, z/31u31 chat, to, k5531tim35 chat; gossip, 31tsi53 chattering, annoying, k55bm31z/31 cheap, m31ka55 cheap, u55s5531 cheap = easy, s55; s5531 cheat, deceive, i53m55 check pulse, i31m31 b55d55u31 cheek, b31t35

201

202

appendix a

cheek, g31pm55 -f cherish; take care of, 31d55 u31 cherry, 31i3155 chess or board game, ti31 chest, box (wooden), k33 ts33 (Lisu) chest, g31 pm55 chest, p33 dim55 chest; box, l31 k55 (Lisu) chest; box; trunk, k31ts55 chestnut, ts55mu55 chew, to, 53u31 chew cud, 5555 chew with mouth, u55d31m55 chewy (not crispy), rubbery, m31xom55 chicken, k55 chicken (female), k55m31 chicken baby; chick, k55tn31 chicken coop, k55 pm31 dm55 tim31 chicken dung, k55i31 chicken pox, io55 dz31 chicken, baby (chick), k55 tn31 chicken dung, k55i31 chicken, female (hen), k55 ma33 chief or first wife, m31 dz31 m31 child, illegitimate, h55 tu55 tn31 child, youngest, li33 childbirth, m55 z31 child, son, t55m55 tn31 child, son; younger brother, tn31 chili, pepper, l35 dzi31 (Ch.) chimney, t31 mi31 om55 du55 chin, m31gi31 Chinese cabbage, pickled, kn33 mu31 tum55 Chinese cabbage, l31tsu33 ba55 Chinese characters, h31 55v31 Chinese clothes, h31 g31m31 Chinese doctor, 55ki55n55 ts31u31mn55su55 Chinese land, ti55u35 Chinese lute (57 strings), hui55bui55min55 Chinese mile (1/2 kilometer), i31li53 Chinese mugwort, s31mo33 Chinese style, n55ts31vn55z55 Chinese yam, m31 55 Chinese, h31 k55 chip (rim), gi55 chirp-chirp, o33 no33 o33 no33 chisel, 31dzo55, i35

the anong lexicon

chisel, bore, zu55u31; zu53 choke (neck); pinch, crush (tick), di31t31 choke on, go55 a31 u31 cholera, ti55xo3131dz35 choose (cadre), 31s31 u31 choose, select, 31s33 chop firewood, 55u33 chop (head), l31pu55tan35 chop (meat), b55tn55 chop, mince, u55t3131zn55u31 choose (noodles), 31pi31 u31 chop (tree), 31dzn53; p31dzn55 chop down, p31om35 chop, to, 31ti31, 31dz55, n31 chop, ga35o33 chopper (knife), kn3131zn55dm55m31 chopsticks, 31u33 chopstick holder, 31u33 du55 chopsticks, bamboo, 31u33 du55 cherish, 31 d55 u31 chrysalis, silkworm, o31u55 cicada, ko55 d55 cicada, p55 gi55 cigarette, 31i31 cinnabar, o55 ln55 circular, round, to55 t31 circular, pn55 city, town, ts3135 clamp, t55 clamp, to, di31t53 clap hands, 31vu55 tm55 clarify, clear up, 55bi55 classroom, 55v31tn33ku55 claw, clutch, m31gu35u claw, talon, 31in55 claw, to, l55 31u31 clean up, tidy up, d31 gm55 u31 clean, be, t55t55 clean, 31 55 clear (sky), m55 l31 ta55 clear (water), x55 x31 clear soup; consomm, 31 t31 clear, distinct, d31 z3331 clear, sunny, bu55 clench ones fist, m31tom53 clever, smart, 31 55 u33, 31 p31 u31 clf., 50 grams (= one round object), (ti55)lu55

203

204

appendix a

clf., a lifetime; a whole lifetime, ti31di31 ts55 clf., a portion, share, ti55 b33, (ti31)fu55 (Ch.) clf., animals and insects, 31 clf., animals, beasts, 55 clf., backloads (vegetables), a31 clf., backloads, ti55 pa33 clf., ball (of flour), ti31 pn55 clf., bamboo (sections), tun55 clf., birds (two), cattle, pigs, fish, 31 > di31 clf., barks, bites, m55 du31 clf., basketfuls, (ti55)kua55 clf., baskets (vegetable), (ti55)kun55 (Ch.) clf., baskets, ti33 xa55 clf., books, tm55 clf., bouquets, m31i55 clf., bowls (of rice), (ti55)di31ki31 > di31ki31 clf., bowls, clothing, tm55 clf., boxes, ti31k35 (Lisu) clf., bridges, ti55tim31 clf., buckets (water), tu33 (Ch.) clf., bunch, bundle, m31tom55 clf., bunches, m31i55 clf., bunches, k31lim55 clf., bundle (grass), (ti55)m31b33 clf., buildings, tim31 clf., case, instance, b55 clf., chi (= one third of a meter), d55 (Lisu) clf., chickens, etc., 31 clf., cloth, ti31 xu55 clf., clothes, tm55 clf., clump, k35 clf., grove, ti55 tsu31 (1/2 Ch.) clf., cup without handle, ti55 pn55 clf., days, ti55 i33 clf., disks, trays, ti33 b55 clf., dollars, ti55 l55i31i31 (Ch.) clf., dose = portion, share, ti31fu35 clf., drop, dz55 clf., drop (of oil), ti31to55 clf., envelopes, tm55 clf., family, ti55 b53 m35 clf., fans, ti55 l31 clf., flexible sheets, l31 clf., flight of stairs, ti31 gm55 clf., flocks, z31 clf., flowers, vn55 clf., generation, di31ts55

the anong lexicon

clf., generic, tm55 clf., grains of rice, lu55 clf., grasp, tm31, k31 clf., group, z55 clf., groves (trees), tsu31 clf., groves, k35 clf., half kilometer, ti55 d31 55 i55 li53 (Ch.) clf., handles (broom), ti31 d55 clf., handles (knife), (ti55)tm31 clf., handles (knife), d31gu55dz55 clf., handles, etc., m31tom55 clf., hats, clothes, thin rigid layers, ti31 tm55 clf., herds (sheep), z31 clf., house, b31om55, zm55 clf., house, (ti55)tim31 clf., item (of problem), t3131 clf., item, type (unspecific objects), bm55/31 clf., litter of pigs, ti31 za33 clf., load (of grain), ti35 (Lisu) clf., knife, (ti55)tm31 clf., leaf, slices, m55 clf., letters (postal), tm55 clf., line (wheat), d55 clf., load carried on back, a31 > a31 clf., matter, ia31 clf., matters (abstract), 55 clf., meals, ti55 bm31 clf., meals, ti55 pi31 clf., page, t55 clf., pen, dm55 clf., pile (e.g., excrement), bum55 clf., square or cubic meter, ti31 f55 (Ch.) clf., months, ti55 s31 l55 clf., nests, z55 clf., nights, ti33 i55 clf., once (e.g., go once), ti55 d31 clf., one time, a short while, ti55 dm55 clf., pair, ti31lu55 clf., pair of hands, 31i31bu55 clf., pairs (shoes), dzui55 clf., person, (ti31)io55 clf., petals (flowers), tm55 clf., pieces (earth), pu31 clf., pieces (stone), l33 clf., piles, (ti55)bum55 clf., point (needle), ti55so31 clf., poles, shafts, sticks, ti31 ko55

205

206

appendix a

clf., pots, ti55 t31 ko55 clf., repetitions, ti55 dm55 clf., river, ti55to31u31 clf., rolls (cloth), do55 clf., rooms, ku55 clf., rooms, ti55 tim31 clf., ropes, b55 clf., roots, blades, (grass), ropes, songs, translations; clf.s; that is, long narrow soft strips or pieces, b55 cf. thread clf., round objects (eggs, grains, rice, wheat), u55 > lu55 clf., round, soft objects, pm55 clf., rope-like rigid objects, ko55 clf., row (of houses), (ti55)d31 ku31 clf., sections, om33, ti31 i55, tn55 clf., sentences, speech, k31/55, t55 clf., sheets (paper), (ti31)tm55 pu55 clf., shoes, p35 clf., slices, pin33 clf., slices, leaves, m55 clf., span (thumb to middle finger), (ti55)b31t55 clf., square block, ti31 f55 clf., steps, ti31 gm33 clf., storey (of building), i31 lim33 clf., string (of pearls), (ti31)k31 lim55 clf., ten liters, ti55 d55 (Lisu) clf., things, i31, t31 > ti31 clf., times (e.g., three times as much), ti31 fu55bm31 clf., times, occurrences, ti55 so31 d31 mo33 clf., towel, tm55 clf., trees, plants, cabbage, (ti31)dz55 clf., unit, e.g. of work, i35i31 clf., unit of dry measure (= one decaliter) clf., two buckets of (clf), ti55 clf., units, 31 clf., wrapped things (sugar), ti31 p55 clf., years old, ti55 33; 55 clf., yokes, airplanes, tsi55 clf., yokes (for cows), u33 cliff, 31p55 climb (tree), 55 clip, a, 31tu55dm55 close (book), ko55mo55o31/31 close (book), 55v31ko55mo55o31li31 close (business), ti53b31 close (business), 53u31b31 close (mouth), tm53 close (relatives), i55dz55; t55z55i55dz55

the anong lexicon

close (umbrella), (mo55)pn55pn55 close eyes, i55lu55 m55, d55 d31 close, to, tin55 u31 close; lock up, pm31 closet, cf. chest, box, k55ts55 cloth store, m33xu55vn55z55 cloth wrapper, pu55fu55 (Ch.) cloth; measure word (third of meter), m33xu55 cloth pocket, 55 sm31 k55 clothes; clothing, g31m31 clothes, leather, 55 sm31 g31 m31 clothes, lined, 31i33i31lim33 cloud cover moon, di31 g55 u31 cloud, io55/o55/zo55/o55b55 cloud, io31mn55, io55mn55 clouds disperse, io31mn5531si55d35 clouds, rosy sunset, io31mn55b31si35/55 cloudy (day), m55 55 cloudy (water), km55 km55 t31 clown, o55sn55su55 clumsy, a31 xa35 31vu35 m31 clutch, grasp with hand, n31 coal, m31 ta55 (Ch.), me31tn35 coal, t35ts31 coarse (flour), 31g55 i55 coarse, rough, x55x55 u31, x55 coax, fool, im31; im35 cobbler, t55i55di31 ti55su55 cobblestone, di31 xa31 lu55 cobweb, b55 cock; rooster, 31gu55 cock, young, d31gu55ti53 cock-a-doodle-do, o35o35o35! cockroach, b55u33 cocks comb, ko55to55 (Lisu) cocks tail, k55min31 cocoon (silkworm), 31 gu55 cocoon (silkworm), 3131 coffin, gu31 (Lisu) coffin bearer, m31a31gi55su55 cogon grass, 33 d31 coil (snake); wrap, xu55(31) cold (water), (31)du55 cold and cheerless, d35 du35 u33 cold and hard (rice), du55g55du55 k55g31k55 coldly, 31 tso55 lo55 collapse, avalanche, 31din31

207

208

appendix a

collapse (house), (to55) d55 di3155, dim55 d35 collapse, break down, 31p55 di3155 collar, t55 k31 (Lisu) colleague, d31si55u55su55 collect ki55ts33 collect, to, ti31 fei31 (Ch.) collect manure, ti31fei31 collected dust (e.g., in cobweb), ti31fei31 collide, run into, a33do55o55 colostrum, 31 tu55 t31 o31 mo5531i31 colt; foal, ma31 tn31 columns in a building, do55 ti53 comb, 31s55 comb hair, t55 31 comb, 31s55 come (to Beijing), dz31 i55 come down in torrents, i31u35 come in; enter, b31lin55 b31 come in; enter, i31k55dz55 come loose (shoe), u55d35 come loose, 31pn53 come over, a31ia55 come out, b31s55b53 come out (sun), ts53, l5531 come to tears, p33 31u35 31d31 comfort, to, k55ni33o31 comfortable, s5531 comic, 31gua3155 comitative (com), z31 command, to, u5531d55u3 commemorate, tsom53dm5 commend, praise, b31sn53 comit a crime, ki55u31u31 committee, member, u55ie31 common people, p5531 tn31 (1/2 Ch.) companion, d55 t55 compare, p31 in55; 31lin53 comparative (comp), b31 comparative (comp), 5531, p3331 compel, force, m31u33m31da55 compensate, to, pli31, p31 compensate, pay for, 31dz31, i31 iu31 complain, d31 55 complain about, k5531ko53 complete, 31lin55 complete, all, gom55 di3133, 35 complete, finish, d35; d5531

the anong lexicon

209

completed aspect, 55 completive aspect, i31i31 compost, fu35 concave; sunken, ko55ko31o31 concave; sunken, 55di3155 conceal, tu55lim55 conceal (truth), i31 m31 u31 conceited, arrognant, i31 ts31 s55 concentrate, to, d31 si55 concerned about, i31 s31 l55 conch, b31n31ko55 concrete, k55tin55sui55i31 condense (milk), to, m31t31dzu53 confess; be frank, i55 confiscate, di3135 u31, mo31s55 (Ch.) conform to, satisfy, 31u31b31o55di55o31 congeal, to, kn55 congee, corn, 31m55k55g55d31bm55 congee; porridge, d31 bm55gi55, g55t31, dz31 conjunction (conj), l5531 31, t35, p5555, ni55, k31, t55ti55, 3131, 3155; mi31li31, li31, le31, m31ie35l53, o35ti31, t35, l55 conjunctive morpheme, i31 connect, 31p55, lu35d33 connect, tie together, 31tin35ts55 connect head, 31tin31o33 conscience, im3155 consomm, clear soup, 31t31 constipation, i55kom55 constitution, n35f31 (Ch.) consult, talk over, 31g53 content, 3155i53 contented, willing, im55i31 continuative, 3131, t55ti55, tm55 continuative, di31, b31 continue, l3155 continuously, unceasingly, m31tn55 u33 contradict a senior, 315531 convenient, s5555 convex, dzum55 convex (very), bulgy, dzu33 dzum55 cook (rice), boil, kin53 cook (n.), 31g55kin55su55 cook; boil, kin53; kin31u31 cook; boil, 31in55 cook in a steamer, s31m31(u) cook on a griddle, di31tsm53 cook out the fat, kn55

210

appendix a

cook soup, kn55t31kin53 cooked (meat), 31in55 cooked rice, g55a55 cooking stove, lo35tso31 cool, i31f55 cool (rice), i31 tm31 u31 cooling tea, t55se55 coop, k55 xa55 coop, chicken, k55 pm31 dm55 tim31 copper oxidation d31kiu53 copper, di31, d (Lisu) copula (cop), i33/55, ie55; 3155, io55; 31n55 < n55+ 55, o55, dm55 copulation (of animals), o55i31s31u copulate, have sex, 3155 copy (from book), 55v3131zu5531ti53u copy slip, 55v31tso35dz53u31 coral, o33lo55 cord or rope (hemp), (mi55)31x55 coriander, i31sui35 (Ch.) coriander, d31so55m35dim55 cork; stopper, 33 dm55 cork, 31d31 cork; stopper, d31so55m35dim55 corn cob, 31 m55 tim31 d31g55 corn congee, 31m55k55g55d31bm55 corn (sand-?), 31m33 k55 corn grits, 31m33k55 corn husk, 31m55 km55 corn nucleus, 31m55 tim31 d31 g55 corn stalk, 31m55 l55 corn wrap, tim31 corn, 31m55 corn, maize, ko3144 corn, cooked, 31m55 g55 corn, green, m55xye31 corner, i55ku33 corner, 31du55 corner (formed by two walls), ko55 tu55 corner of eyes, i55lu55t55 corner of mouth, i55bu31 t33 cornmeal, 31m55 u55 t31 cornmeal (coarse), 31m55 u55 t31 corpse, (31)m31 correct, m31go31 a55 correct, to, tin31 55 corridor; passageway, dz55 31 cottage, thatched, 31d31 tim31

the anong lexicon

cotton, 31u35 cotton grass, d31 k55 s33 l31 cough, 31kn55 count as, so53 count (things), s31 z31 u31 count, calculate, so33 (Lisu) count (with fingers), 31vu3531tim55 mi53s31z31u country, foreign, 31t31 kue31; ui35ku35 country, kue31 t55 (Ch.) country people, 31ts31dzu5531ts31 countryside, 55 (Ch.) county, an35 (Ch.) county fair, market, ki55ts33 courage, d31 k33 courageous, brave, di31z55 courtyard, d31gu35 d31 course of river (lower), i55k55 course of river (upper), n55k55 court a women (successfully), z31 u31, s31 u31 courtyard; compound, d31 gu35 d31 cover with, gu31 33, ko55 mo55 cover with, dim55 cover with hand, 31uu 31 cover, cover up, hide, di31 g55 u31, km55 cover completely, t31o55 cover from head, ko55mo55o31 cover; quilt, 3131 cover; shut, ko55mo55xu5531 cover up, hide, di31g 55uu 31 covet, 31iu31 covet, tn55 31iu31 cow; ox, no31u31 cow disease, no31u31m55 cow dung, no31u31 i55 cow fat, no31u31 su53 cow neck bag (?), no31u31 g55 lu31 cow neck, no31u31 ko31u55 cow nose ring, n55 ka55 cow pen, no31u31 d31 xm55 cow (female), no31u31 (m55) cow, sick, no31u31 m55 cow (yellow); cattle, nu55u31 > no31u31 cow, wild, 55p31 cowlick, hair whorl, l31pu55ko31zn55rn55 cowrie hen, t31 d31 cowrie, p31mu33 (Ch.) coy, coquettish; in a soft voice, soft-spoken, k31m55k31m55

211

212

appendix a

crack an egg, 31tom31 crack a melon seed, i3155 crack between the teeth, 53 crack, 31i31 lim55, t55 crack open, g55d31 crack, fissure, t55 crack, fissure, 31i31lim55 crack, to, dzi5531 crane, white, i31t53 crane, white, mo55xa33 crawl, to, ko55mo5531om31 crawl (child), climb, 55; da55; da55 crawl, 31om31 crazy, go, 31xu35 (u31) crazy, to go, xun35 (second person form) crazy person, 31xu35 lu31 creek (mountain), t31 35 di31 t33 crescent moon, s31l5531in55 cricket, ti31 d55 crime; guilt, tsui55 crime; guilt, tsue55 (Ch.) crisp, brittle, xom55 crisp, brittle, t55 criticism; criticize, pi55pi31 criticize, 55, pi55pi31 (Ch.) criticize, i55 u31 crooked mouth, m55 du31 lu33 a33 n31 crooked (necked), askew, go31 lo55 go31 l31 crocked; askew, d55ni33t33 crooked, bent, go31 u31 crooked, winding, b31t55 crop (of bird), bi55 lu55 crop, craw, k55b3155 crops, m31dzn55sn31, m31dz31 (=food) crops, l31m55 crotch, 31b31 cross (bridge), m31gu55 cross (river), li3331 cross (river), 33 cross (bridge), go31za55g31gu55 cross by overhead cable, 31gu55 cross over, stride, 55bn35 cross, pass, li33b33; li3331 cross the legs, ku33ku33o35 cross the street, d55li5531b55 cross-eyed person, 55 di31 (Lisu) crossbar at the top, b31tu31di31k55

the anong lexicon

213

crossbow, t31n55 crossbow, p31d53 crossing, intersection, ti31z31 t55 crossroad, ti31z3131p55gm53 crow (rooster), g33 crow (n.), d31k55 crowd, herd, group, flock, z31 crowd, to, 31a5531 crowded, 31i31 lin55 31du31 crowded, 31ts3131i31lim55 crown/top of head, l31pu55 ko31 n55, o55l35 cruel/evil people, yi31to35 crush (louse), t53 u31 crush to pieces, 31g55i5531d31u31 cry (bird), cackle (hen), gu31 l5531, 55li33 cry, cause to, s31 55, s31-35(u31) cry, weep, 3155 crystal rock (crystalite), in31 ti55 i31 (Ch.) crystal sugar, block, pin55 ta31 cuckoo, k55pu31 cucumber, d33 gu53; d53gu53 culture, s55i31 (Lisu) cun (inch), i31tsun35; tsu55 cunning, 31s31gua55 cup; glass, vi55k33 cupboard, k55ts55 (Lisu) cure, treat (disease, illness), 31 mn55 (55), io55/o55/zo55/o55/31mn55 cured meat, 5555 current, with the, t315531im53u55 curse, xo33 curse (someone), 55 31 curse, to, i55z31k55p31l31u31 curve, bend, go31u31, go31l53 custom, habit, d3155 customer, nn55vn35su55 cut (cloth), ts31 cut (fish), 31p53 cut (hay), 31zn53 cut (meat), u55 t31 31zn55 u31, dzn55po33 cut (meat), bi31 cut (vegetables), p31 n55 u31 cut firewood, 31ti33 cut into pieces, 31pin5531zn55 cut into slices, 315531zn55 cut into threads, 31b5531zn55 cut into two, sn53 cut off; harvest, an53

214

appendix a

cut off (rope), 31dn55, p55, p55dn55 cut off (stick), p55l55; d55, cause to, i31 d55 cut out in sewing, ts31 cut up (vegetables), u55t31 cut with sickle, 31zn53 cut with sideward motion, bi55o55 cut (with downward motion), p31 /zn55 u31 cut (with scissors), ts31t55 cut umbilical cord, bn31tu55tn35 cut; chop, 31dz55 cut; dice, 315531zn55 cute, i31i5531 cuticle, 31tim55x3155 cutting board, 55 d31 tn55 cycle of the twelve animal years, 55 cypress tree, o55 p33 dz55 daily, every day, do55do33 u33 dam, embankment, d55 ku31 damage, spoil, m3133d31 damaged, caved in, ma55 dance hall, 31 lm55 t31 dance, 31lm31 dance, t55 u31 dandruff, o55p31 dangerous, pi313155 dangle, 31d55 dangshen (Chinese medicine), t55se55 (Ch.) dare, to, i33, i55 dark, tin55 d33 dark, (tan55)55 dark, get, 3131i33 daugher-in-law, s31/55 daughter, t55mu31 daughter; girl, tn31m31, 31t31m31 daughters husband, m55vu31 daughters son, p31l55 dawn, n31ku55 dawn; daybreak, m31g55g55 day after tomorrow, 31m55 i31 day after day after tomorrow, ti55s31i55 day after day after tomorrow, i55z31i55 day and night (24 hours), ti31 i55 ti33 i31 day before day before yesterday, u55v31i55 day before yesterday, d33 t55 day, fine, nice, bu5531 (bo5531) day by day, ti55i33i33

the anong lexicon

day, a whole, ti55 i33 day, i33, 31i55 day, the second, 31i33 i33 daybreak, (p31)g55 daytime, 3135 daytime, 31s55t55 dazzling, i55 so31 o33 dead knot, pn53m31d55u deaf person, 31n31 b31 d55/d 55 deaf, b3155 debate, to, 31g55 debt, dm55 deceive, cheat, i53 m55, p55 (Lisu) December, ti31 tsi53 31i55 l55 decide, to, 3155s31 decision, resolution, tsom55p31u31 decline, to, 31ti31u31 decoct (herbal medicine), kin53 decrease, tm31d35 deep (water), 31 (55) deep fry, s31 deep fry (in oil), d31 g31 deep in the night, 3155 gu31 deep open basket, lo55 deer, river, t31l55 deer, sambar, tse53 deer, 31dzu55 defeated; lose, m33do55; m31do31 defecate, i31 i55 dn5531 defecate, dn5531 defect, tye31 tian53 definitely so, 31 do5533 definite (def), 55/31, 3155/31, 31/55, n5555 degree, extent, li33 deity, god, p31i33 deliberately, m31m31ti55 delicate, 31m55ni33 delicious, tasty, p31lm31 demand, iu55t31 depend on, rely on, u31ko35 depend on, rely on, nm5531 deposit, leave with, gin3531 io33 deposit, leave with, i31 hu5531 io33 deposit, leave with, k55gn3531io55 descend, i31k55 descend, k31p31; -p31/55 descend, cf. fall, i31k55dz55

215

216

appendix a

descend from a hill, mo31gu55l3133 descend the stairs, l31b55p31 descend, land, 31d5531; 31dim55 describes a frank and tolerant person, tu55tu31lu35lu35 describes the unhappy state of indeterminacy, k55gm55m31gm55 deserter, i31im55 designing, s55s55 desk (long and narrow), t55 ts31 to31 ts55 (Ch.) desk, 55v31gn55z55t55ts31 desk, s31 l55 (Lisu) desolute, deserted, d35 du35 u33 destiny, fate, 31s55 km3131 tu55 destroy; collapse, 31p55 di31 55 destroy, wipe out, s31m53u31 detest, 31dz31n55 detest; despise, im3155 detestable, 31km55s31 devotedly, of one heart and mind, ti55im31 31d55 dew, i55nm31 dewdrop, i55nm53lu55 develop (a career), ta53ni33 diamond, 31p31lu55 diaper, ta31ma5531pi31 diaper, to, ta31ma5531pi31di31p31 die, to, 31 die young, ti55tn53ni3331l55 diet, to, 313155 difficult, (31) di3131(55) diffident, p31 31, x55 i55 d31 (Lisu) dig (hole), ma31 u31 dig out with finger, ko31lo33o35 dig up, tu31 dig, du55 dig, ma31u31, m35 dig, p55 dig; excavate, p55 dig; excavate, z55u31 dig; scoop out, tu53 digest, d55 dikes, dams, t55 ko33 diligent, 31 di33 pa35 diminuative (dim), tn33 dimple, m31 m55 dining table, b55d31m55t55ts55 Dioscorea, t55xo31 dip in (ink, sauce), 31tu55 u31 dip in (ink), cf. soak, steep, du53

the anong lexicon

dipper, wooden, m55dim31 direction, u53 directional (dir), 31, 31bi55, 3155 dirt, m31 dirty (clothes), 5531, m3155 dirty (water), km55 disagreeable, disgusting, 31dz31 n55 disagreeable; disgusting, im31 55 disappear, m31zu55i55 disappear, vanish, u31m55 disaster, calamity, d31k55 discouraged, pi31 o35 discouraged, be, im31du55 discuss, 31g55, tu55lue55 (Ch.) disease, 31dz35u35 disheveled, fuffy, puffy, su31 la35 (Lisu) dislocate, du55lin55 disk, ti33b55 dismiss class, di31g35 dismiss school, f35o31 disperse, cause to, pn55 disperse, scatter, 31g55di3133 dispose of, gn31 u55 dispute, 31di31 go31, m31i31 m55 dispute; argue, 31di31 go31 dissolve, cause to, d31g31u31 dissolve, to, g55 distant relatives, t55z55ti31om55 distracted, 31xu3155 distressed, pi3155 district, n35 district, n53 ditch, t3155ku31 ditch, gully, di31t31 ditch, k31l31ku31 ditch, cannal, (t31 35) di31t55 dive, to, t3155u53b31li55 divide, distribute (grains, cereal), 31vn55 (nu31) divine, to, di31xn divorce, to, 31k55 dizzy, 31xu35 do business, o31 l55 u31 do manual labor, l31m55u31 do, make, s31 l35, u33 do not feel well, z31g31m31s55 doable, okay, possible, d55 doctor, (zo55) 55

217

218

appendix a

doctor, n55ts3131mn55su55 done, accomplished, da53 dog (female), d31g55 m55 dog (male), d31g33 p31 dog food, d31g55dz55 dog tail, d31g31 b31u55 dog, d31g55 dog, rabid, d31g55 31xun35 dog, young, d31g33 tn31 dolichos, creeping edible bean, t3155 dollar, i31i31 (Ch.); (ti55l55) i31i31 dollar, ti55l55 dome, di3131 domestic animals; livestock, i3131 Dont move! t31n5531 Dont stand on ceremony! t31 m31 pn31 Dont take offence! t31 31 gn55 dont, t31 donkey, ass, to31 l55 mu31 door bolt, l31t55 t31 zn55 dm55 door planks, l31t55 l31 door, back, l31t55 i31 k53 door curtain, n31t5553 door frame = front door, l31t55ku31 door, front; gate, l31t55m55 u31 k53 door, l31t55, n31 door, ti55 bm35 doorkeeper, n31t55ti31su55 doorsill, l31t55kum31 doorsill, step over, l31t55kum31 55b31n55 doorway, l31t55 ku31 doorway; entrance, l31t55 m55 kum31 dose of medicine, n55ts31ti31ti35 double crown of the head, l31pu5531i31 ko31zn55/n55 double-edged fine-tooth comb, 31s55 b31d55 doubt, xu31ni31 doubt, suspect, liu35 down, om35 dowry, l31u55d55u31 downstairs, l31 b55 p31 doze off, im55 i33 doze off, ti55bm31 draft soldiers, i31l5555 drag for, dredge up, tsi31u31 drag feet in walking, xo3155 dragon, l55 dragon, lu31

the anong lexicon

dragon bamboo, t31u55 dragonfly, d31pu55ti55gu55 drape over shoulders (top coat), u55 (Lisu) draw (a line), 31 b55 31zu55 u31 draw (curtain), go31lo55d55 draw (picture), 31b55 31zu55 u31 draw (picture), xu35 draw (water) from the well, t3155-n31 draw (water), n31 draw (water), in31 draw out (lots), 31s55 draw out, stretch, u55i31an31 draw out, take out, 31s55; 55s55 dream (n.) (v.), m55, ma55 dream, to, m55 m53 u31 dredge a river, b31si31u31 dregs, residue, 55t31 dregs, residue, o55 31d31 t55 dregs, residue, 31p31 z55 drench (rain), dzm55 drenched, i533133 dress up, 31b55 55 dress up the hair, 31i33xu55 t5531 dried up by the wind, su55d35 drill (hole), (u55 u31)b31 lin55 drill; bore, to, 55; 55 u31 i55; i53u31 drink (liquid), n55ts3155 drink (water), 53(u31), 55 drink (n.), a55dm55 drip; dribble, t31 35 31to55 drive a car, tn55tim31xu31o55 drive out, expel, z31u31 (s31u31); sa31bo33 drive out, expel, sa31bo33 driver, m55tse55k55su55 drizzle, ts55l55l55dz55 drop (downward), 53 o55; (ts5531)o5555 drop, to, 3131 drop, to, 31d53 drop, to, po3155 dropsy, g55 drought, mu55b3131bo5531 drown, to, d55 drum, ku53 drunk, vi55 u31 dry (clothes) in sun, lm53/m53 dry (clothes), 31ga55 dry by fire (clothes), d31 g55

219

220

appendix a

dry in sun, 31k5531 dry measure = one decaliter, 33 dry, cause to, s31ga55/ s31ka55 dry, drought, 33g55 dry, su33 drying terrace, dz5531 drying yard, d55ku31d31 duck, water, i55b31 (Lisu) duck, i5535; 55 ducks egg, 5555lim31 dug out area for cooking, m31 zm55 ku55 dull (knife), m31tu31 Dulong person, m55ts31 p31 (Lisu) Dulong, m55ts31t55 dumb person, di31b5531ts31 dumb; mute, di31b55 dumpling, round, pa55ts33; pu55ts33 < Ch. dun for money, ta5555 dung beetle, b55 u33 dung; excrement, i55/i53 > i33 durable, o55 dusk, d31 31i35, d55 om31 dusk, k31ku55 dust (collected as in spider webs), m55 g31 dust basket (sweep into); winnowing fan or tray, l55b55 dust cloth, mi55du31 dust, 55 n31, 3133 dust, to, p31 k55 u31; b31k53 dust; dirt, ts31bi31 dye (cloth), to, 31n31 dye (cloth), to, 31n35 u31 each one, k31io55g31 each, every one, 31ku31 o55 to31m55 each, every, k31-, -n31g55 ear hole, 31n31 ku31 ear lobe, 31n31m55 ear of millet, nm55 ear pendant, 31n31 bn55 dm55 ear, 31n31 ear, inner, 31n31du5531 early (get up), m31g55 g55 early in the morning, (ti55)s33 early, 31g55g55 earring hole, 31n31 i55 ku31 earrings, i31 go33 earth bean, h55g55

the anong lexicon

earth spirit, 31dm31 p31i33 earth surface; land, l31m5555 earth, dirt, m55; m31 earth, l31m55 earth, soil, 31s55 earthen jar, tu55 earthquake, m31 31m55 earthworm, b31 o31 earwax, 31n31 gu55 tin55 east wind, nm31ku55 n31bu31 east, nm31 ts55 ku31 east, ku55t55 easy, comfortable, 31 s3331 easy, u55s55 easy, s55 eat, m53 eavesdrop; listen, k55m55to31o33; to53 eaves, tim31 p55 edges of a field, l31m55dz31 edible fungus (wood ear in Chinese), m31 gn55 edible shoots of a water vegetable, ni31u31g55 edible shoots of a water vegetable, bi31p31 education, t35io31 eel, u55b31 egg (cicken, etc.), lim53/31, o31lim31 egg (lay), lim31, lim35 egg white, k55lim31s55po31pu55 egg yolk, k55 lim31 p31 55 egg, bird, t55 lim53 egg (chicken), (k55) lim53 egg, duck, i5535lim53 egg, o31 lim31 eggplant, x55gu31du31s31 eggshell, k55 lim53 ti55 eight, (53u31) 55, he53 (Lisu) eighth, ti35 p31 (Ch.) eighth earthly branch (ram), a31b5555 eightteen, ti31 tsai55 55, ts31 he53 (Lisu) eighty, 55 tsa55 either . . . or . . ., l553333 elbow bone, 31vu35du55 elbow, 31vu35 d31 k55 elbow, nudge, 31vu35ti31i55do31o55 elder brothers wife, m55 l31 (Lisu) elder generation, u5531di31ts55 elder sisters husband, p31 elders, 3135di31ts55

221

222

appendix a

elect, to, 31s31; p31 (Lisu <Ch.) elect; select, 31s31 electric light, tin55 tn55, tian55tun55 (Ch.) elephant, mo33g33 (Lisu) eleven, ti31tsai55ti31, ts31ti55 (Lisu) eleventh, 53u31ti31tsa55ti31; ti35s31i31? eleventh day of lunar month, ti31 ts55 ti55 i33 eleventh earthly branch (dog), d31gi3355 elope, 31ts31in55 embankment, t55dom55t31dom31 embankment, dam, d55ku31 embrace, hug, u31to55; a31to55o31; 31to55 embroider (flowers), p31 33 embryo in uterus, lim31 (egg) emit silk, 31m31za53 emit, give off, l53 empty out (dirt), tsu55 empty, d31g55 > da31 g55 enamelware, i31 u55 (Ch.) enclose in a bamboo fence, de55to55 enclosed area, m55tm53 enclosing wall, o55 end, d3133 end, d55 31 end of the month, s31l5531 end of the year, o315533 end; ending, 3155 55 endure, be patient, dz31 s55; dz3155 enemy, ti31zn31 enemy, m31io53ts53 enemy (personal), di55 dz55 enjoy coolness, di31fi5531 enjoy happiness, s55d35 enough, adequate, 31du31 enough, u55 enough, zn55 n55 enroll, register, b3131zu53 ensiform bean, no55ku31l31 entertain a visitor, m31nm35da55ta55 entrance to a road or street, ti31z31 t55 entrust, delegate, di31b55 envelopes, 55v31d31gu55 envy, im31z35u31 envy, mi31u55 epilepsy, i31t35n35 eraser, 35pi31 escape, to, in55

the anong lexicon

esophagus, 31g31m55dm55b55 estimate, appraise, d31 xn55 u31, ku55 ti31 (Ch.) even, including, t55ti55 evening, t55ti55 evening (this), 3155k55 evening (tomorrow evening), 31p55 i31 55 k55 evening star, k31ku55 (Lisu) evening, 3155 k55 evening, this, d5555 k55 every, k55 every day, k55 i33 m31 i33, ti55 i33 ti55 i33 every day, ti55 i33 ti55 i33 every day, k55 i33 m31i33 every night, k55 i55 m31i55, ti31 i55 ti31 i55 every other day, ti55i31 di31x31u31 every year, k55 55 g55 everybody, 3155 everyone, k55 io55 everyone, all, ti31io55io55 everyone, all, 31ku31o55 to31m55 everywhere, k55k31 ewe, 31i31 m33 exactly, k53 examination, test, di31 dz3133 (verb), ku55 35 (Ch.) examine disease, n55ts31zu31mn3155 example, p31 li35 nu31, ti55 u31 (Lisu) exchange, to, 31ti31 excrement, shit, i55, t35f 35 (Lisu) Excuse me! tue35 pu31 ti53 execute by shooting, p3155 o31 executioner, 31ts31sun55su55 exert all ones strength, b31 31 man55 31 exhortative (exh), l35 (urging, warning, etc.) exist, to, gin35 expand, swell, bo55d55 expand, swell, ba55 expand, swell; inflate, t31 55 u31, d31 (Lisu) expel, get rid of, ka31 u31 expel, sa31bo33 expenses, dzm31bo55 expensive, ka55; ka55 expensive, 31p35 35 experience, li31li53 expert, 31d55so53 explode, xom55 explode, bo55d35 extinguish, put out, to55 in55; ty55in53

223

224

appendix a

extinguish; put out, p31i31 extol ones extol, i31 ts31 s55 extract oil, 31d33 extract oil by heating, di31tim31 extravagant, m31pa55pa55, la35 fei35 (Ch.) extravasted blood, 31t31lu55 eye of needle, vm55ku31 eye socket, i55 ku31 eye socket, i55lu55(du55) eye, i55 lu55 eye, white of, i55lu55 ba33 eyeball, i55lu55b3155 eyebrow; brow, ma55di31ga55min55 eyebrow, 55ku55 (Lisu) eyebrow, 55li55 eyelash, i55lu55 min55 eyelid, i55 sm31 eyelid, double, i55lu55sm3131i33i31lim55 eyelid, single, i55lu55 sm31ti55i31lim55 eyesight, blurred, i55ti31lm31 face (east), nm31ts55k53 face (north), nm31dim55k53 face (south), t31i55k53 face (west), t31bo55k53 face powder, ma55k31 face upward, go55 l55 t33 t33 face-to-face, m55di31g55 face, ma55 facinated, be, ti31m5331b55 facing of quilt, 3131d31p55 dm55 factory worker, ku55zn31 factory, ku55ts53 fade of colors, 3155 fail, be wrong, m55du31d31 fail, lose (= not win), m31do31 fair weighing, 31i55lu5555 fair, just, impartial, 31s31 xan55 fake, si31di55mm 3155 fall (hail), ti31 vn31 lu55 dz55 fall (hail), ti31vn31k55i5531da53di33 fall (of tears), 31u35 fall (rain, hail, snow), dz55 fall (rain), ts31 dz55 fall (snow), dz55ti31vn31u33 fall asleep, im55 i31 (d3131) fall asleep, im55 i31 d3131

the anong lexicon

fall down (tree, wall), dim31 (di3131) fall down (tree), p55 tn33 po31 55 fall down, 31d55 fall down, cause to, b31dim55, i31dim55 fall down, collapse, p31dim55 fall down, dim55 fall down, p55tn33 po3155 (e.g. a tree) fall down, tsu55 u31 fall out (hair), 31tin55 fall over, 31tan55 fall, 31n33 > 31tan55, 33 fall, u55d31 fall, tumble, 31tan55 false, m31t55 familiar with, know well, b3131so53 family member, ti55tim31a31ts31 family; clan, t55 (ti55 i31 k55) famous, b3131n55 fan, a, di31f55 dm55 fan, to, di31f55 fantasize, 31t55t55 tsom55 far, ti31m33 farmer, l31m55u33 su55 farsighted, ti31m31i55lu55 fart, to, t31 55 u31 fart; flatulence, t31 fast (walk), 31ga5531, dz31dz33 fast, quick, 31g55 31 fast, quick, dz31dz53 fast, solid, tight, o55 31; u55 fasten waistband, nm31 fasten, v35(u31), k55v31, p35o33 fat (meat), 31su55, su55 fat (person), di31 bn31 fat, person, su31 31ts31 father (address and citation term), 55p31 father prefix, u53- (older lists) father, 31p31 father; stepfather, 31p31 fathers elder brothers wife, 55o31m31 fathers married sister, 31u53 fathers sisters husband, 31vu31 fathers younger brother, 55u31 fathers younger brother, u53p31 fathers younger brothers wife, m55 io55 fathers older brother, 55 p31; 55o31p31 fault; misunderstood, m31du31

225

226

appendix a

fear, frighten, to, p3131 > p31 za55 feather duster, g31m3155tn31 31k55dm55 feather fan, i55 pu55 feather (bird), (t55)min55 February, 31 55 l33 feeble; in poor health, s55m31 33 feed (chickens), s55 55 mu31 feed; raise, d55 feed someone water, t31 55 d55 u31 feel about for fish, u55i35u55 feel boated (stomach), ti31za55 feel dizzy, giddy, 31xu35 feel, touch, som55mo55; som35; so31mu31 fellow villager, ti31/55du33a31ts31 female, 31m55 female, t31 m55 z55 femented glutinous rice, 31m55 n31 fence in, t5531 fence railings, km31 tu55 fence or pen, bamboo or twig, d31 xm35 fennel, to33dz31k35 ferment, u55 3153 fermented glutinous rice, 31m55 n31 ferry, 31s31zm53 fertile (soil), 31s33 55 fertilize, to, s31u31 fertilize, to, b53u55 fertilizer, fei31liu31 (Ch.) fester, to, i31 d31 fetch or draw (water), kam55 fetus; embryo, 31tn31 fever, have, 31k55 few, (a) little, t31 m55; 31l33 field (abandoned), z31bm55 field (dry), l31 m55 field (paddy), d31pu55 field (paddy); sometimes dry field, l31m55 field boundary, l31m55 d31 x55 field, abandoned, z31bm55 field mouse, tim31din55 field, paddy, d31 pu55 fierce, 31kam5531 fierce (action), d31 fifteen, ti31 tsai55 p31, ts55 u31 (Lisu) fifteen day of lunar month, ti31 ts55 p31i33 fifth, ti35 u53 (Ch.) fifth, 53u31p31

the anong lexicon

fifth, i55p55p31 fifth day of lunar month, s31 l55 p31i33 fifth earthly branch, lv3155 fifty, p31 tsa55 fight, to, 3131 fight, vie for, a31tin31 fighting trenches, 31sn55kun31 file (for building things), tso55 (Ch.) file, to, h31u31 file, tso55 du31 (Ch. Lisu) fill (a bowl with rice), ku31 fill (with water), s53o31 fill in (dirt), pu31 fill up (a hollow), i31nu31 fill up, load, s31u31 fill up, t55 b31 film; movie, bo55 (Burmese) filter, squeeze, di31 ti31mu31 filter, strain, di31tim31 filter (tea), to, di31 ti31mu31, 31i55 d31 fin, u55 d33ti55 finally, 315555; 5531 find, to, l53 tm55 31d31 fine (not wide), ti55 s33 fine (rice), s31l31nm55 fine (thin), u55 t31 fine hair on human body, i31 s31 min55 finger, baby, 31tim55 tn31 finger, i31tim55 finger, ring, 55tim55 ti31z55 finger tips, i55tim55 l31pu55 fingernail, in55 fingerprint, 31vu35 gm55 fingerprint, 55tim55 ti31z55 finish, complete, d35, d55 31 fire (a shot), do55k31vm53 fire (die out), t55in55 fire diaster, t31mi55 din55d3531 fire dike bank, m31 zm55 l31 fire dike, m31 zm55 ku55 fire god, spirit, t31mi55 p31i33 fire tongs, m33 m55 (m33 m33) fire wall, mm 31z31ku55 fire, big, to55mi5531ni33; t31mi5531 fire, small, t31mi55tn31 fire, t31mi55 firefly; glow worm, ko31 a31

227

228

appendix a

firewood knife, 55 u31 dm55 m31 firewood root, 55 tim33 firewood, tree, wood, 55 fireworks, 31i31 vn55 first month of lunar year, ti55l33, s31l55 first, b55u31, o55; 53u31 ti31 i55 first, k31p55 ti55, e55vu55ti31m33 (Lisu) first, ti35i31 (Ch.); i55p55ti31 first born, o31mo55ti55ta31 first day of lunar month, s31 l55 ti55i33 first earthly branch, 31din5533 first lunar month, o31mo55s31l55 first one, l31p55ti5531 first visit of a bride, m55l55mu31 fish (maybe blunt snout bream), 3155 fish bait, bn31 dz33 fish bone, u55 b31 x55 fish cage, a31 b55 fish hook, xo55gi33 (Lisu) fish roe or spawn, u55 lim31 fish scale, u55 b31 fish spear/fork, l31 k55 fish out, to, tsi31 fish smell grass, d31b35 o31 fish stomach, u55p33 fish scale, u55 b31 fish, 3155 fish, u55 fish (with rod), to, 31tu33 (31tu35) fish, to, p31n35 fish, to, p31i55lu53 fisherman, u55p3155su55 fishing basket, a31b55 fishing fork, u55vm55dm55 fishing hook, xo55gi33 fishing line, bn31 b55 fishing rod, u55p3155dm55 fishnet, p31 i55 fist, 31vu35 di31 pu31 five, p31 five, u31 (Lisu) fix, to, 5531, ln35 flag, p31 (Lisu) flag, national, ku35p35 flagstone; slabstone, lu55 l31 flail, to, n31ku31 flail, head, n31ku31p55

the anong lexicon

flame, t31mi55t31m31 flame (tongue of), t31mi55 s55 flash (lightning), 31ti31 lm31 flash (lightning), mo55di33 flashlight, tian35 tu31 (Ch.) flat, p55 p55 l31 flat, 31d31; make flat, p55d31 flat, become, t55t55m33 flat fish (e.g., blunt-snout bream), 3155 flat, shallow, t55t55dzo31 flatter obsequiously, 31ts31 k3131tim55so53 flavor, taste, p31in31 flax, mi55 flax or linen thread, um3155 flax seed, mi55i31 flay, peel, k31u31 flea, 5531 > i31li31 flea, grass, 55 ts3135 flee, in55(ti3131) flesh, irritated, xu55 dz53 (Lisu) fleshy part of birds tail, 55min55 flimsy, m31tom55 fling, toss, 31pu53 flint, xo31bi31 flint stone, xo31 bi31 lu55 float down, 31d55 float, to, m55z55(u31) flood, t3135 b31 floorboard of woven bamboo, l33 da55 l31 floorboard; floor, l33 da55 floor, woven, l33da55 l31 flour sieve, di3155x53 flour, b55 flour, wheat, 3131(u55 t31) flow (water), i33 flower (n.), vn55, 55vn55 flower (of reeds), p3155li55du31vn55 flower (v.), bloom, to, 55 vn55 flower bud, 55 vn55 tim31 flower petal, 55vn55i31lim35tm55 flower pot, 55 vn55 kn55 dm55 flower stem, 55 vn55 dz55 flower, di31g55dz35 flower, stalk, 55vn55di31pu31 flowers falling, 55vn5531d5331 fluffy, su31la35 flustered, ts31ts31li31li31

229

230

appendix a

flute, bamboo, di31li55 fly (insect), b31 sm55 fly shit, b33 sum55 p31 i31 fly, big, b33 sum55 d31 fly, to, dm31 (Lisu) fly swatter, b55som553155dm55 flying snake, dm31 b31 foam, t3155 31bo55 foam, to, i55fu53 foam (breaking waves), di31k5531t31u31 fog, io55 mn55 d33 fog spreads, k55dz55im553131 foggy, be, z31 mn55 31ga33 fold in corner of page, i55ko3331k31lim55 fold up, 3131ts31i55xo31 fold up, pile up, t31, di31 dz31 fold, to, k31 lim31 u31 follow, to, /za3155 fond of (a song), 55 31 food steamer, b31i55 food, m31dz31 food dishes, kn55 food turner, d31in5531p55 foodstuff; food, m53 dm55 foot, a31xa35, 31x33 foot, one (12), ti31xu55 foot (measure), ti31d55 foot = one-third of a meter, (ti31)d55 foot bowl, 31xa55dn55dm55 foot of a bed, im55z55 31x35k53 foot of a mountain, mu31gu55 t33 foot; leg, 31xa55 footprint; tracks, 31xa535531m55 football, soccer, 55sm31 u55 footstool, t55ts31tn31 for washing clothes, s55do31 forbid; not allow, m31d55 ford, 31s3131 forearm, 31vu35ti31i55 forearm, 31vu35 du55 forefinger, 31tim55 forehead, ma55 di31 g55 foreign country, ui35ku35 foreign country, 31 t31 kue31 foreman, ku55tu31 forest, mu55 x35, 55x35 forest, jungle, p55m53u31

the anong lexicon

231

forever, k55t31g53 foretell the future, so3333 forge iron, 55um55 forge iron, um55 forge (things) out of iron, 31ka5531i35 forget, pa55 m53 forgetful, pa55 ma31 s31 forgive; ask forgiveness, g31g31ni33xu31i53 fork, 31di31ku55 forked road, ti31z31 di31b55 form dew, i55nm53kn55 formerly, ancient times, m55 u33; u31 u55 fortell the future, so3333 fortunately, o55n31le55 fortune, luck, km31 31tu55 fortune, luck, 31 to33 (Lisu) forty, 31b31tsa55 four days hence, d55 d55 s31 i55 four, b53, bi53, (bi31), li33 (Lisu) four kinds of herbs (almond, lotus-seed, lily seed, discorea), 31k3133l33 ko55 fourteen, ti31 tsai55 b53, ts31 li33 (Lisu) fourth, k31p55bi53, ti35 s35 (Ch.) fourth, li33m33ti31m33 (Lisu) fourth, 53u31b31 fourth earthly branch (rabbit), to31l5555 fox, ko31 p33 fox, wildcat, d31ga31 fraction, o31k31 (used after the denominator and before the numerator) fractions, u31k31 fraction, i31fe55 fragrant, p31 lm31 frame, a, tsi55, t35 frank, candid, i55 freckles; pockmarks, io55dz31 free from anxiety, m31p3131 free time, 31tsi55 freedom, ts35iu31 (Ch.) freeze (ground), ti31vn31dzu55; 31s31du55 freeze, ice over, ti31 vn31 dzu55 frequently, often, k55 t33 m33 t33 fresh (vegetables), dn55dn55u31 fried sweet snack, k35lim31d35u31m53 friend, nm31 31 friend, d55t55 friend, close, intimate, nm313155 frightened, stunned; shy, to55lin55d35

232

appendix a

frog, n33ga55 frog, large, n55g55d31 frog, small, n55g55tn31 from, 31ni55 from childhood, 55tu31l55t31di31 from morn to night, ti55i31t31 front, in front, m55u31k55 front of Chinese jackets; lapels, b31 l31 ti55 front of clothes, n33 t55 k55 front door (or gate), l31t55m55 u31 k53 front of body, z55g31 m55pu31 k53 front, infront, m55u31k55 frost, have, dz5531 frost, ti31 vn31 fruit, 33 fruit peel, 53ti55 fruit, and the like, 5533 fruit, bear fruit, 33; bear fruit, 3133 dz33 fry (breads), di31tsm53 fry of fish, u55i31 fry in fat or oil, d53 frying pan, d33ko55 Fugong (county), 55p55 full (e.g. a water vat), im55 b31 full; filled up, ()55b31 full (of food), g31 full beard, b31ti31 full moon, s31l55pm55 full of shit, i55 31lin35 full of urine, 55 31lin35 funeral, i3555p31; d3155p31 fungus, m55gn55 fungus; bacterium, 31du53 funnel, l35t53 fur, min55 fur, 55sm31 fur garment, 55sn31g31m31 furniture, t31m31du55nn fussy, 35di33 future, i55z31 future aspect, b55, u55 gadfly, m55 dz31 gall bladder, 31d31 k55 gamble (for money), i31 po3531 garden, vegetable, d31 xm35 gain / earn money, u31vu35di31pu31

the anong lexicon

gain money in business, 31dzn55 gall bladder, 31d31k55 gamble, throw dice, di31pu35u55 game, 31xi55 gangplank, 31s31gu3155 garbage, s31tn31s55i55 garden, d31hm55 garden, vegetable, d31xm35t31su55 gargle, to, dn55 31 garlic, s31b33, ku31sui55 (Lisu) garment, unlined, ti55 i31 lim33 garment, upper, n33thn55gu31dm55 gas (from decaying matter), s55 gasoline, ti35i31 (Ch.) gather (firewood), 55u35 gather (water), build up, dim33 gather night soil, i31n31i55tu55 gather together, d33si5531 gather up, di31 dzu55 di55 k31 gather, assemble, 31d31 kom55, 31kom35 gather, assemble, 31m31 gather, 31do55ko55 gather, pick up (manure), 53 gather, put in order (clothes), fin31; 31 kom55 gaze fiercely, i55da31d31u55 gecko; house lizard, k31l31dz55 gem, 31p31 lu55 gender marker (male), -p31 gender marker (female), -m31/-m55 generation, elder, u55 u31 di31 ts55 generation, younger, t55 ma55 di31 ts55 generations, later, p31 l55 generation, di31ts55 genitive see possessive geomancy, 55m3155d53u31 gesticulate, 31vu35xu3155 get a doctor, i55s55g53 get a splinter, b55x55i53u31 get accidentally separated from and lose contact, di31b55d35 get angry, 31mn55 (s33) (lose temper) get beaten, u3131i53 get demoted, i55k55ti55gm55l31d35 get dusty, ts31bi3131gn53 get engaged, di31ts31u31 get in bed, im55z55 n55k55k3131 get in car, tn55tim31u5353 get maggots, ts33no33

233

234

appendix a

get married, 31i31tin55 get out of bed, im55z55i55 k55k3131 get out of car, tn55tim3131ni55l3155 get out of way, in5531 get promoted, 5531 get revenge, l31pu55tii31u31 get scolded, 31xo55u315531 get seasick, l31pu5531xu31 get the shakes, cold shivers, d35 g55 get tired of, ni5555 get up, tin55 31 get up, cause to, l55ti5531 get up early, m31g55g55 get well, gm55d35; gm33 get; acquire, tm53 get, fetch, u31lu35 get; gain, tm55 53 d55 ghost, to33 ghost, spirit, ph31i33 gift, present, l31u55 gills, u55b31 ginger, li55 du31 ginger, young, li55du3131m55 ginghams, 55min55m55xu55 ginseng, z 31s 55 (Ch.) girdle around the waist (trousers), m33 dm55 girl, tsa31m31z55tn31 girl, s31l55z55 girl; daughter, tn31m31 give an injection, um55 53 u53 give an injection, tu55 give a banquet, 3153u31 give back; pay back, i31i31 give birth, 31 khom31, 31, s35 give excuse, di31 tu31 give in to, l53kan31d3155 give order (for food), di31kn55 give present, l31u55d55u31 give to, to, b53 give, d53 give up, a53u31 give up attending, 55v31m31 tn3331d35 give written invitation, pi55dz55ti35u31 give, d55, p31 gizzard, p31i31 gizzard (chicken), k55p31 55 glass, 55b55

the anong lexicon

glass goods, vi55k31 (Burmese) glasses, i55 t55 dm55 glittering; sparkling, p31 g55 gloves, 31vu35dim55dm55 gloves, g31 d31 glue, paste, to, 31ga55 u31 glue, to, t31pe55 glue, dzm55 glutinous (sweet rice), m3131 gluttonous, m31dz55 33 gluttonous (for meat), 31du31 gnat, t33p31 gnaw; nibble, d31n35 gnaw; nibble, di31s 35; di31s31 55 go, 31b35, b33-, b55 go (to Shanghai), dz53, dz31, g55dz53 go around, xu3131bo53 go around in a circle, dz55li33xu3155 go back, return, o35; o33 go back on a promise, 31na55 go backwards, 3133 po31 go by boat, 31s31o55(33) go downstairs, l3155 go home, lu55b5531 go home hunting, tim31l53u31 go into partnership, 31zm31 go on board, 31s3155 go on shore; go on a junk, 31s31du55i55l3155 go out, b31s55b53 go out of the way, xu31b55 go out; emerge, s31l55m55 go out; emerge, bu31 u55 b31 go past, exceed; pass, 31gu55; 31gu55li53 go to a country, d55z5555 go to a market, d55/za3155 go to (enter) school, 3155v31tn33b55 go upstairs, n33k5555 go with the wind, n31bu31fin53u55 goat dung, 31b55 i33 goat herder, no31u3131tu53su55 goat meat, 31b55 33 goat pen, 31b55 d31 xm55 goat skin, 31b55 sm31 goat wool, 31b55 min55 goat, 31b55, b55 goat, baby; kid, 31b55 tn31

235

236

appendix a

goat, female, 31b55 m33 goat, male, 31b55(p31) God, ti31vn31 god of wealth, m31 gm55 p31i33 gold plate, 33 s55 gold, yellow, 33 gold shop, 33nn55z55 golden silk thread, 31 bu31 b55 goldsmith, 33zm55su55 gong, lo31 Gongshn (County), ku31u55 gonorrhea, m31ts55 good (as a child), vu55n33 good (person), s31la33 good, well, gm55 good, 53 (31), 33 goods, nn55 goose, i55b31 goose, wild, t31go55 gore, t31 53 di31 t33 gorge, t31 53 di31 t33 gossip, to, 31tsi33 gossip, to, 31ts31do33mm 31sn31 gossip about failings of others, 55du31m31du3131g55 gourd ladle, m55 dim31 government, tsn55fu53 government office, i31 m55 (Ch.) grab, arrest, seize, i31u31, k55i33 graduate, pi31e31u55d35 graft, to, 55dz5531tin31in35 grain, di3155 grain, blighted, to55 ba55 grain; cereals, m31dz31 grains from a distillery, u31s55pi55 grandchild, p31l55 granddaughter, p31l55 granary; barn; warehouse, m31 dz31 tim31 grandfather (paternal), 31k31 grandfather, great, 55p31 grandmother; grandmother, great, 55p31 grandmother (paternal), 31t31 grandmother (granny), 31 a55m31 grandson, p31 l55 grandson, great, p31l55 grandson, great great, p31l55 grape, 31ts55 55

the anong lexicon

grasp with fingers and thumbs of both hands, k5531u55 grass (weeds), in33, 31di31 grass flea, 55ts3135 grass name, 31iu55 grass pile, in33 bm33 grass, dogtail, d31g31 b31 u55 grass, fish smell, d31 b35 o31 grass, green, 31di31 u31 u55 grass, wild, in55 grassland, meadow, 31d31x53 grasshopper, i3131 grave; tomb, d31 gm31 gray, za31 za31 ba33 gray, po55mo31 greasy, oily, slippery, 31 greedy, avaricious, im31 bm35 greedy for food, mm 31dzu55s55 greedy for money, hn31 Green Jade river, pi31t55 (Ch.) green, i55t35 (Lisu) green beans, do31 b31; do31b31 green beans, mung, nu55 pu55 green ridge tree, ts55ko55 greens, kn33 see vegetables grin, du55 s33 grind, h35u31 grind (pestle) (medicine), di31g31u31 grind, mill (rice), xu31 u33 grind, mill (rice), l55b5 grind, mill (rice), d53 (Lisu); s55 grindstone (water), l31 t55 (Lisu) grindstone, lu55 s55 groin, loins, crotch, d31ban31 groom, m55l55p31 groom (for horse), ma31k55su55 grope, so31 m55 ground, m3155 ground floor = descend stairs, l31b55p55 ground; foundation, tim31 z55 grove, a, ti55tsu31 grow, develop, m31 (t55), a53 grow, mature, a53 i33 grow up, a53 i33 (older speakers), 55, t55 gruel; rice water, 31 bm55 t31 guarantee, to, kua31ni33xo31 guarantor; sponsor, po31p31 (1/2 Chinese) guard, defend, t31 u31

237

238

appendix a

guard, defend, t33s33 guard, keep watch, t3331 guard, watch, ti31 guard, watch (house), n31t55ti31 (u) guess (riddle), tsn55 guess right, di31dz55tam53 guest, m31nm35 guide, lead the way, ti31z31 im55 u31 guide, lead the way, go31 lo55 31 gn55 guide, leader, ti31z31in31in55su55 guilty, ki5531n31 gulley; ravine; valley, k33 l33 ku31 gum in eyes, i55 t35 gums, 31s31 dz55 dm55 gun handle, do55 ka33 gu31 gun, do55 ka33 gun, tu55k55 gun, pu33t55 gunpowder, do55 ka33 po55 ts31 (Lisu) gunpowder; powder, tu55k55n55ts31 haggle over prices, 31p555 hail, ti31 vn31 pn55 hail, in55 hail, to, ti31 vn31 lu55 dz55 hail (people), k55tim35 hair, mane, feather, min55 hair (head), 31i33 hair whorl, l31pu55 ko31 n55 hair-do, womans, 31i33xu5531 haircut knife, 31 i55 i31 lim55 dm55 half, ti31 k55 half a jin, ti31k55gm55 half a jin, p31lu55 half a kilogram, gm55 half a kilometer, ti55 d31 55 half a kilometer, i55li53 half a month, s31 l55 ti55 k55 half an armspan, ti31 l31 b31 half close eye, 55tim55i55tim55u31 half cooked, in31in31m31in31 half, smaller, tn31ti31k55 halfway up a mountain, mo31gu55 i313 halfway; midway, 31 z31 di31 hall (in school), li55t31 ham, 55g55 hammer, a, t31 ts55, d31 bi55

the anong lexicon

hammer, a, d31bi55 hammer, to, 3153u31 hamstring, pn55di31gu3 Han, h31 t55 Han language, h31k55 Han person, h31p31 hand basket, small, 31gi55dm5531b55 hand down (to posterity), m31sn31 hand over, d31 b31 u31 hand, arm, 31vu35, l33 handbag, 31vu3531gi55dm55d55gu55 handful, ti55m31tom55 handfuls of (two), 31i31 bu55 handful (rice), m31gu55 handkerchief, in55 im33 dm55 handsome, beautiful, 31nm55, make beautiful, i31nm53 handspan, the length between the thumb and middle finger, b31t55 handspan, the length between the thumb and the index finger, m33k33 hang (clothes), k55tim31 hang (head), tso55 om55 hang (on wall), ti31mu55 hang down, droop, d55si31 hang, to, (b55l55)tu31 happen; occur, ba55 55, l53 n31 happy, glad, 3135 happy, glad, 31lim3155 hard, ka55 ka55 v33 hard, 31xu55 hard secretion from nose, im55ku55 hard-shelled insect, no31u31d31 b31 hard, distressing, di3131 harelip, i55 bu31 gi55 harmful, s31l31dm55m3131 harmonica, m33 go33 (one-fingered) harmonica, tu31 tu31 (three-fingered) harmonious, amiable, 3131 d55 harmony, 31 di31 d55 d55 harrow (field), 31d31 harrow, h31 u31; t31u31; t31u31 harvest, cut off, n53 u31 harvest, 31kom55 hat, straw, s31 ko55 hat; cap, d31mo55 hatch (chick), bm55 u31; k55bm5531 hatch, cause to, d31bm55 hatch, incubate, b31si31 hatch, incubate, 31si31u31

239

240

appendix a

hate, to, tso55 lo55 (Lisu), min3131z55 bear a grudge hate to part with, m31zu35 hate, regret, im35; im35 hate, regret, ni35b53; ne35b31 hasten on, ti31z31z31u31 hat; cap, d31mo55 haunches of animal, 31i55ku55 have a haircut, 31i55tn31s55 have a haircut, 31i55i31lim3155 have a holiday, f35t53(ni33u31) have diarrhea, p55 31to35 u31, p553155u31 have a meeting, ki55xue35 have a runny nose, im5531u31 have a stuffy nose, s31n55ku31m31u55 have chickenpox, n55s55 have cramps, d31gu3131d31gn55 have decayed teeth, 31s31b31l55ki53u31 have diarrhea, (p55) i31 55 have diarrhea, p55u31to35; p5531to35u31 have fever, 31k55 have headache, 31dz35 have hit (the target), tm35b33 have indigestion, p31in31di31gi55m31do31 have leg become lame, di3131 > di3131 have located, l33tm55 have money, 55 have saliva running out mouth, (tm55)31iu31 have stomache, p5531dz3555 have the measles, n55do55 have time to, 3155, 31 g55 have tuberculois, i31s5531dz35 have wound heal, 31i5531tn31d35 have wound heal, gm33 have, not, m3355; m31n55 have; be at, 31n55 have, o55/33 have; stay; remain, gu55nu31 hawk; kite, ti31m31 hawk; kite, ti31 m31 k55 hawthorne berry, m31n55 hay room, hay barn, dz55 l55 tim31 hay, in33 ga55 hay cutter, 31n55 dm55 m31 he two, she two, 3155 si31, 3155si31 he, she, it, 31 ( 31) head, l31pu55

the anong lexicon

head of a bed, im55z55 l31pu55 headache, d55 headman, l31pu55 dz33 su55 headmaster of school, u35ts53 heap or stack hay, in33 bm33 hear, to55 a31 d33 heart, i55/31m31; 31i31om31 heart beat, i31n31 31ts31 heart, disease, im3131dz35 heat up (cold rice), 31k3131 heavy, 3131(31) hedgehog, h35 pu33 (Lisu) heel, a31xa35 z33 help each other, ku31 k55 31ti31 v33 help, to, di31b31 (u31), d31gu53 hemp cord, mi55 31x55 hemp seed, mi55i31 hemp stalk, mi55lo55 hemp, mi55, i53b55 henceforth; hereafter, m55 dim31 henceforth; hereafter, o55 31 p55 hen, k55ma33 hen before laying eggs, k55i31p31 hen calling her chicks, k55tn31i3155 hens cry before laying eggs, gu31d5531 herd, to, i31 31 31tu31 herd, to, ko55d5531b33 herd, to, ka31 > k31b55 herder, 31tu53su55 herder (goat), 31b5531tu53 su55 here, i55 k31 here, gm55 hernia, i55kom55 31d33 hibernate, u55 hiccup, burp, belch, x33 55 hiccup, to, di31g 53 hiccup, to, di31g31v31 hide (thing), mu55, m55 u31 hide onself, m33 31 hide, to, lim55 s31, m33 31 high; tall, u55m31 high and low, from top to bottom, k31t35k31p35 highway, main road, i55 li31 li31 ti31z31 highway, ti31z31 d31 hill, mountain, (without vegetation) mo31gu55t55 hillside slope, d31 tn31

241

242

appendix a

hillside, mountain slope, mu31gu55 himself, herself, 31lu55 hinder, get in the way, 31u31 hip bones (ischium), i31 ku55 33 33 hip, d31 bn31 hire, employ, 55u31tin31 hire, employ, 55tau31 his, her, 31k31 hit (person), slap, 3133 hit, pound, 3131u31 hit target, tm35 hit the drum, ku533131u31 hit (iron), 55um55; um55 -v hit (iron), du55 hmph = make a loud noise, 5531 hoarse, be, s55bn55 hoe, ko55ma33 hoe, pointed, ko55ma33 t55 hoe, small, ko55ma33 tm31 hoe, to, in55in31 hoe, wide, ko55ma33 g31 hold (child), 31to55 o31; 31tu53 hold a worship ceremony, p31i33 m31 gu31 hold between fingers, m31tom53 hold breath, s55 31 hold danglingly in the mouth, d53u31 hold firmly, pm31 tom53 hold funeral, m31s55u31 hold in fist, a31vu35 m31 tom53 hold inside mouth, lo55mo31; lo55mo31 hold (flour), d31gom55 hold out (as a baby to urinate), d55 hold up, delay, dzom55 hold with teeth, b55l55tu31 hold up in both hands, mu31gu53u31 hold (pen), 31tin35 hold (pen), dzom31 hold in mouth, b55 l55tu31 hold in mouth, lo55 mo31 zom55 hold, grasp (in fist), a31 vu35 m31tom53 hold, grasp (knife handle), pm31 tom53 hold, to, 55; l53u31; l55 hold, to, i31i35tu35 hole in cloth, 31ku3 hole in dirt, 31s55 ku31 hole; cave, ku31, 31ku31 hole, 31ku31, o31ku31

the anong lexicon

home, tim31du53/55 honest, frank, 31 t55 honest, trustworthy, lu31lu31 honey, ku55t31 (bee + water), honeycomb, ku55 pm55 hoof (horse), ma31 g31 i31 hoof, 31go31 in31 hook, 55 l31 k55 hook, a, bn31 hook, a, 31 hook, to, iu31 hook, to, 31 hook at end of steelyard, i33tim55dm55 hoop, 31lm31 (d31 ki55) hoop, t55 horizon, mu55l3131 (sky+ 31) horizontal, cross (e.g. cross street), xm55 55 horizontal log, xam33d33 horn (e.g. cow), 31k55 horn (instrument), su35ts55 hornet; wasp, 31i31, 31 lim31 horse bag, ma31 k55 horse bridle bit, ma31m55du31 d53 dm55 horse feed, ma31 dz55 horse-drawn cart, ma31 mo55do55 horse, ma31, ma31 horse dung, m31 i55 horse feed, ma31 dz55 horse feed, in55g55 horsebeans, no55di31 hospital, n55ts31tim31 host, 31k31p31 hot (water), 31k55; 31k53; 31k55 hot, m31du5531 hot, spicy, si55; si35; si33 hot (weather), m31d55 hot spring, ti31 lim55 u31 (Lisu) hot water bottle, sui55pi31 hour, g31du55ti31dm55; dm55 house roof, tim31 l31pu55 house spirit, tim31 p31i33 house, tile-roofed, u55 l55 b55 tim31 house, wooden, 55 tim31 house; family; household; building, tim31 household, ti55bm35 household cook, b55d31kin55su55 household (people+house), 31ts31 tim31

243

244

appendix a

housekeeper, tim31k55p31 how long (time), k55t31 how many/much; several, k55d55 how much (asking a price), d31ha31k5555 how much; how many (less than ten), (i31)d55(io55) how much; how many (more than ten), k55 d55 how?, k31i55u31m55 how?, k31di55 huddle, curl up, ku55ku55i55m31 Hui, o55 31 m31ki55 t55 hull rice, to, du53 hulled rice, b55 d31si53 humans, 31ts31 t55 hump on cows neck, no31u31g55lu31 humpbacked, d31t31di31gu55 hunchback, d31 t31 i31 gu31 hundred (100), (ti55)55, ti31h33 (Lisu) hundreds, 3133 hundred million, ti31 (s35) m31 m31 hunchback, d31t31 i31 gu31 hung, be, an31b55 hungry, (p31 55) fu35 hungry, p31 55 hunt, to, 33sn53 (meat+kill) hunter, 53ka33-su55, 35k35 hunter, 55sn55p31 hunting dog, go31 u31 hurry or rush (to hit the road), ti31z31 z31u31 hurt, n31, dz55 hurt by stinging, i53u31dz3531 hurt foot (grit in shoe), i31n31 hurt the skin, 31dz3131bu33 husband and wife, 31n33 su55 husband of fathers sister; aunt, u53p31 husband, l31l53z31gu33 husband, t31m55 husband, younger sisters, t3155 husbands elder brother, p55dz55m31 husbands elder sister, p55dz55m31 husbands father (both terms), 31bn31 husbands father (both terms), 55vu55 husbands mother (both terms), 31i55 husbands younger brother, p55dz55m31 husbands younger sister, 3155 husbands mother; mother-in-law, 31u35 husbands of sisters, p55dz55m31 husks (rice), x55tin31

the anong lexicon

husks, chaff, k31ti5531tse55 hysterical, 31xu35u31 I, 31, 31io31 Im sorry. Excuse me. tue35 pu31 ti53 (Ch.) ice, ti31vn31 dzu55 identical, alike, 31du55; 31bu55; ti55 tu33 tu33 (the same), ti55 to55 to55, t55, idle, free time, d31go55 (31tsi55) if (=but), l33 illegitimate child, h55tu55 tn31 illiterate, i55tso35m31so53 imitate, s31lm55 immediately, at once, dz31 dz55 immediately, 31d33 impatient, irritable, im31 xom55 imperative, 31a31 imperative (imp), o31, l55, p31 implant, embed, i3131, p31 d31 u31 important, essential, 31 di31 k31, i35 ti55 (Ch.) imprisoned, pm31 in addition, 31ki31 in a mess; in a wretched state, tsau55kau55 in any case; no matter what, k31 i55 g31 i33 in excess of (following a number), -k3155 in great numbers, ti31ti53 in perfect condition, s31 l31 nm55 si33 si33 in place of, in lieu of, b31 in place of, in lieu of, k31 in secret, quietly, i55i31k53 in sequence, ti55du55du53 in that way, o31 io35 l35 in the first place . . . secondly, ti55i3131 . . . 31i33i3131 . . . in the future, i55z31 in the past, i31 in turn, 31ti5531 in unison, together, d33si55 in vain; for nothing, 31t55 t55u33 inanimate, m31 n55u33 incense, o55 incense burner, o55v53dm55 incessantly, m31 tan55u33 inch, tsu35 (Ch.) inchoative (inch), -31ni55, 31ni35 incisors, front teeth, m55u31k55 31 (b31d55) incite, provoke, k55po53o33, ts31l33 (Lisu) incite to contention, k55po53o33

245

246

appendix a

incorrect; wrong, m31du31 including, 3155, t55ti55 increase, bm31 3155 increase, sa33mo31 increase, 31nu55 u31 increase, gain, 31dzn55dzn33 indeed, to ones pleasant surprise, 31li55 index finger, i31tim55 India ink (fluid), m31t31 Indian, min55tin5531ts31 indicative particle (ind), 31 indirectly opposite, di55ti55k31 inexperienced, o55 o55 55 < tender individually, 31lu3531 individuals, u55 to55 m31 infect, to, 31tin5531 infected, 31ga55d35 inflate, s55 31t31 infuse tea, l31t55d53 ts31k55 ingredient for Chinese medicine (rhizome?), t55xu31 ingroup, 31ni3531ts31 inhale, 31x5531 inherit, b31sn31; b31sn55 initiate, pioneer, l31pu55 in31 injection, give, tu55 injection, have, um55 53 u31 injure arm, 31dz3531b33 ink, Chinese, m31 t31, m31t31 (1/2 Ch.) ink, m31sue53 (Ch.) ink box, m31o31 inn, m31nn55im55z55 inner side of elbow = elbow, 31vu35d31k55 insect, b3155 ; b31l55 insect becoming pupa, 31po55 insect, hard-shelled, no31 u31 d31 b31 insect which eats bamboo or wood; silverfish, riceworm, 55om33 insert (in dirt), t55 u31, t35, t35; k31t31mo33, di33i35 inside corner, 55 tu55, i55ku33 (Lisu) inside corner, p55tn33po3155 inside of knee, b31 pin55 di31ku55 inside, i55u33, du55, u55k31 install, erect, di31dzu55, an55tsun55 (Ch.) install, s31u31 install; fix, an55tsun55 instantive (As soon as X, Y), t31 . . . t35 instep, a31xa35 55

the anong lexicon

instigate, incite, ku31ko55i31k55 ts31l31i3335 instrumental (instr), mi55 instrumental (instr), mi53u31 instrumental (instr), dzom31/dzm3155 intelligent, bright, clever, 31 55 u33 intention, i35s55 intentionally, m31 m31 ti55 intercede, to, 31du55d35 intercept, stop, to, ga55tm53 interest (money), 31ku55 interest (money), 31dzn55 interest, profit, 31 dm55 interjection, o55ue31 (praise and admiration) interjection, tse31 (regret or sympathy) interjection, pfu31 (disagreement or a negative response) interjection, e31 (sigh with emotion) interjection, 31 (shows understanding) interjection, pe53! (phish! usually shows contempt) interjection, 3135 (expresses displeasure) interjection, o55, na53 (to get listeners attention) interjection, 55 (sigh, futility) interjection, 5555! (hey! (see grammar)) interjection, 55, 55mi55, 55t33 (surprised, thrilled, stunned) interjection, 55i55 (ouch) interjection, 33t33! (Gosh!) interjection, 31l55, la55i55 (pain, discomfort) interpret, k55i31in55 intestinal worm, p55b31zo31 intestine, large, p31i55 55 intestine, small, p31i55 ba55 intestines, p31i55 introduce, present (people), i31 in55 inundate, to, im31pu31 invitation, pi55dz55 invite, entertain (guests), t31 u31 invoice, f31 piu35 (Ch.) involuntary, i55lu55 sm3131ts31 iron, 31k55 > 31 k55 iron, wrought, xu55mi55 iron, wrought, 31k55in55 irrigate, 31tm53 issue salary, 55di31p55d53u31 it sells well, m33s5531 itch, b31s55 itch, have, k55d31du55 ivory, mo31g3131s31

247

248

appendix a

jack-of-all-trades, k55t31g31so55m53 jackal, yi31 to35 (Lisu) jackal, i31dz55 jacket, lined, 31i33 i31 lim33 jade, y35s31 jail, 31ts31 pm55 z55 jailor, pm31b31tim35su55 January, ti55 l33, ti55 s31 l55 jar, earthen, tu55 jar, earthernware, s55dm55 jar, large and open-mouthed, b31ti55 jar, large and open-mouthed, t313555m55 jaw bone, m31 am55 jaw; chin; cheek, m31 gi31 jealous, envious, i55 55 jealous, envious, im31z55u31 jewelry, 31b55dm55 Jiarong, 31s55 jiggle the feet, 31m55 jin, a measure of, gm55; ti31gm55 jins, two, 31i55gm55 Jobs tears, t31m55b31si31 join two ends of rope, 31 tin55 join, attend, zm31 55, ts55 t55 (Ch.) join, link, n55ku31 joint, 31ti31 i55 joke, 31t55 joke (verbally), l3131tin55l313131xi55 joyful, delighted, 3155 jug; jar; can, d31 t55 jug, tu55 judge, a, k55i55su55 judge, to, k55i55u31 juice, t31 July, s55 l55 jump, s31lm55 jump, ti31zm5531ts31 jump, lu31t3531ts31 jump, descend, ko31kom55 jump rope, 31x5531ts31 June, ku55 l55 just now, t31m55s5531 just now, i55s3131 just now; a moment ago, t31 m55 keep company with, 31da55ta55xu3131 keep for oneself, ga35u31

the anong lexicon

keep secret; conceal, m53u31 keep, to, k55g31 kernel, d31g5531 kernel, nut, 31ts31, o31ts31 kerosene, t35ts31 (Burmese) kerosene, me31i31 kettle, pot, sui55 fu31 (Ch.) key, (31)pi35du55 key, su55tu31 kick, (31)im55 (u31); dim55 kick (as a horse), ma 31di m53 kid (goat), 31b55tn31 kidney, 31ts31 z55 kidney = lungs, i31s55 kill (chicken), sn55 (u31) kiln, charcoal, xn31 s31 m55 z55 kind, good, decent, im31 s31 la33 kind, polite, amiable, 5531 kind of medicine, t55kui55 kindling, tinder, t31mi55 lim53 kinds, t31 kiss (a child), tim55 kitchen ashes, p31 i31 kitchen god (rock spirit), xu55 t31 kitchen, 31g55 kin55 tim31 kitchen stove, m55/zm55ku55 kite (bird), ti31 m31 k55 kitten, m31i31 tn31 knead (food), pa31 na31u31 knead (dough), 31na31u31 knead (dough), 31tu31 knee cap, b31 pin55 d31 km55 knee, ba31 pin55 (p31pi55) kneel, g31i55 knife back, m31 d31 gu31 knife blade, m31 s31 knife face, m31 pm55 knife for cutting hair, 31i55 i31 lim55 dm55 (i55 t55) knife for hay cutting, 31n55 dm55 m31 knife handle, m31 d31 gu31 dzn55 knife opening, m31s31 knife point, m31 l31pu55 knife, m31 knife, o55 knife, i55 ti33, i35ti31 knife, long, d31 m31 knife point, m31l31pu55

249

250

appendix a

knife, short, m31 tn55 o55 knife, small, i55ti33 knife, short sword, m31tn55o55 knife, vegetable, kn3331zn55dm55, m31 knit, to (cf. braid), bn53 knit the eyebrows, m55tn55d31 knight, legendary, l31bu55 knit (eyebrows), m55tn55d3 knitting needle, i31 i55 knitting needle, 31 tim55 knitting wool, 55 min31 b55 knock against, beat, om55 knock at door, n31t553131u31 knot; button, g55 t55 knot on string/rope, 31tim55, im55 knot, to, 31im55 im33, im55 knotty, di3155 know (things), 3131 u31 know, i55, cause to, i31 i55 know, recognize, 31so55 know; understand, so53 knuckles, (a31vu55) i31tim55 ti31i55 Kong Mountain, ku31 u55 kowtow, to, l31pu55 tim31 33 Kunming, ku55 min31 (Ch.) lace, 55vn55m55xu55 lace (shoes), g31 lack, be short of, ko55 gi55 lacquer, t55dz31 lacquerware, t55dz3131ma55so31m53 ladder, lu31dn53 -v laddle, wooden, m55 dim31 ladle water, bail, do53u55, do55 ladle, scoop out, km53 lake, 55 om55, t31om55 lamb, 31i31 tn31 lame, di3131 lame person; cripple, a31xa35 di3131 lamp (oil lamp), t31 mi55 v33 dm55 lamp, hanging, b55l55tu31, ti31mu55 land boundary, m31 d31 x53 land, once cultivated but now abandoned, z31bm55 land, to, di31ti55b31sam53 land plane, 3135i35 31l31di35 land (virgin), t31 31 landowner, ti35tsu53

the anong lexicon

landslide, 31din55 lane, alley, d55tn31 language, k55/33 lap, pn55tu31 lapel, front of Chinese jacket, b31l31ti55 lard; pig fat, o55 su53 largely, ta31lu55 last month, m55u31k55s31l55 last night, t55m55 55 k55 last one, 315533ti5531 last, i55 i31 k55 late (come late), t31 tu55 (Ch.) late, ko55mm 31d55(31b31) later, i31p55 later, i55i31k55 later generation, p31l55 laterite (red soil or clay), 31s55 b31se55 laugh, to, (31)xi55 laugh, to, 31x31o55 laundryman, g31m3131dn55su55 lax, loose, slack, gu5531 lay aside, to33u3333 lay bricks, i31 dz31 lay egg, lim35 (u31) lay foundation, tim31z55du33u31/dv33u31 lazy, 31ba55; 31b53 lazy, 31bm55 lazy, 31lim3155 lead (cow), in31; i31nu31 lead, guide, to, i31o31; in31; in31 u31; 31in33 leaf lettuce, kn55m3131 leaf (tree), di33 m55 leaf; clf. for two dimensional flat rigid things, m55 leak (water), 31i55 u31 lean (meat), skinny (person), 33 lean on, nm33 31 lean on pillow, m55kom33k31nm5531 learn, tn31 learn to read and write (elementary school), y31y31, ye31i31 (Ch.) leather clothing, 55 sm31 g31m31 leather shoes, 55 sm31 t33 i33 leave, ti55s31 leave security, po33 leave security, dz35ni55io55 leave with (in somebodys care), 31kum31 z55 leech (water), in55 leeks, di55m55bm55m55dim55

251

252

appendix a

leeks, chive, s31b55 (wild) left handed, l31 55 p31 left overe, remain, 31ti55 left side, m31d31 k55, l3155 (Lisu) leftovers, ken55in5 leg, pan33 (tu33) leg hair, pn55min55 leg, thigh, pn55 legal wife, m31dz31m31 leggings, pn55dm55 leggings, 31xa35xu55 lend money on usury, dm55di31t31u31 lend out, 53u31 length, i33za55, a33za55 length of fist plus width of finger, g31 lenient; forgive, 55g31; g31g31 leopard, i31dz55, l31m55du31 (Lisu) leoprosy, have, 31dz55tin5531 letter (mail), l31 u55 (Lisu), 55v31l31u55 level, flat, 31s31 xan55; 31s31xn55 level up, di31din31 l31 bu31 p31 lm31 (Lisu) li (mile), i31li53 (Ch.) lice comb (double-edged, fine-toothed), 31s55 b31 d55 lice, have, 55o3131 lick, 55 u31, ha55 d31 u33 lick, lap, l55, 55 lid; cover, d31 d33 kom55 lid; cover, d31t55kum31 lie down, b555531; t33s33 lie flat on stomach, ground, mo31ni33y5531 lie, to, im5555 life, s55 b55, g33t35 lift, a31u31; au31 lift (head), ts553155 lift open (a lid), ha31; h5531 lift; carry, 31gi31 lift up; hold up, p31 gi35 gu31 lift up (from bottom), x33u55 lifting cord of a steelyard, 31 dm55 31x55 light (fire), dzu31u31; dzu31 light (fire), f31u31 light (fire), lim55 light (firewood), f53; v31u31 light (from moon), p31 g55 light (lamp), f31, v31 light (weight), 3131(31) > (31)31(31)

the anong lexicon

light bulb, t55pn35 light, a, t31mi55v33dm55 lightning, mu55 t31 31ti31lm31 lightning (flash), 31ti31lm31 like, to, 5531 like, to, 315531 like that, xo33io55, xo33io55, o5531, o35di33, o5531, o31io55 lily, 31ku55 lily flower, dried, kn55vn55 limbs (arms and legs), b31bu55 lime, 31xue55 (Ch.), 31xue55o35xi44 lime, lu55u55ti31 lime, l55 x31 limp, to, 31xa35di3131dz55 line, gu31lu31 line a garment, m55du31 line made by carpenters ink, m31 b55 line up, queque up, 31ti55z55u31 line up, p31tue35 linen, mi55 m33 xu55 linen thread, um3155, mi55b55 lining (of clothes), i55u33 k55 lining (of clothes), i55du33n3355 lion, s55tse31 (Ch.) lip, bottom, k31 p55 i55 bu31 lip, top, k31 t55 i55 bu31 lips, i55 bu31 liquor, m55g31t31 listen, to53/55 listen, eavesdrop, k55m55to31o33 Lisu, 31s55 t55 liter, pn55 liters, two, 31i55pn55 literate, i55tso35so53 liver, b31in33 livestock, i3131 lizard, b31ti55 lizard, b31n55 loach, i55dz31u55 load, to, s35, s31u31, dz35 load carried by pack animal, ma31 nn55 a31 load on animals back, ti35 loaf, to; be lazy, 31ba33 location, m31gm53 locative (loc), k31, du55k31, 55, p33, s31 lock (door), so55 (Ch.) lock (door), so55ni33o31

253

254

appendix a

lock, so55tu31 (Lisu) locomotive (engine), m33t55l31pu55 locust, d31tu55 loess (yellow earth), 31s55 55 lonely, tso55 ti55 (Lisu) lonely, no33m315531 Lolo, l35lo33 p31 long ago, long since, t31m53 long boots, 55sm31g55dm55 long lunar month, s31l55 ta33 long narrow pieces, clf., ko55 long overcoat, g31m31d31 long since, long ago, t31 m53, o31mo35 long time, k55 i55 long time, m55 i55 long wooden bench, t55ts31 u5531 long-legged spider, d31 b31 long, sharp, protruding teeth, 31s31 i31 lim55 long, u55i31 > u55i31; a31 look after, care for, di31 55 u31 look after, to55fu55 look after ones self, 31ku31o55to31 look distracted, stunned, p31 z55 look down upon, d44m31tm31 look for; seek, l33; 55u31; u53 look for anothers faults, 31ts31k55 m31du31l55u31 look in mirror, z31u look like, resemble, o55di55t55 look sideways, i55l5 look through corners of eyes, di31di31 look through corners of eyes, d3133 look inclined, di31 di31 d31 33 (Lisu) look, d55(u31), da55; something to read, da55 dm55 loom, threaded, m33xu55zn55dm55 loose, not tight, gu5331 loquat, b55 ti 53 li33 lose baby teeth, 31s3131ti55 lose (=not win), m33 do33 lose something, p55 m33 lose something, 31d55d35 lose something, 31m55 lose, to, 31m55 lose, to, 31p35 lose, misplace, to33 lost face, disgraced, ma55to31u lotus, yellow, mn55 louse, 55

the anong lexicon

louse (egg), 55 lim31 love, 555555 (each other) love each other, 31u3155 love (a child), 31lim31 33 love (a child), im3131dz35 love each other (man and woman), 55 55 55 love; fond of, 55(31) lover, tso33ki33 low; short, ti55im31 lower back, da55gu31 p33 lower course of a river, to31u31 s31 lower course of a river, i55 k55 lower jaw bone, m31am55 lower leg, a31xa35 tu31 lower lip, k31p55 i55 bu31 lower part of body, i55k55tn55 31ta55ta55 lower part of cheek, b31 t35 lower tooth, k31p55 31s31 lucky, 31to55ni3355 luggage, nn55 luggage, to pack, nn55pn31 lumber, timber, 55du55 lunar eclipse, s31l55d31g55 m53 lunar month (long), s31 l55 ta33 lunar month (short), s31 l55 tn31 lunar month, eleventh day of, ti31 ts55 p31 i33 lunar month, eleventh day of, ti31 ts55 ti55 i33 lunar month, first day of, s31 l55 ti55 i33 lunar month, sixteenth day of, ti31 ts55 ku55 i33 lunar month, third day of, s31 l55 sm33 i55 lunar month, thirtieth day of, sm31 ts55 i33 lunar month, twentieth day of, 31i33 ts55 i33 lunar, month, fifth day of, s31 l55 p31 i33 lunar, month, second day of, s31 l55 31i55 i55 lunatic; madman, 31xu35 u31 lungs, i31s55, b3131 lure, to, p5531u31 lure, seduce, fool, i31 m55 lute-like instrument with fretted fingerboard, ti55 b55 (Lisu) lycium, mu3155 mace, 1/10 of a tael, ti3155 machine gun, mu31 n55 g53 machine, ti33 ti35 (Ch.) madman; lunatic, 31xu35 u31 maggot (in rotten wood), 55t55 p31 maggot, ti55 p31

255

256

appendix a

magpie, 31n55t31t31 mail, to, gin35 mail a letter, 55v31l31u55di31b31u31 main stock; bow, t31n55 ku55 maize, corn (green), m55xye31 make a cry, 31k55 make a decoction, n55ts3131kin55so31n53 make a landing, di31ti55k31zm53 make a loud noise, 55; 55 make a pocket, pa55du55 make a racket, 31xi55 make a visit (to friends), t55t55k31d53u31 make a wrinkle, g31m31 31 pn55 make bed, pu31 lu31 make, build, l35 make carpenters line with ink marker, ma31 b55 di31 pu55 make clothes, g31m31o53 make cool, di31tm31/35 make crooked, go31 u31 di3133 make dirty, 55 di3131 make fire, di31g31u31 make friends, nm313131ti31 make friends with, 31tin31 make gesture, 31vu55 31ti31 v33 33 make lines with, m55n31b55di31pu53 make mattress of rice stalks, in55ni31u make nest, 31 31 make obeisance to, tim3155 make partner, da55 ta55 make pleats, k31lim31 make soft, 31a31 u31 make someone angry, 31mn55 make something stand upright, 3131ku31 make straight, 31za55 u31 make straight, to55t3131zu53 make up a prescription, n55ts31zm35 make up oneself, 31b5531 make up the proper amount, 31di31kom31 make way for, give way for, i31in31 make way; yield, 31n31 55 make wet, p55m33 make wine; brew beer, 31 i31 b31 m55 make, build, io55mn55 make or write (book), 55va3131zu53 make, manufacture, io55mn55 malaria; ague, ti53 x53 31dzu35 malaria; ague, (di31g55)dz35 > (31)dzu55

the anong lexicon

male, man = married man, gu31 ta55 male, 31gu55 manage, control, ku31 manage, run, 31d55u31 manage, run (house), tim31ku31li35xo33 Mandarin orange, small, z31m55t55 mane (horse), ma31 min55 mange, have, x31ti35 manger, maa 31ti55ku55 manger, maa 31d31xm55 mantis, nm31 55 manure, t35 f 35 (Ch.) many, bm31 map, m31 tu31, m31di31 March, sm31 l55 mare, ma31 m55 mark, to; make a mark, di31zn55dm55 mark, sign, di31 xn55 dm55; i31xn55 market, ki55ts33 (Ch.) market, town, city, d55 marriage based relationships, d31p55 married, get, di31tu35 marrow, 31 ko53 ko31 u55 marrow, t31m31 gu55 marry (take a wife), do31 ku31 m55 u31 31 marry (take a wife), m3135g3155 marry, take a wife, t31 m55 u31 marry (take a husband), s31lp35 marry (a woman), lu31u55 marry (of woman), di31tu55u31 marry (take a husband), 31vu3531i31ti55 mason, lu55om55su55 massage back by pounding, d31gu31um55 master of a trade, s31lm55su55 master; host, 31k31 p31 mat, i55 pi55 mat covering small boats, 31s31tim31 mat, palm fiber, pm31 mat; pad, pu31lu55dm55 mat; pad; cushion, i31n55dm55 match; competition, 31lin55 matches, t31 mi55 n55 dm55; xo55tsi31 (Ch.) matchmake, to, i55 ku31 matchmaker, k55i31u31su55 mate, copulate, o55 i31 s31 u31 maternal, 31ts31 maternal, 31t31

257

258

appendix a

matter, s35ti31 mattress made of rice stalks, in55ni31u mattress; mat; pad, pu31lu55dm55 may, a5531 May, p31 l55 May I ask? zn5531li55 maybe, l55m3155 meadow, grassland, 31d31x53 meal, early; breakfast, 31s55 pi31 meal, late; supper; dinner, 3155 k55 pi31 meal, midday, 31i55 pi31 mean-spirited, m31tin31 measure (rice), p55 u31 measure (cloth), 31lin55(nu31) measure, one tenth of a catty (one catty equals half a kilogram), lu55 measure of length, i31li53 measure, one third of a centimeter, 55 meat, fatty, 33 su55 meat, lean, 33 55 meat, piece of, 33 pin33 meat, raw, 33 dim31 meat shop, 55vn55z55 meat, shredded, 33 b55 meat, sliced, 33 l55 meat soup, 55t31 meat; flesh, 33 mechanism, ko33tim55 mediate, k33 i53 u31 mediator, go-between, di31 31u33 su55 medicine, tsi31, 55ts31 (Lisu) medicine, liquid, n55ts3131 31ts31 medium; middling, di31 31 (lam53) medlar seed, ke31sn5555 meet, to, 31pu55 meet with, z55 meet by chance, 31pu55 31d31 meet by chance, z55 d53 meet, to, 31pu53 meeting dismissed, 55d35 melon, gourd, 31gu55 melon seed, o55b35 melon seed, 31gu55m3155 melt (snow, etc.), g55d35 melt, to, dzm31di31bi55u31 melt; thaw, s31m55 (u31) member (committee), u55ie31 menace; threaten, p31z55 u31 33

the anong lexicon

mend (cloth), di31 ti33 o55 mend, repair, 31min55 u31 menses, l31bi55 33 menstruation, l31(bi5533) merchant, 31l55u33su55 mercury, sui55in31 mesh, p31i55i55(lu55) messy, 31bm55 messy, chaotic, 31d55 kn31 metamorphosis, ti31s55 meteor, ko31i55 i33 method, way, pan35f31 mew, to, m31i3155 midday; noon, 31i55m31u31 midday or noon, 31i35m31u31pi31; 31i55 pi31 middle finger, di3131i55tim55 middle of the month, s31l55di3131 middle, central, center, di3131 middle reaches of river, to31 u31 31 31 midnight, ti55 55 gu31 midnight snack, 31di55g55n55t3131 midwife, t55ma55di31ku31t35lu55su55 military uniform, i31 g31m31 milk (from breast), 31tu55 t31 milk, 31tsi55t31 milk, cows, 31tu55 t31 milk, to, di31 tim31 milk, to, 31i31lin55 milk teeth, baby, d31g5531s31 mill, a, l31t55 (tim31) (Lisu) mill, a, 31lu55l31t55 mill, grind, s55 millet, barnyard grass, to55 b55 millet, d31 i33 millet, t31 m55 mine, i55 55 ts31 minority; ethnic group, t55 mint, 31ku55 mirror, ma55da31dm55, n55b55 (Lisu) miscarriage, 31iu53 mischieveous, 31gn55 miss the target, d31 tin53 miss; remember with longing, tsom53; miss each other, 31tsom55 mistake, 3131 n31 mistress, 31k55m31 mistress, 31ts31in55u31 mix, to, s55

259

260

appendix a

mix, to, 31om31 mix (dough), 31n31u mixed buckwheat balls, po31 u55 u55 t31 g55 Mizhina /Mzhn/ (place name), mi31di55n31 moan, to, 31dz31s55 modern times, present, 55 ti31 ts55 modest, unassuming, m31ti31 ts31 55 modest, unassuming, im31 xom55 molar, 31s31m31 dz31 mold, to, 31bm55bm55 mole; nevus, ts31 n55 (Lisu) monastery, p31i55tim31 monetary penalty, d31xa31f35u31 money, d31 x31 money changer, d31x31di31t31z55 monkey, i31s31 monster, goblin, l31 tin31, l31 tin31 month after, ti55s31l53b3131ni33 month, half a, s31l55 ti55k55 month, last, m55u31k55s31l55; xxx; m5531k55s31l55 month, next, k55p55s33l55 month, this, i55s31l55 months after, b31 31 ti55 s31 s31 l55 months before, d55s31u55u31s31l55 moo, sound of a cow, ma35 mood (mood), -n31 moon; month, s31l55, s31l55 moon cake, m3131ko53 moon light, s31l55p31 g55 more or less, t31lu55 i33 more or less, n55ku55i55k55 more than, d3155 more than, extra, k3155 more than ten, ti31 tsa55 31 more than twenty, 31i55 tsa55 k55 55 morning star, n31ku55 (Lisu) morning, 31s55 t55 morning, clf., s31 morning, this, d55s31 mortar (stone), d31 p31 pu55 mortgage, to, dzn55 io55, po33 (Lisu) mosquito, small, black, b33 sum55 i55 mosquito, xa31 to35 (Lisu) mosquito bite, di31p31u31 mosquito net, b33 som55 di31 g33 dm55 moss, pn33dz

the anong lexicon

261

most = very, 31k55 moth, 55 om33 mother (address term), 31m31 mother; stepmother, 31m31 mothers brother, 55vu55 mothers brother; uncle, 31ben31 mothers brothers wife, 55i55 mothers sister (married), 55o55m55 mothers sister (unmarried), 55io31 mothers sisters husband, 55o55p31 mothers brother, 55ben31 motion toward center of action, verb + -31ie55, -31n55, -3155, or -o31 motion away from the center of action, verb + -31b55, -31l31, -55, or -u55 motion downwards, 3155, 31l31 motion upwards, 55, 31n55 motionlessly, m31n55 u33 moult, to, min5531tin55 mound, 31s55 tsu31 mound, hill, mo31gu55tn31 mound (land), clf., x35 mountain, north or shady side, p31dzm31 mountain, snow-capped, ti31 vn31mu31 gu55 mountain, south or sunny side, p31lim55 mountain, 31 u55 (older speakers), z31 u55, mu31gu55 mountain, bamboo, ti31m31 mountain, shady or north side, p31lim55 mountain, sunny or south side, p31dzm31 mountain foot, mu31gu55 t33 mountain goat, female, 31i31m33 mountain goat, female, 31b55 m33 mountain goat, male, 31i31p31 mountain peak, z31u55d33, m55tm55 mountain peak, top, z31 u55s31 mountain road, z31 u55ti31z31 mountain slope, hillside, (d31)3155 mourning apparel, p3131g55m55 mouse, field, tim31din55 (house+rat) mouth, corners of, i55 bu31 t33 mouth, m55du31 mouth, n55k35; i55move, 31n55, do31 move, to, tim3131tin5531 move, cause to, p31n5531 move, shift, in53 move, transfer (troops), tiau35 (Ch.) move (chair), 31ti55 >31ti55 u31

262

appendix a

movies, tsi31 movies, bo55 mu = 0.0667 hectares, ti55u31 much, bm31 mud playing, 31s5531hi5531 mud, d55 dm31 muddled, confused, m31x31 muddy (water), 31om31li33kam5531d53u31 muddy, turbid, kam55kam55t31 muddy, turbid, km55 km55 (t31) Mugujia, mu31gu55d31 mugwort, Chinese, s31mo33 mulberry tree, b31 dz31 dz55, 31ts55 mule, lo55ts55 (Ch.) multiply, i55fu55so31i55o31 muntjac (deer), s31 z31 murder, 31tsu31sn53 muscles, 3155 55 mushroom, 31t31m55 mushroom, straw-, m31km55 mushroom, fungus, edible, m31gn55 mushroom; fungus, m55dim55 mushroom, k. of, mo55ku55 mushroom, k. of, ta31m31tia35lu55 mushroom, k. of, a31ta31m55dim55 mushroom, k. of, m55b31si31 mushroom, k. of, m35ku33 mushroom, k. of, di55m55bm55m55dim55 mushroom, k. of, m55ti33li33 mushroom, k. of, da31so55m35dim55 mushroom, k. of, ka55su35m55dim55 musical instrument, io31 ti35 (Ch.) musk deer, l31 xo31 (Lisu); t31l55 (doe) musk; moschus (Chinese medicine), 31sm55; l31sm55 mustard greens, o31n55 mustard greens, o31pu55 mustard greens, l31tsu31di31pu31 mute, become, s55bn55 mute; dumb, di31 b55 mute; dumb, mute; dumb, k31 bn55 mutual, 31mutual, help each other, ku31 k55 31ti31 v3 mutton, 31i31 33 mutton, 31b5533 muzzle (of gun), do55 ka33 ku31 my, 31io31 k31, 31 k31 myself, 31io31 lu55

the anong lexicon

nail, a, xo33 ts55 (Lisu) nail, to, 3155 u31 nail onto, 31 -i nail, fingernail, in55 naked, (d31gu31)ta55 name someone or something, b31 n55 (ln55) name, b31, b31 name, a, 31u31, 31nu31 name, number, mark, b31l55 nape, back of neck, go31lo53du55 narrow (road), ti55pi55 national flag, ku35p35 (Ch.) native village, tim31z55 naughty, 31 i5531 naughty, po55 p53 naughty; mischievous, 31 i5531 nauseating, du5531kom35 navel, bn33 tu55 near, i55dz53 > i33 dz33 near childbirth, 31tn31di31 kom5531t3135ni33 nearby, i55dz55 (b31) neat, tidy, ta55 ta55 neck bone, go31 o53 s53 z33 neck tumor, d31ba55 neck, go31o53, go31lo55 necklace, 31lu35, 31lu35, i31lu35 needle (sewing), um55 neigh (horse), cry (of animal), 55 neighbor, ti55 dzu33 ts31 neighbor, k55gu3131ts31 neighbor, tim31z31k55du3131ts31 neighboring, next door, ku31k55 nephew; niece, 31s31 nervous, b3131di31dzn31 nest for birds, t55 31 nest, t55 d31 nest, a, in55u31 di31 31 nest, to, in55 u31 di3131 net (e.g., fishing), p31i55 net (weave), p31i55bn55 new (clothes), 31s55, s55 New Year, 3155 s55 newspaper, pau35t53, pu31t55 next, k55p35 next = before, m55u31k53 next to, nearby, di33ti55d33 nickname, 31ku31 b55

263

264

appendix a

niece; brothers daughter, bu31du53 night, d3131i53 night, 3155k55 night, deep in the, 3155 gu31 night, last, t55m5555 k55 night, i55 night (whole), ti55i55di33 night falls, 3131ni55 night school, 31vm5531 nine, d31g31, ku55 (Lisu) nineteen, ti31 tsai55 d31 g31, ts31 ku55 (Lisu) nineth, ti35t53 nineth early branch (monkey), i31sa3155 ninety, d31 g31 tsa55 nipple, teat, 31 tu55 l31pu55 nit (louse egg), 55 lim31 nitre; saltpetre, po5555ts31 (Lisu) nod (head), om55 om55; om3155 nod, to, t31mi55f31u31 noisy, k5531tm3155 nonpoison arrow, p55 55 nominalizers (nom), -o55, -o31, -u55, -u31, dm55, z55, su55; 31-, 31noodles from bean or sweet potato starch, fn55tiu31 (Ch.) noodles (string), 31 31 b55 (k53 m35) noodles, fried, d31 bo55 u55 t31 noodles, k53m35 noon, 31i35 m31 u31 noose (to catch game), 33 x55 north, ti31 bo55 north wind, ti31bo55n31bu31 north to south, east to west, ti31i55ti31bo55 nose bleed, s31n5533 nose hair, s31n55 min33 nose ridge, s31n55 gu31 nose ring of a cow, n55ka55 nose, s31n55 nostril, s31n55 ku31 not be, m3155 not be at, m31no33 not enough; insufficient, 31dim55 not cold, not hot, m31m31d55 m31 k55 not only . . . but also . . ., ti35m3135 . . . not permitted, m31da55 di31 not the same, not identical, m31du55 not willing, m315555 not worry, im31t31 p3131 not, negative, m31

the anong lexicon

notebook, 31tm55 notify, inform, tu55t55 November, ti31 tsi53 ti55 l55 now; at present, 31pi55i31 pi55 now, i55s55n31; i31; 31pi55; i31 pi55 Nu language, 31nu31 k55 Nu (person), 31nu31t55 Nu nationality, 31nu31 t55 Njing River (Salween), 31nu31 t31 m31 numb, tn55; tn35 numeral on clock, p3155 nunnery, ti31vn31g55tim31 ? nuptial chamber, 31ts31s55ku55 oclock, (one) hour, ti55so31 oar, 31vi55 object (obj), k31, b31 observe festival, ko3131 obstinate, stubborn, im31 ka33 obverse; right side; front; ahead, m55 u31 k55 occupy, ga35o31 occur, happen, ba5555 occur, happen, 5531n33 October, ti31 ts55 l55 off white, po55 mo31 offend, li31 i31 offer, dedicate, 53 officer, i31d33su55 official, dz31u31 oil palm, 31li35 oil soup, 55t31 oil, grease, lard, xu35i31 oil, 31su53 oil, rapeseed, kn55 su55 oil, vegetable or plant, 31su53 oil, walnut, b31 i55 oil; grease, xu35 i31 (Ch.) ointment, n55ts3131m55dm55 ointment, rub on, 55su55n55ts3131m5555 old (clothes), 55 old (person, vegetables), i31 m31 old man, di53 t31 z55 old man, old person, 31a55p31 old person, adult, 3155 old person, 31a55p31 old woman, a31a55m31 old, 3155

265

266

appendix a

oldness, 3155 on credit, buy or sell, dm55 on friendly terms, 31di31d5531 on purpose; perversely, m31m31di33 on the other side of (a river), di31xu31 on top of, 55 on verge of, dz31dzu55 once; ever, i31 once; one, ti55 one and a half, ti3131 ti55k55 one half, ti31 k55 one jin and a half, ti55gm55 ti55k55 one oclock, ti55so31 one pace, a step, ti31gm33 one part, i31fn55 one person boat; dugong boat out of trunk of a tree, ko31 55 31s31 one week, ti31 31 i55 (Lisu) one-by-one (people), ti31io55ti31io55 one-cupped-hand-worth, m31gu53 one-cupped-hand-worth, ti55mo31gu53 one-tenth of a tael, 55 one-third of a meter, (ti31)d55 (Lisu) one, ti55, ti31 (Lisu) oneself, 31lu55 onion, green, k55su35m55dim55 onion, scallions, tso55 (Ch.) only = one, 31ti31 only, si55, 31si55, tch35i31 open (a book), (55v31)pu55(31u31) open (a shop), n31t55pu53 open (an umbrella), mo55pn55mo3155 open (an umbrella), pn53 open (bag), t31o55 open (door, lid), to, pu55 (u31) open (door), tiu31 open (mouth), 55 open (mouth), k55 open (mouth), x3331 open eyes wide, d33da31 open eyes, i55lu55 d31lin55 open out, separate, k55gu31u31 open stall, 5531 open up wasteland, t31t31u31 open, p35(u31) open, tear up, po33 o55 open; unfold; turn, pu55; pu55 u31 opening, m31d35u31

the anong lexicon

operate on, bi55u55 operation, an, z31g315355 opinion, i35tn35 opium, g55i55 31i31 oppose, fn55tue35 opposite, across from, lu55 lu35 k55 opposite, ku31t53 optative (opt), l55- - lie31, l31- - lie31 or, m33, si55 orangutan, g55g31 (Lisu) orchard, 5531d31hm55 order food in restaurant, kn55t3131sn55 ordinal marker, k31p55 + number ordinal prefix, i55p55 + number origin, u31p31 originally, i55zu31 originally, at first, b55u31 originally, at first, 31mo55 33 orphan, di31t55 others, 31ki31 others, other people, 31ts31 others, other people, 31ts55tim31 otter, u55 l31 (Lisu) ouch, 55 l55! ought to, should, 31nm55 ours (excl.), 31i55k31 ours (incl.), 31i35k31 outer ear, 31n31di55ti55 outer part of clothes, n33t55 k55 outer room, e55 b31u55 ku55 outside, (i55)di31ti55 outside of garment, n33t55k55 outside corner, 31du55 outside, surroundings, (i55)di31ti55 outsider, o315531ts31 oval shaped, to55t31 over there, o5531 over twenty, 31i55tsa55 over; top; last, na33ta55k55, 53 overcooked, burnt, sm55 bu31 di3131 overflow, to, 31u3131 tsu55 31i55 overflow, spill, di31ti5531u31 overgrown = old, ti31m31 overnight, ti31i55di31x31u31 overthrow, down, b55tn533135 b55 owe (debt), dm55 owe, h53u31

267

268
owl, k55pu55 ox, bull, no31u31p31 ox horn bee, m35 dz31 (Lisu) ox, wild, 55p31

appendix a

pad, to, i31n31u31 padded jacket, d31u55g31m31 paddle, row, 31s31zam53 paddy (rice), d31i53 so55, d31i33so55 pagoda, l31pu55 tim31 tim31 pain, suffering, im31 a31 dza55 painful, 31dz55 (u31) > 31dz55 paint (house), ti55 dz31 dz55 u31 paint or draw picture, xu35xu35 paint, d31 ki55 55 paint, to, 35m55u55/mu55 paint, 3135 paint; lacquer, d31 k55 (55) pair; clf., dzui55 pajamas, im5535 gu55dm55g31m31 palm (leaf), pm31 palm of hand, 31vu35 pm55 palm print, 31vu35 pm55 b55 palm tree, 31dz55 dz55 palm, lines of, 31vu35b55 palm, middle of, 31vu35 pm55 3131 palm; sole, pm55 pancake, maize or millet, pin55 ts33 (Ch.) pancreas, 31ti31 vn55 pant, gasp, s55 3131; 31pn3 pant; gasp, 31pn35 pants, 33ma55(t55); 31m55 paper, 55 v31 31zu33 dm55 parcel or sack (of things), ti31p55 pare, peel (with knife), m55 parents; father and mother, 31p31 31m31 parrot, 55 di31 s55 (Lisu) part from, leave, 31di31b55/b55 partial to and side with, nam31 partial, biased, 31m55t31 u31 particle (prt), n33, s33 partition, wooden, (tim31)di31x31 partition, wooden, s55 l33 d31t55 s55 l33 d31t55 pass (by a place), go through, li53 pass by (e.g., two years), i5331b33 pass entrance exam, ku5555g55d35 pass into the womb, o31mo55ti31io5531

the anong lexicon

pass on to, i31 b31 u31 pass; exceed, li53 b33 pass; exceed, 31 dzn55 passable; indifferent, 31t55t55 past marker, ie31 paste on (stamp), i31piau35zm53 paste something up, t31 o55 paste, stick, glue, dzm53 pastry, cake, pin55ts33 pasture; grazing land, i31 n31 s33 l55 m53/55 pat (on the shoulder), 3131 patch, ti31 ti55 ku31 path, ti31z31 tn31 paths between fields, d31pu55da55 patience, im315531 patient, forbearing, dz31 s55 patient, im31 55 patient, sick person, ts53n55 pave, lay, pu31lu53 pay attention, 31d33 31 pay for, i31iu53 pay for; compensate, 31 dz31 pay for; compensate, i31iu53, i31 iu31 pay in restaurant, su55ni55u55 pay respect to God, p31i33 m31gu31 pay taxes, i55u55z3131 pay tuition, tn55di31p55s31u31 payment to porter, 31z35 di31 p35 peace, t35pi31 (Ch.) peach, m31sm31 peak, highest point, m3153 peak, mo31gu5555 peanut, xu55s55 (Ch.) pear-leaved crab apple, tim31 pear-shaped crab, tim31 pear, 33to55 peas, do31tsi31 (Lisu) peasant, l31 m55 u33 su55 pebble, di31ha31lu55 peck (dry measure), d55 peck at, 31dn55 peck, to, 31gia31n55 peddler, o31l55tn31u55su55 peel (of skin), s53u31 peel (of thunder), (mu55)da55 peel, skin, to, kin55 (bark), sm31 (sheep) peel (with peeler or knife), m55

269

270

appendix a

peel; rind, 31ti55 peep, to, ka31m55d31u55 pen (fountain), ka55pi31; pi33 (Ch.) pen for cows, no31u31 d31 xm35 pen for draught animals, ma31 tim31 pen for sheep or goats, 31b55 da31 xm35 pen, in (sheep), pm31 pencil, t55 pi31 (Ch.) pencil sharpener, tn55pi53m53 penis, t33 (l55) penis (euphemistic, baby term), b31l55 people, z31min31 pepper tree (female), dzi53dz55m31 pepper tree (male), dzi53dz55p31 pepper, black, so55so33 pepper, wild, 31dzm55 perfective aspect, 55 perfective aspect, di55 perform cupping, tim53 perish, die out, s31 m55 u31 persimmon, t55d31 person, (31)ts31 person from another province, 31ts31m31 31ts31 person wearing glasses, i55lu55 a31so5m53 persuade, to, ko55u31 pestle, rice, s33 b31 pestle, d31p31 pet name, b31tn31 petals of a flower, 55vn55i31lim35tm55 pheasant, n31 z55 pheasant, ts31m53 phlegm, tim55pu31 phlegm; sputum, d55 x55 photograph, tso55di31 (Lisu) photograph, 35pin35 pick (fruit); pluck; select, som55mu31 pick at, scrape, ko31lo35 pick out, 31pi31u31 pick teeth, 31s31i55ko31o3155 pick up with chopsticks (vegetables), 31pi35, tu53 pick up, 55 u31 pick, zom35 pickle in salt, 55 (Lisu) pickle in salt, m31tom53 pickled Chinese cabbage, kn33 mu31 tum55 picture; draw a picture, xu35 (Ch.)

the anong lexicon

piece, to, i31 pierce, to, 31l55gu3135li31 pierce, to, go53ti31kn55 pierce, stab, 55i31 pierce, stick into, t53u31 piece of meat (slice), 33pin33 pierce the ear (lobe), 31n31i5531 pierce the nose of a cow, n55k55i55u31 pierce, insert, l55 ku31 pierce through, to55l55u55 pig feed ladle, o55 dz31 do55 dm55 pig feed trough, o55di31 ku31 pig feet, o5531xa35 pig heart, o55i31zm31 pig iron, xu55 dz31 pig liver, o55b31in55 pig lungs, o55i31s55 pig manure, o55 i33 pig meat (pork), o5533 pig or hog bristles, o55 min55 pig pen (fence), o55 d31xm55 pig stomach, o55p31in31 pig tender, pig keeper, o5531tu33su55 pig tongue, o55p31l31 pig urine, b55 pu31 pig, wild, p55m53 pig, fat, o55 d31 pig, o55 pigeon; dove, d31 f55 piglet, o55 tn31 piglet; shoat, o55d31tn31 pigment, t55 dz31 pigpen, pigsty, o55 d31 xm55 pigtail, mu31dzu55 pile earth around the roots of a new plant, 31s55pu31; 31dz55pu31; di31dzu31 pile, heap (dirt), bum55 pile, heap; clf. for piles, bum55/33 pile up, t31 pile up, (d35)di31dz31 pile up, 31bm55bm31 pile, pile up, bom55 piles, hemorrhoids, i31ku55 d55mu55 pill, 55 ts31 u55 (Lisu) pills, balls, n55ts31u55 pillar, b33z33m31

271

272

appendix a

pilose antler core, 31dzu53k55 pilose antler core, 33k33 pillow, m55 kom33 pillow case, m55kom33di31p55dm55 pimple, zit, io55dz31 pincer, to, 31tu31 pincers, fire tongs, m33 m33 pinch, ti33 pinch, to, n31 pinch (e.g., leg), xu55u31 pinch, nip (with fingers), m31tom55/53 pinch, shoes, k55i33t33 pine cone, 31u33 tim31 pine needle, 31u33 b55 x55 pine nut, 31u33 55 pine torches, 31 u33 pine tree, d53gu5, gu53, 31u33 pine tree, 31 u33 dz55 pink, za31 za31 b31 si55 pint, 1/10 peck, p55 piss, pee, 33 pistol, do55ka33 tn31 pit (fire pit frame), xm31d55 pit of stomach, p33 dim55 pit; stone, 31i31 pit (fruit) = seed, lu55 pit of stomach, p33 dim55 pitch dark, t55m53i33 pitiable, poor, di31 55 m31za55 pity, piteous, di315531 place to rest, di55g55 z55 place under, to, i31n55 place, m31 place, za55 place; site, m31gm53 placenta, i55du31 plain, a, t55ku31 plaintain, 31u31 plaintain (grass), 31dzu55n31 plane, carpenters, p55du31 (Lisu) plane, aircraft, di31hi55 plane, aircraft, dm55 tim31 plane, to, p55 plant rice, to, t55v31 plant (vegetables), kn53 u31 plant, transplant, kn55; kn53u31 plaster, a, n55ts31dzm55dm55

the anong lexicon

plaster for treating sprains, n55lu55n55ts31 plaster, apply a, n55ts31dzm5531 plate, a, b33 plate, a, kn55b55 plate, small, b33tn31 play, a, i35 play (ball), (pi31t31)313131 play (bamboo flute), di31 li31 play (cards), (pu55k31)3135 play flute, (di31lo31)min53 play bowed instrument, an33 u31 play chess, 35 ti31 play the Er-hu, an33u31 play finger-guessing game, 55 d31 31 (Lisu) play hide-and-seek, m33s55b31l53u play janken (paper, scissors, rock), 55d3131 play marbles, po55li31t31di31pu35 play musical instrument, min53 play on swing, tu33 play tug-of-war, 31x55b5531ts31 play, to, 31tsi55 i31 playground, 31ts31z55d31 pledge, guarantee, po55 tsn35 (Ch.) pliers, m33 m53 plow (field), tso33 o55 plow (field), l31m55kn55 plow furrow, do55 ki55 t31 plow handle, do55 ki55 k31 plow point, do55 ki55 plow shaft, do55 ki55 ki31 plow share, tso31o33 plow share, do55di55 pluck, to, k55u35 pluck, to, 55 pluck (flowers), lu53 pluck the lute, min53 pluck with fingers, di31pu53 pluck; tear; separate, 31s55 plum, ts55pi31li31 plum, li55ts55 plunder (property), tin55 plural (pl), m53 (animate and inanimate nouns) plural (pl), z3131 (restricted to animate nouns) pocket, burlap, mi55 xu55 k55 pocket, cloth, 55 sm31 k55 pocket, k55 pocket, p53 du55

273

274

appendix a

pocket money, small change, d31x31 l55 tn31 pu55x3 pockmarked person, k31 l31 b31 m55 pod (bean), tu31 pod, 31no55 tim31 point (finger), to, 31tu31 point of foot, 31tim55 l31 pu55 point, tip, 31tsu5555 pointed, 31tsu5555 pointed; sharp, 31tsu55 (55); ts55ts31 pointedness, 31tsu55 o55 poison arrow, p31 l55 (so31 m53) poison, p31l55, p31l55 poison fish, to, u55du55 poisoned, vi55(31) poke, to, 31t31u31 poke, to, in53 pole a boat, punt, 31s31i55 pole for carrying people, 31tsh3131gi31 dm55 pole, carrying, t31 policeman, di31dm55su55 polish, to, di55li55u55in53 polish (with whetstone), l31t55 (Lisu) pond, pool, t31 om55 pond, pool, 35ti31k53 poor, di31 31 poor (land), m3155 (not+good) poor people, di3131m53 pop, to, ba3131ni33 porcupine, h53pu33 pork, o55 33 porter, n5531gin55su55 portion, i31fe55 porridge; gruel, (di31a35) d31b55g55 positive, 31 g55, ti31 ti31 (Ch.) possessive (poss), k31, ni55 possessive, b31 possessive particle, k31ie55 possessive prefix (first person), 31 possessive prefix (second person), 31, i31, ni55 possessive prefix (third person), 31 possible, probable, t31 lu55 post office, i31tin35tu31 post; pillar, b33 z33 m31 post; pillar; house, t3155 posters, notices, dzm55 pot soot, i31 ku55 31 pot, aluminum, l35 d33 ko55

the anong lexicon

pot, clay, d31 t55 pot, copper, k31 m55 pot, flower, 55 vn55 kn55 dm55 pot, flower, 55vn55b31 pot, iron, 31 k55 d33 ko55 pot; wok, d33 ko55 pot, va55 potato, h31 gi35 potato, sweet; red potato, 55m33 (Lisu) poultry, dm31 u31 t31 su55 pound to pieces (garlic), ko55o55 pound (millet), du53, du55 pound (using pestle), du55 u31 pound (using pestle), d31 p31 pound, tap, um55 pound, thump (earth), du55 u31 pound, to, ko35(u31) pour (e.g. into bottle), sm53, tsu55 (pour down) pour or throw out (water), bo55tu53 pour tea, ts31k55u53 pour, to, tsu55 pout the lips, i55bu31 du55du31u31 powder (face), u55t31 (Burmese) powder the face, ma55k3131ma55 powdered medicine, 55ki55n55ts31 powdered thread, m55n31b55 practice prostitution, l31bi55nm55 practice, to, tn3155 precipice, overhanging cliff, 31p55 pregnant, be, 31tn31no55z55 pregnant, be, z31g3131l55 pregnant, be, 31tn31 z55 u31 pregnant, be, vi55k31 pregnant, be, z31g313155d35 (advanced pregnancy) premature birth, s31l55m3131di31kom31 prepare, to, p31sm5531 prepare, get ready to, b31u55, 31su31 prepare, get ready, di3131mo31, d31g31 (Lisu) prescribe medicine, n55ts31d55u31 present a glass of wine, 31du31 press (with finger), 31d31 u31 press down, p31d31u; 31da31u31 press flat, 31d31u31li31t55i55t55 press clothing, 31i33 i31 lim33 press, 31d33, dim33 pretend, im55 ti31pi5531 prevent, proscibe, k31 u31

275

276

appendix a

previous, ti55s31 previously, m55 u33 u33 u55 preying mantis, nm3155 price drop, di31 p55 31d35 price rise, di55 p55 ka55 price, 31di31 p35, 31di31 p35 prices (to drop of), di55 p55 55 prick, stab, i55 u33 55 u33, ti33 prick, to, 55v31; i55v33 prickly ash, dzi53 dz55 printed cotton, 55vn55m55xu55 prisoner, tsu55 du31 su55 (Lisu) prisoner, 3131m55 probably, most likely, bm55 31 probably, ta31 lu55 probe, di33dz55 problem, question, ti31z31 procure abortion, 31tn31sn53 produce, to, o55 profitless business, o31l55u55m31l31 progressive aspect, 55 promise, consent, 3131 promise, to, 33li55v55 prop up, stretch out, pn53 prop up; support, dzom31 prop up; support, di31b53u propagate, y55tsu31 propagate, disseminate, y55 tsu31 (Ch.) propagate, dzn55 prosperous business, o31l55u55l31 prostitute, nm55su55 prostrate, to, m5531 prostrate, to, di31dm31li31vm53 prostrate oneself, l31pu55tim3155 protect, safeguard, 31d33 u31; p31d31u31 protruding, dzu33 dzum55 proud; boast, flaunt, di31ts31s55 province, s53 > s 53 (Ch.) province, s53 prow of boat, 31s31 l31pu55 pry open, b31 pi31 u31, go55tin35, a31 pubic hair, s55 m55 public bath house, z31g31dn55z55 puddle (of mud), tom31 puffy and soft, 31pm55 pull down (house), tim31p53 pull (drawer), an31

the anong lexicon

pull each other, 31an33, 31n31 pull grass; weed, ke31 u31, in53 pull out rotten ones, s55 nu31 pull out, stretch, b31 k53 u31 pull (quilt) over, ko55mo55u3331 pull out, k31u31 pull (string, lever), 31u31 pull tendon; cramp, d31 gu31 31d31 gn55 pull up (weeds), k31 u31 pull, drag, an31 u31 pulse, beat, i31om31 31ts31 pumpkin; cushaw, 31gu55/53 punch a hole, perforate, 31ku31i53u31 puncture, ku31 punish, f31 punish, d31 ban31 punt pole, 31s31i55u55dm55 punt pole, di33ku33 pupa, 31u55, o31 u55 pupil (of eye), i55lu55 tn31 puppy, d31 g33 tn31 pure, unsullied, u55ba55 purse lips to show contempt or disapproval, i55bu31 p55p55l31u31 purslance, greens, bi3135di31m31nm31 pursue, 31u31 pursue, chase, za53 pus, 31d31 push, 31nu55xu3155 push forward, do31 push forward, m55pu31k55do31 push; shove; press, do31 put (soil) on; patch, clf., pu31 put (somewhere), gn55 put (somewhere), tu35 put aside, lay up, gn31u55 put away, tidy, b31kom53 put dead into coffin, gu31du55s31u31 put hoop or band around, d31 ki55 dim55 put in order, arrange, k55gn31 put in, s31u31 put on (a shawl), t55 put on (a shawl), u55 put on (clothes), wear, gu31 put on airs, 31dz31 put on clothesline, lm55 put on correctly, lu35lu35 put on credit, (d31h55)dm53

277

278

appendix a

put on (hat, cap), mo3155, o55 put on (hat) SEE wear (hat) put on (hat), o55 put on airs, 31 dz31 put on correctly, straight, lu35 lu35 put ones hand on something for support, dzum3155 put ones hand on something for support, di31b5531 put something under something, i55 53 u31 put out (fire) = kill fire, sn53 put out (fire), 31 put out for sale (in an open stall), o55k315531 put out to pasture or graze, 31t31 put out to pasture or graze, s31l31u31 put something under, (m55)i3131(u31) put together, kom31 put under armpit, ha55d35 put up, nm33 put, cause to, s31-l35 put, place, k55gn35 put; place, gn31 put; place, su53 puttee (leg wrappings), 31x35xu55dm55 puttee (leg wrappings; leggings), ti31x35 python, l55, l55 Qiang, o5531m31ki31t55 Qiang language, m55ts31t55 (?) Qirn (Chinese minority), Derung, cf. Dulong, m55 ts31 p31 quack, to, k31k555531 quality (of things), t31li35a33 quarrel, to, (m55du31mi55) 31sn55 quench thirst, di31 m55 di3133 question (q), le53, k55, m31, 53 quick, dz33; very quick, dz31 dz33 quick, fast, di31dzn31 quickly, d31 dzn31 quicksilver, s55 i31 quietly, stealthily, ka31 ma55 u33 quilt facing (lining), 3131d31p55 dm55 quilt, 3131 quiver, t31m55 d31 ku55, d31ku33du55 rabbit, hare, to33 l55 (Lisu) rabid dog, d31g55 31xun35 radish, l31 tsu33 di31 pu31 radish, l31b53 reflexive, lu55, 31lu55(31), -31, -31

the anong lexicon

raft, t31 u55 31s31 rafter, l31 b55 xm55 dm55 railings, km31 tu55 railings, 31vu55dzom3155 railings, dz5531d31xm35 railroad, railway, 31 k55 ti31z31 rain, to, ts31 dz55 rain, to, dz55 rain, ts31 rain, heavy, ts55d31 rainbow, mu55 b35 b55 raincoat, t3135 g31m31 raincoat, straw, pm31 raincoat, t31 35 g31 m31 rain hat (bamboo), 31lm31d31mo55 rainy day, ts31dz55i33 raise (blister), 31pm55pm55 raise (chickens, etc.), di31kom35 raise (children), t31m55di31kom31 raise (flag), ts53ni31 raise (head), h55 31 raise hand, du55 31 raise money, i31 kom31 raise (the tail), 31h55 raise the warp of the rod, m55 d31 raise, lift, du55 31 raise, to, 31gi55u31 rake (fields), 31z/om31; 31om31 ram (male sheep), 31i31 p31 ransom, redeem, dzn5531io33 rapeseed; canola, k31 m55 i31 su31 rapeseed, dz31dz31i55u31 rapeseed oil, kn55 su55 rat, bamboo, km55 31din55 rat, mouse, 31din55 rat, rodent, u53p31 rat, white-tailed, ba31din55 rat (long-tailed), gu31lu55 rat (flying), p31d55 rat, k. of, to31din31du55 rat, k. of, t31m55 rat, k. of, t31dzu31 rat, k. of, ta31a55a31din55 rat, k. of, t31la55 rat, k. of, d31su31 rat, k. of, ta55xo55 rat, k. of, b31ti53

279

280

appendix a

rattan bridge, di31 b31 ravine, pit, mo31gu55tu55d55 raw (meat), 55dim55 raw; green, 31dim31 reach, arrive, 31 (i53); 31d35 reach (upward), zn53 read (a book), 55v31v31d53u31 read (a newspaper), pau35t53d43u31 read aloud, s31 z31 u31 read, to, s31z31u31 read, to, tn31 ready, done, 31du3133 real, t55 really, certainly, si31 si31 a53 reap, to, n53 rear, raise, breed, di31kom31 rebel, revolt, tsu35fn53 (Ch.) recede (of water), bn55 recipient markers, k31, b31 reciprocal (rec), 31 receipt issued with sale, f31piu35 receive, 31kom53 receive, get, lu31 tm55 u31; 31 kum55 receive telephone call, tin55xu55to53 recently, 31pi55 recently, i55s55 31 reception room, m31nm35ku55 recipient, b31 recite lessons from memory, 55v31p35ni33o31 recite scripture, ti31vn31 g53 (God+discuss) reckon accounts, su55t55u55 recognize, so53 record, 31zu5531u53 red (become), red, tsa35 si55, b31 si55 red, si55, b31si55, tsa35 si55 redness, b31si55 u55 reduce, to, 31ka31u31 red-spotted lizard, 31no55b31si31 reed, 31su55 refine (steel), 31 k55 i31 g31 refine oil, kan55 refuse by making excuses, i5531k553155 regret, m31i55d31 rein in, di31tu53 reins, ma31 31x55 relatively, l55-

the anong lexicon

relatives, t55 z55 relationship, 31du55 release, set free, s31 la31 u31 remain in, mi55m31 remain, d33 remarry (of woman), 31pi55ti55ti31ts55lu55 remember (clearly), tsom55 a31 d31; tsom5331d5531 remember = think, tsom55/53 remember or record, gm55 remember, tsom55 31i55 remind, s31u55 remove (feathers), bin53 remove; pull out, k31u31 rent (for room/house), tim31 di31 p35 rent field, l31 m55 3155 rent field, po53u31 repair, to, io55mn31 repair, manufacture, o31mn31 repay (debt), ti31liu31 cf. retaliate repeat, do35do33 repeatedly; again and again, 31d31 m31ku55 rescue, save (somebody), t35 (Ch.), 31 ti31 nu55 resemble, t33 resin, rosin, 31u33 t31 respect, to, 31p3355 respond verbally, 313131ni33 rest, di31g55, di3155, d3155 restaurant, b55da31m31z55 restrict diet, 313155 resumative (She has recoverd and is eating.), d35 retaliate, ti31 li31 u31 cf. repay retreat (military), i55/z31k533155 retreat; move back, 31u55; 31u33po31 return, go back, o55 return (home), 3155 return (money), repay debt, i31 i31 return (a pen), 3155po31 return a visit, 31k55g31d55u31 return animals to the pen, pm55 return to laity, 31lm31bn55su55 return (things), p31 55 po31 (give back) return, cause to, 3155b55 reveal, to, l53 reverse side, n31tu55k53 reverse; wrong side; opposite, i55i31 k55 revive, bring back to life, 31ku55

281

282

appendix a

revolve, gyrate, xu31u55 revolution, k31min35 reward, to, t55li55 reward, to, b31sn33du53 rhetorical question (rq), 53, l31 rhizome of Chinese gold thread, mn55 rib, dm31 ti55 rice (large), b55d31si55 rice (uncooked), di31 ? rice crust (in pot), d31 xin55 rice ladle, min55dim31 rice pestle, s55bi31; s33b3 rice plant, paddy, d31i33so55 rice pounder, t31p31 rice shoots, li55 dz53 rice straw, 31 i33 l55 rice thread, di3131u55t31 rice to bloom, 55vn55vn55 rice water; gruel, 31bm55 t31 rice, cold, 31g55 in55 rice, cooked, 31g55s55 rice, cooked, b55 d31 rice, cooked, di31 a55 g55 rice, cooked, g55 a55 rice, polished blutinous, m33 31 rice, sweet, 31m55k5531 rice, white, d31 z31t55 rice; food, b55d31 rice; millet, d31 z31 t55 (rice), b55 d31 si53 (grain) rich, m31gm31, m31gm31 rich, person, m31 gm31 31ts31 rich; wealthy, d31xu313155 riddle, 55 di31 dz31 ride (horse), d31dz31, 55 (cause) ride a sedan chair, 31gin55dm5553o55 ride in a car, tn55tim31o33 ridge of building, 31d31 z55 gu31 ridge of nose, s31n55 gu31 redicule sarcastically, 31ts31k31 i3155t31 rifle butt, do55 ka33gu31 rifle, pu33 t55 (Ch.) right hand seat, k31 p33 k55 right hand, 31vu35d55bu5531 right; obverve side, m55 u31 k55 right; obverse side, i55du31k53 right side, d31k55, l31i55 (Lisu) right, privilege, d55 u31 (Lisu)

the anong lexicon

right away, g33 ring for finger, i31 tim55 g55 dm55 ring for finger, i31t55dm55 rinse, flush, 31ta31 rinse (mouth), 31to31o3135 rinse (mouth), m55du3131ti31lo31o31 rip, tear (paper), s53u31, z53 u31 ripe; cooked, sm55bu31 ripe, mature; cooked, in31 rise (sun), to, nm31 ts5331 ni33 rise (of waves), di31k55 li53 31; 33 rise, expand, swell, d31 rise (water), b31 31ni55 river (big), to31 u31 31 river (little), to31 u31 tn31 river deer, t31 l55 river, to31 u31, t31m31 rob; plunder, in53 tin55; tin53 road, macadam (for vehicles), mo55do55 ti3131 road, path, ti3131 > ti31z31 road (for horses), i55l i31li31ti31za31 roar (as lion), 31k3153 roast in sun, m53, lm35 roast, to, im5531 roast, to, t31mi55 robber, nn31tin31su55 robe, long gown, d31u55g31m31d31 rock bee, 31i55 rock cave, lu55 ku31 (rock+hole) rock cave, z31u55 ku31 rock pile, lu55 di31gum55 rock sugar, pin55ta31 rock, lu55d31 rock, sway, 31m55; 31m35(31) rod, xm33d33, 55ko55/35 rodent, k. of, b31ti53 roll (cloth), clf., do55/du55 roll about, po35lo33 roll about, tan3331 roll down, dislodge, p55 tn55 nu31, 31tn55po31 lo53 (Lisu), tn33s33 roll up (cloth), ku31lim35; lim35 roll up (sleeves), k31lim3131 roll, to, 31tn55; tn53; tan55 roll into a ball with the hands roll, to, 31tn55po31lo53 roll, to, gin31u31 roll, to, po31lo53 le55 roll, to, p55tn55nu31

283

284

appendix a

rolled buckwheat, po31u55 s31 l31 roof beam, l31 b55 gu31 roof, tim31l31pu55 roof, to, dim55 room (of house), tim31 ku55, ku55 room or hotel, rent, tim31di31 p35 room, inner, n55 b31 u55 ku55 room, living, tim31d31 room, outer, e55 b31 u55 ku55 rooster, d31 gu35 root, bamboo, km55 t55 root, 55 33, gu31 root, to, tso55o55 root, tuber, i31 t55 rope bridge support, 31v55 rope cable connection, lo33dz35 rope ladder, 31xum55 rope, string, 31x55 rope; clf. for three dimensional thin flexible things, b33 rosin, 31 u33 t31 (Lisu) rot, cause to, s31bm31 rot, to, 31bm55; bm31 rotten, mushy (watermelon), 31bm55 rough (road), dz55di3155 rough horse play at wedding, 31tsi33k55 round root, i31 tsu31 di31 pu31 round, li55 gi31 li33 roundworm; ascarid, p55 b31 o31 rout or dig with snout (pig), o55tso33o55 row (a boat), (31s31) zm55/53, zm55 row (of houses), (ti55)d31ku31 row call, b31g53 row, to, 31s3131vi55 rub in, i55u31 rub, 31n35 rub; massage, 31na31u3 rub, to, in55u31 rub, to, 31xn31u33 rub; wipe; scrape, i31 rub repeatedly with hands, 55u31 55u31; 55u31 rub (skin), p31n31u31 rubbarb, t55 xu31 (Ch.) rubber, n 31du55 rubbing board for washing clothes, 55sm3131n31u rudder, s55l31 ruin, waste, s31 m55 ruin (clothes), ga55d35

the anong lexicon

ruler, 31lin55 dm55 rules, customs, 31i33, kue55ty33/31 (Ch.) ruminate, 3133; 31 (31) ruminate, 3133 rummage, to, p53u31 run, to, b31ts31 run against, 31om55 run down, shabby, 31 ma55 run (as color runs), 3155 run (fast), jump, 31ts31 run away, flee, in55 d35 rush on, h55d31 rust, d31dz31 rust, to, di31 ku55 u31 sack, bag, s31 u31 sackcloth; burlap, di31d55 p33 sacrifice (to spirits), (p31i33) m31gu31 sacrifice, m31gu31 (Lisu), di31k35 sad, worried, p31 31 33 saddle, ma31 nn33 salary, 55di31p55lu35 saliva, t55 saliva (clear), tin55 31iu31 salt, s31l55 salted egg, k55lim31m31tom55 salted fish, u55m31tom55 salty, k33 (km31) salute, to, im31 31 same, 31du5531 same, not the, m31 du55 sand, 31t55 sandy beach, 31t55du31 sandals, straw, s55 pi55 t33 i33 (Lisu) sap, 55t3155l53u31 sarcastically, ironically, m31m31 satin, bu31 g31 m31 satisfied, be, 31n335531 satisfy (conditions), 31u3131ni33 saucer of lamp, m31iu31v35dm55 sausage, 33 p31i55 save; be thrifty, te31io31 save money, d31x3131kom35 save money, 31ka55 savory, appetizing, m55m31lim31 saw, a/to, 31 du31 (Lisu) saw, to, 31ni33v35

285

286

appendix a

saw, 31 du55 sawdust, i55p31, u55 t31 sawdust, 3155 say, speak, ti31 zm33 u31, v33 say, tim35 scabies, x31 ti35 (Lisu) scald head, l31pu55d55m55 scald oneself, 31pn55d35 scald with hot water, sn53 scald, burn, 31k53 scale pan, 31 dm55 31hi35 scale see fish scale scale, ti55gm55 scale, i33dm55 scale or balance, 31dm55 31 x55 scale pan, 31dm55 31 hi35 scalp, 31pu55 tin55 scapula; shoulder blade, z31 ga55 sa33 z33 scar, d53 m55 du31 scar, k55 scar, long, d31 m55 scarcely, barely, ti31 scarf, head, l31pu55xu55dm55 scarf, xu53 u31 scarf; handkerchief, o55l35 (mens), o55t35 (womans) scatter, disperse, 31g, 5di3133, ka31 u31 school, 55 v31 tn55 tim31 school begins, k55o31 schoolmate, tn55da55t31 scissors, ts31(t55) (Lisu < Ch.) scissors, ts31i55o31 scold, to, 5531 scold, to, k3333 scold, to, p31l31u31 scoop out of water, tsi31 u31 scoop up (fish), drag for, do31 o33 scoop (water), d55 scoop up off the water, 31piu31 scoop, draw (water), km53 scorched, sm55bu31di3131 scour, rub, 31xn31 u33 scowl, to, p31u55ma55 scratch (chicken scratch for food), 3155 scratch for food, 3155 scram, to, n53 scrape; scratch; scale (a fish); shave (pig), xo31o55; xu31u55; xo33 scratch (of chicken), 3155

the anong lexicon

scratch (itch), xo31o55 screen (leaves), to, di33g55u31 screw, a, lo3155ti55 screw, to, xu53u31pu55 screwdriver, ti55ts55 scrotum, 31ba55 scull, 31s31 31p55 sea, ocean, t55 dom55 31 seal, to, du3131d31u31 seal, cover, to, 31 seal (for a letter), a, du3131d55dm55 seal envelope, 55v31l31u55di31km31 seal, stamp, a, b3131 d55 dm55 search (person), k31 som35 search (mountain), mi35 seashore, t31m31 s31 seaweed, gu31ta55 second, 53u3131i55 second (day); next (day), i55p55 31i55 second, k31p5531i55, ti35 35 (Ch.), i31m33ti31m33 (Lisu) second day, 31i33 i33 second day of lunar calendar, s31l5531i55i55 second earthly branch (cow), nu31u3155 second wife, m31li33 m31 secret, k31ma55 secretion in the eye, 33t53 secretly; on the sly, tin55 31 section (of bamboo between two joints), clf., tn55; tan55; tun55 section (of bamboo between two joints), clf., gm55 section (of bamboo between two joints), clf., ti31i55 section (road), clf., om33 sedan chair, 31ts31 31gi55 dm55 sedan chair, xu31 k55 (Ch.) sedan chair, carry, 31gin55dm5531gi3131 see visitor off, m31nm35in31u31 see, d55, d(u)53, z55; za31d55 see through, d55tm53 seed of Asiatic plantain, 31dzu55 n31 seed, 31i31, i31 seedling, sprout, li55 dz53 (Lisu) seeds (reserve), liu53 seek refuge from, 31sn55t35m5531 seek; look for, l53 55, u53 seize, to, tin55 seize, to, i55tm31 seize and arrest, k55v35u31 seize, take, carry, u55tin31nu55

287

288

appendix a

select and delegate, depute, p31 (Ch.) select, pick, 31s31u31 select seed, 31s31 self, 31lo33lu55 self-designation for minorities, 31nu31 t55 sell, m33 (), m31 (imperative), m55, nm31 sell rice, d3155ta55vn35 semen, 31 du55 t31 send an invitation, pi55dz55ti35u31 send (letter), di31bu31 send (money), d31x31di31b31u31 send (thing), s33 bo33, 31bo33 send (gift), d55u31 s55 b31 send off, see off, in33 bo55 send the bethrothed presents, t31 m55di31p55d55u31 send, to, di31kn53 senile, ti31 m31 sentence, speech, utterances, clf., t55 separate, t55 separate, 31di31ba55 separately, ti31io55ti55k31 separate (causative), di31ba33u55 September, d31 g31 l55 seriously ill, b313131dz3555 servant; lackey, du31n55 serve a meal, b35d55m53 serve, act as, xu5531 serve, act as, u5531 sesame, mo55ku55 sesame oil, b31i53 set a snare, xo31dim55 set fish free, u55s31l31u31 set off firecrackers, to3131po5531l35 set (sun) = sink, go down, dim55, 31dim55 set on fire, ti31 t55 u31 set ones mind at rest, be relieved, t31 pi31 31 set table, t55ts/31 u53u set up a bed, im55z55 ti55kaa 31o31mn31 set up frame, 31v55dim35 set up pillars, ti31z55t53u31 sever (a rope); cut off, tn53; t n33 several, 31- (e.g. 3155 several hundreds) several, 31 seven, s31i55 > s35, 31 (Lisu) seven sisters stars, i31i55i31vi55 seventeen, ti31 tsai55 s35, ts55 31 (Lisu) seventh, ti35ti31

the anong lexicon

seventh, 53u31s35 seventh early branch (horse), ma3155 seventy, s35 tsa55 severe, pi31pi31 sew (cloth), patch, p53 (u31) sew on (button), 31 (u31) sexual intercourse (common term), 3155 sexual intercourse (euphemism), 31u55 sexually harrass, k31m55mi31 shack, thatched, 31d31 31v55 shackles, m31 x55 shadow, 31l31 b55, 55 (Lisu), 55(o53) shady side (of mountain), p31dzm31 shake (head), 31m55, u31m55 shake hands, 31vu55 i31 in35 shake off (dust), 31g53u31 shake ones head, xu3155 shake open, spread, ka31u31 shake out, 31k53u31 shake, io33pun55 shake, to, 31m55, 31n55 shallow basket, l35d31 shallow (water), m3131 shaman, da31 55ph31 shame; shy, 55 shameless, s31 35 m31so55 shampoo the hair, l31pu55dn55 shape of something collapsed, p55p55l31l31 sharp (knife), tu31, si55si55 sharpen, grind, xa33 u31 shave, m55 shave beard, m31ts55i31lim31s55 shave head, have a haircut, i31 lim31 55 shave the head bald, l31pu55ta55i31lim3155 shavings, 55tn31 shealth; scabbard, m31 t31 shed tears, 31i31 shed tears, p3131u31 sheep herder, 31b5531tu53 su55 sheep or goat pen, 31b55 da31xm35 sheepfold fence, 31b55 da31xm35 sheep skin, 31i31 sm31 tim31 sheep skin (vest), 31b55sm31 sheep, 31i31 shell, peel, sm31sm35 shell of a boat, 55 sm31 31s31 shell (peanuts), to, k31u31

289

290

appendix a

shell, peel, kin55nu31; kin55 shield, 31d53 shinbone, 31xa35gu31 shine (mirror), z31 u31 shine (sun), 31 u31 tim31 shine (sun); roast in sun, m55; m53 shiny, mu55l31t55 shiny, shining, g53ni33 shirt, i55d31gu31dm55 shit, fly, b33sum55p31i31 shiver, tremble, to, 31m5555 shoelaces, 31x55 shoes, 31xa55 g55 dm55 shoes, cloth, m31 xu55 t33 i33 shoes, leather, 55 sm31 t33 i33 shoot arrow, small arms, vm55 shoot arrow, t31m55 fm55 (vm55) shoot, fire gun, bo55 shoot, vm55; shoot each other, 31vm55 shoot the target, vm53du31dz31u31 shoot with gun, do55ka33vn53 shop selling salt, s31l55vn35z53 shop; store, vn55z55 shopkeeper, nn5531k31p31 short, 55 short lunar month, s31l55tn31 short person; dwarf, ti55 im31 short, ti5555 short knife/sword, m31tn55o55 shortcoming, tye31tian53 shorts, 33 ma55 t55 should, 31nem55, d33, 33 should go, dz55li5531n33 shoulder, z31 ga55 shoulder blade, scapula, z31ga55 sa33 z31 shoulder, to, 31s31u shout, cry out, g53u31, g53, 31d55 shout, make (someone), ti31t55 shout, make (someone), ti31dm55 shout, to, i5531 shovel, tsn55ts31 shovel, tu55pi55 shovel, spade, to, xo31o55 show up for, 31v55 shredded meat, 33b55 shrink (e.g., clothes), 31i31gn55 shrivelled, shrunken, tim53

the anong lexicon

shut (mouth), (di31)tim55 shut someone up, pm53 shuttle, mi55 gin31 shuttlecock, k55min3331li55dm55 shy, coy, 33 55t3155 31 shy, bashful, 3155, 3355t3155 siblings of fathers brothers, p55 dz55 m31 siblings of fathers sisters; of mothers brothers and sisters, 3155 sick, be, 31dz53 (u31) sick, ill, hurt, ts53n55 sickness, 31dzu35 sickle, lo55m31 sickle with a saw, io55 m33 side (n.), (di31)ti55 side rooms, 31v55tim31 side sword, d31 m31 side, di33 ti55 (k33) sideburns, b31ti31 sidewalk, 31ts31dz55ti31z31 sieve; sifter, u55 ti55 sift (grain), x53 u31; x53 sign, to, b31p31zu53 silent, k55m31s55m3131 silk fabric, b31 m33 xu55 silk fabric, bu55g31m55 silk thread, bu33 vm55 z33 b31 b55 silkworm, bu31 b31 l55 silkworm chrysalis, o31u55 silver dollar, d31 x31 l55 silver, pu55 silver, x31 silversmith, d31 xa55 zm55 su55 (Lisu) simmer, roast in hot ashes, p31ki31u3155gu55 simpleton, 31ts55 since (time), k31ni33 sing (song), mu31gu33gu55 (Lisu) sing, to, m31m55 u33, gu55 (Lisu) sing, to, b31u55 sing role in opera, h55ts31l55su55 single child, ti55io5531ti55 single crown of the head, l31pu55 ti55ko31zn55 sink into; sunken; dented, 55 di3155 sink, to, dz55 31b33 siskin; titmouse, tu55 g55 sister (older), dz31pi55 sister (younger) (citation form), (31)3155 sister, elder (address; appellation), (dz31)pi55

291

292

appendix a

sisters son, s55dz31 sisters term for brother, p55dz55m31 sisters = younger sibling, t31n55 sisters, dz31 pi55 sit, go55n33 sit, dz33 sit (imp.), no55, o55 sit down, no33, o55; i31k55no33 sit up, ti5531 six, ku55, to53 (Lisu) sixteen, ti31 tsai55 ku55, ts31 to53 (Lisu) sixteenth day of lunar month, ti31ts55 ku55i33 sixth, 53u31ku55 sixth, ti35lu31 (Ch.) sixth early branch (snake), b3155 sixty, ku55 tsa55 skin diseases, s55po3131dz35 skin ulcers, scabies, da33 du55 skin, s55 po31 skin (cattle), sm31 skip, to, t35du31s31lm55s55 skirt; petticoat, 31m31 skull, l31pu55 d31 km55 skull-shaped block, l31pu55 d31km55 sky, heaven, mu55la31; mu55 slanting, d31 d31 (Lisu) slanting, leaning, di55ti53 slap, to, b31t5531i31u31 slaughter, to, sn55 (= kill) slaver, covet, tn5531 iu31 sleep-walk, m55 bi31 sleep, im55 (im55) sleep, cause to, i31im55; im55i; i55 mi31 sleep (of silkworm), bu31b315531 zu55s31 sleep on side, i55dzi31i55m33 sleep on stomach, mo31ni33y5531li31i55i31 sleep talk, m55bi31 = sleep walk sleep, take a nap, 313555nim55 sleep with back down, g31l55t31t31 i55m33 sleepwalk, m55bi31 sleepy, i55ti3153 sleeve, g31 l31 du55 sleeve, t55k31 sliced meat, 33l55 slices, buckwheat, po31 u55 s31 l31 slide, a, s31lu55dm55 slide, to, 31vi55

the anong lexicon

293

slide, a, 31v55 slide through, as oar through water, vi55 slide door, drawer, n31t55ti31u31 slide down a slide, s31lu5531 slide helper (rear), 31g35lu31 slide rope, m33-dm55 slide groove, di55ku55 sliding cable chain, 31l55 sliding weight in steelyard, 31 dm55 u55 slightly, somewhat, l55 slingshot, tan35ku55 slip, to, t53; t53 slip to one side, ku31k55in5531 slip away, t53 slippery, di31gu33 slippery, cause to be, s31-lu35 slope; slant, l31k35po53 sloppy = passable, 31ts55t55 slough off skin, tin53 slow cf. late, 3135 slow (walk), 31i35 (si31) slowly, gradually, 31i35 (31/si31) slowly, slow, sluggish, 31i55i5531 slurp, to, tim5531 sly, cunning, s31 s55 s31 slyly, ka31m55u31 smack ones lips, di31d31u31 small dike-like area surrounding the dugout area for cooking, m31 zm55 ku55l31 small, become, ti55la5531po55 small but conceited, di31pa31 small change; d31 x31 l55 tn31 small change, pu55 x31 (Lisu) small dishes of food, kn55tn31 small, ti55l55 small (of back), da55gu31 dim55 small (one), tn31 smallpox, n33do33 (Lisu) smash, break, 31xum53 smash, break, 3131 31 tm53 smash (bowl), k55 55; ga55 smash, cause to, s31 g55 smash, strike, break, ko31 o55 31 di31 mu55 smell (fishy), p31 m31lm3155 smell, to, p31 lm55u31 smell, sniff, p31lm55u31 smell, taste, lim31

294

appendix a

smelt (copper), i31g31u3 smelt (iron), tse31 smelt (iron), di31du31 smile, to, b31ni3131xi55 smoke (cigarette), tim53 smoke (cigarette), 31i31 smoke (fire), t31mi31 om55 smoke (oil), 31i31 smoke (cook), 31ki31u55 smoke tobacco, 3131 smoke, to, 31d31; 31d31 smooth, sn55 sn55 t31; s55 smooth, glossy, t55 smother (charcoal), d31t55 snail, b31n55 (Lisu) snake slough, b31tin55 snake, b31 snake, flying, dm31b31 snake, poisonous, b31t55 snap fingers, 31tim55 i31 pu55 snap (a thread), i31dn55 snap or break (stick), l55u31; p55l55u55 snap (thread, rope), 31dn55 sneeze, 31ti55 sneeze, 31kn55 snore, s31n55 5531 snot, im55 snow melts, ti31vn31 g55 31ni33 snow pea pod, do31tsi31 snow, frost, ice, ti31vn31 snow, to, ti31vn31 dz55 snow-capped, ti31vn31mu31gu55 so, e33li33 soak, fu35 soak, bubble, 31pm55 soak, flood, d55i31 soak, immerse, d55 u31 soak, steep (tea), m31tom44d53 soap, perfumed, i31ts55 (Ch.) soap, u55t31 soap, 31t55dn31dm55, ts31pi55io55 (Bs) soccer, 55 sm31 u55 social intercourse, ku31k55i31k55dz5531 socks, u31 ts55 (Ch.) soil, earth, 31s55 solar eclipse, nm31dz31g55 zm53 soldier, i31 (ti55 io53)

the anong lexicon

soldier, be or become a, i31u33s33 sole (foot), 31xa53pm55 solid, congealed, kan55 solidify, 31pn55 soft, 55 soft, 3131 solar eclipse, nm31 d31g55m53 sole of foot, a31 xa35 pm55 solid food, m31 dz55 solidify, 31pn55 some others, ku55 to31 m55 some, a few (ti55) b31m53, (ti55)b33 somebody, 31ts31, 31ts31t55 somersault, to, 31x55b5531ts31 sometimes, ti55so33 sometimes one way, sometimes another, ku55do55i55do55 son-in-law, m55 vu31 (Lisu) son; child, tn31, tn31p31 song, folksong, (m31 m55) t5531 (Lisu) song, mo33 gu33 (Lisu) sons daughter, p31l55 sons son, p31l55 sons and daughters, tn31 sooner or later, k55t31g55 soot (of a pan), d31ko55ni31h55 soot (of a pot), i31ku5531 sorceress, d3155 p31 (Lisu) sore (leg), du33 sorghum, de55si31 > d55 si31 sort out vegetables, b31si31u soul, spirit, p31 l31 sound, s55, xo3533s55 sound of a sheep baaing, m55m55u33 sound of fluttering, i315555u31 sound of goat, m55 m55 u31 sound of leaves falling, u31u31u33/55 sound of mud or rocks falling down mountain, ko31lo31ko31lo31u33 sound of mud flowing, do31 lo31 do31 lo31 u55 sound of running water, xu31xu31u55 sound of small gun, bo55 sound of wind or heavy sleeper, y55y55u33 sound of wind, y55y55u33 sound the gong, lo313131u31 soup, oil, 55 t31 soup, 31t31 soup bowl, small, kn55t31h55 soup bowl, big, kn55t31t55u31tm53

295

296

appendix a

soup, vegetable, kn33 t31 sour, m31tm55 ; make sour, pm31tm55 sour, m31tum55 sour, 31s55 sour, suan55tsu35 source, k31ne55, ne55 south, ti31 i55, ti31i55 south wind, ti31i55n31bu31 sow; plant, b31u55 sow (seeds), m31dz31i31, ba31u55 sow (seeds), i31kn53 sow (pig), o55 ma33 soy sauce, t35 i31 (Ch.) soybean juice, 31no55du31u55t31 soybean sprouts, 31no55s55 soybeans, 31no55 (= beans) space between the fingers, 31vu35pm55b55 space between the toes, i31tim55 ku31 spacious, roomy, u55 g31 spacious, ti55pi55 span from fingertip to fingertip of out stretched arms, (ti55)lm55 span from thumb to forefinger, b31t55 span from thumb to forefinger, m33 k33 span, arm-, clf., tn55 spark, t31mi55 ko31 i55 sparrow, gu31ku55 sparrow, k. of, b31tsn55 sparrow, l55dz33so55 (gu31ku55) sparrow, long-tailed, b31tu55 spatula (= pot shovel), d31 in55 31p55 speak, gn31 speak; talk, ti31zm33 speak; talk, ti31mu55 speak; talk, tim35; k55tim3155 speak sarcastically, m31 m31 i55 spear, long, m31g55 >m31 g55 special, particular, b31 31; 31bo3155 spells, curses, m55d31u31 spend money, d31x31dzom3153 sperm, semen, 31du55t31 spices, m31lim31(ma55) spicy, hot, si55 (31) spider web, di55 b35 31z55 spider, di55b35 spider, d31 b31 lim31 spider, long-legged, d31 b31 spider web, di31b31i31b55i31z55

the anong lexicon

spiked millet, d31i33 spin, 31n55 spin (thread, yarn), 55 u31 spinach, ku31du55 spine; backbone, d31 t31 m31 gu55 spine; backbone, 31gu31 t31 spinning wheel, t35 l31 spiral, circle around, xu31 u55 spiral, circle, wheel, xu31u55 > xu53 spirit; god; deity, g31m55 spirit, p31io53 spit; saliva, t55 spit (water), to, p31 spit, tim55 > tim33 spit, to, d55x55p31u31 spittoon, tm31p31dm55 splash, zm53 u31, sm55 u31 spleen, 31ti31 vn55, o31ti31vn55 split (bamboo pole), po55o55 split (bamboo strips), k5531o31 split firewood, 31ti33 split in two (e.g., bamboo strips), tm53 split open (wall), g55 d3, dzi5531 (fissure) split open, 31tin33 u33 split open, rend, 31bn31dzi55 split, burst, to55d55 split, chop, s31mo31 split, chop, 31ti53i33; ti35 split, divide, 31i55 p31 spoiled (rice), s31 i35 sponge iron, 31k55dim31 spoon, 31p55, 31p55 spoon, wooden, m55 dim31 spray (liquid), 31t31 sprinkle, fall down, ba31u55 sprout (ear of grain), 31nm55 31lin55 spread; unfold, ka31u31 spread (paint), 3135 spread out (grain), di31pu53 spread; extend; unfold, pu31lu55 spread, to, ka31u31 spring water, t3135bo55t31 spring, hot, ti31lim55u31 sprinkle, (31g55di3133)ka31u31 sprinkle, fall down, ba31u55 sprout, germinate, l55 31nu31 sprout, germinate, l31 su31 i31

297

298

appendix a

sprout, germinate, 31m55; m31 spurt, 31tu31u31 square (desk, table), b31 t55 squat, tso55 tso33 nu53, go55no33li33 squat, tso55tso33no33 squeeze in, b31lin55b31 squeeze out, do313155 squeeze, to, 31d31u squeeze, to, 31do31 squid, u35 squint, t55m35 squirrel, ground; suslik, ku31 m55 squirrel, ts3155, ta55xom31/t55xom31, t55xom33t55xom33/t55xom33 stab, pierce, b31x55i55u31 stable (for horses), ma31pm55zu55 stable (for horses), ma31 d31 xm35 staircase, ladder to roof, go33 z/55 stairs (wooden), go33 z55 stairs (stone steps), lu55o33z55 stalk, stem, 31dz55 stallion, ma31 gu55 stammerer; stutterer, k55 3131 stamp, a, i31piu35 stamp, a seal, b31 31d55 dm55 stamp (ones foot), 31dim53 stand, som31 55, zom55 stand on ceremony, 5531 stand up, d3131som3155 stand; rest, s31om31(55) stand; rise, ti3155 star, ko31i55 starch, s55l31 stare, d31lin55 start, to, xu55di33dz31u31 start a rumor, po5533 start or drive a car, s55ni33o31 start on a journey, tin313531 start serving a banquet, kn55t3153u31 startle, disturb, to31n53 state, public side, 3155 b33 stationary, 31u53dm55s53v31 stative (Hold this!), ni33 stative particle, 31 stay at inn = sleep, im55 stay, no33, no31i55 (overnight) steady, reliable, 5555 > 31 55 steal (money), k33

the anong lexicon

steam (bun), s31m31 steam-cage, b31i55 steam, water vapor, t31 35 s55 steamboat, ts31po31 (Burmese) steamed buckwheat, po31 u55 l55 steamed bun, 3131p55 steamed stuffed bun, pu55ts33 (Ch.) steamer for food, b31i55(pu31lu31dm55) steel for flint, xo31 bi31 steel, 31 k55 gm55 steel making, 31 k55 i31 g31 steelyard sliding weights, 31dm55 u55 steelyard weight marks, 31 i55lu55 steelyard, large, i53dm55u55d31 steelyard, i31dm55 steelyard, small, i53dm55tn31 steep, d31t31; d31tn31 step on, k55 55 step on, trample, 53 step over, across, 55bn35, 55b35 steps, flight of, p31 z55 gm55 stern, 31s31 i55 tu55 stepfather, 31p31 stepmother (both terms), 31m31 steps (flight of), p31 z55 gm55 stern (boat); rudder, 31s31 i55tu55 stew (congee), kin53 stew, to, 31ko55kin53 stick down (envelope), 31ga53 stick out tongue, p31l31tu5531 stick, a, a31tu31 stick, to, 31ma55u55 sticks, poles, guns, ko55 sticky, glutinous, 31ga53 stiff or numb (freeze), 53u31 still, t31 sting (bee), to, m33 55 sting, to, bu31b31l55 sting (bee), s31l55 stop (of rain), nm31ts55 stir-fried noodles, d31 bo55 u55 t31 stir-fry (vegetables), p31 u31 stir-fry = cook, kin53 stir, mix, 31mn53 stirrups, 31x35 55 dm55 stock (bow), ku55 stomach, n31pm55

299

300

appendix a

stomach, abdomen, p31in31 stomach, belly, p53; p33 dim55 stone, rock, (31)lu55, o31 lu55 stone mortar, d31p31 pu55 stone steps, lu55p31z55gm55 stool and bench, t55ts31 > t55ts31 (Lisu) stoop, to, to55gu55 stop breathing (die), s55dn55 stop the flow of water, t315531 stop the flow of water, b55u31 stop (wind), di31 g55, g55n33 stop up (hole), 3131 u31, 31 u31 stop; suspend, dzn55 di3133, di31 55 stop, to, t33o33 stop, call off, dzn55di31 33 stop, call off, di31 55 store (grain), 31kom35 storehouse, m31dz31tim31 storey, ti55ts55 storey, i31lim33 storey (building), l31 b55 story, tale, m31 sn55 stove; kitchen, lo35tso31 (Ch.) stove; kitchen, t31mi55dom31 stove, p31i31 straddle, 31ta5531 straddle, 55bn31 straight, tu35, tu53, tu31 straight, du55du31 straight, d31d31 straight, upright, tu35tu31 straightforward, honest, frank, 31ts31du55 straighten collar, u31 lu35 strain away liquid, di31tim31 strain away solid, 31i55d31 strain; filter (by dripping), 31i55d31 strainer, colander, i31u31 strand, s5531 strange, 55g3131 strange, odd, 55g31u31 stranger, m31so55m5531ts31 strangle, 31x55mi53du31t55 strap (for carrying a baby), bu31lu31 strap (for carrying a baby), ta55pa53 straw, in33ga55 straw bundles, l55 straw hat, s31ko55

the anong lexicon

straw, rice, d31 i33 l55 straw sandals, s55 pi55 t33 i33 street, d55ti31z31 streetcar stop, tn55tim31di31g55z55 strength, a33z55 strength, s55 (315531) stretch back, i55z31 k55 du33 31 stretch (when yawning), li31d55 stretch downward, to, i31 k55 du33 31 stretch forward, m55 u31 k55 du33 31, du33 stetch (hand), n55 stretch out, stick out, du5531 stretch out hand, dzu31i55 stride forward, 31t55 (31) strike (match), 3131u55 strike (table), 3131 u31 strike, knock, m53 strike, hit, bi31 ti55, vn35 strike, hit, attack, bi31ti55 string, t31n31l31pu55 string button (bow), t31n55 p55 string (of beads), (ti55)k31lim55 string instrument, hi55 ha31 b55 stringed instrument, hi55ha31 strip desk, t55 ts31 to31 ts55 stroll, walk, 31vu33d35 strong (very), s55 315531, t33 strong, durable, o5531 strong, durable, tom55 strong, s55 3155 strong, z31g31s31l5531 struck by lightning, mo55x55l55d35ni33 stubborn, 31tsom53du53n31lin31 stuck, cause to be, s31g55(older speakers) > g55/k55 (younger speakers) student; pupil, tn33su55 study, learn, tn31, cye31i31 (Ch.) study, to, s31z31u31 stuff; stop up, u31i31; cye31i31 stuffy, (im31d53) pm35 stumble, 31x31 lam55 stump, pole, ti31 z55, xm55 gu31 stupid, dumb, 31ts55 stupid and ignorant, 31ts5531ts31 stutterer, stammer, k55 3131 subdue, to, k31m3131na31u31 submerge, to, t3155u5531 to31/to31 subtract, to, b31 k31

301

302

appendix a

subtract, to, lu31 substitute, cf. take place of, o55du3 suceed, d53 succeed, 31du3133; 55du31d35 success, do31 such a, what a, i55d55 suck (milk), tim5531 suck in nose mucus, im55tim53 suck ones fingers, to, tim5531 suck, to, s55i33mu55 suckle, nurse, 31tu55d55m55 sudden shower with the sun shining, x55dzo31 suddenly, abruptly, ti55 su31 li55 suddenly, ti33dm55di33 sue, k55 31ko55 suffer losses in business, 31dzn55 sugar, crystal, pin55 ta31 (Ch.) sugar, ku55ti31 sugar, y55d31 sugar, white, y55 d31 pn55 (Lisu) sugar, white, p31 ta31 (Ch.) sugarcane (liquid), m55 t55; m55t55t31 suitable, appropriate, 31u3155, 31du33 suitcase, 55sm31k35i summer, 31k55d31gm53 summer (hot weather), m31/33u31 summon, g55u31io35 sun (clothes), lm55 sun comes out, ts53 (cf. rises) sun, nm31 sunbathe, lim55 Sunday, di31y55i33 sunflower, o55 b35; o55b53 (Lisu) sunken,dented, 55di3155, ko55ko31o31 sunlight, nm55 sunlight, sunshine, nm31b55 sunrise, nm31ts53 31 ni33; nm31ts53ni33 sunset, d55zom31 supplicative (sup), l55, lie31 suppress, repress, xm55 d31 surface of water, t3153 53 supper; dinner, 3155 k55 pi31 support somebody, an53 support with hand, l55ku31 support, raise, di31kom31li3331ku33 surname; be surnamed, t55 surpass, exceed, 31dzn55, li53 b33

the anong lexicon

surrender, to, l31pu55 tim31 i55 surrender, to, l31pu55tim3155 surround, to55 surround, to55ni33u31b55to55z44 surround, tu55ni33u31du55 suspension bridge, 31tu55go31za55 swallow (bird), m55 d31 f55 swallow, to, (go55)m53u31 swallow (dry), to, fi33 swamp, di55dm31 swan, o55 swat a fly, b31som553131 sway, swing, 31l5531 sway, not steady, 31m55 sway, to, 31l55 31, 31gi31 li33 (rock) swear, curse (at people), 5531 sweat, perspire, in55 in55 n31 sweat (n.) (v.), in55 sweater, woolen, 31b55 min55 g31 m31 sweep floor, di31 kin31 u31, ti31 u31 sweep the grave, to, da31gm31d53u31 sweep the chimney, 31go31lu55 sweet, k53 swell (tissue), g55 > g33 swill; pig feed, o55 dz33 swim, to, l31 > l31 swimming bladder, u55d33b55 swollen, g55 swing, a, b55l31 swing, sway, 31tu55 swing, to, b55l31tu3131 swing-to-and-fro, 55m3155 syphilis, gm31 lu31 system, v31/35 table leg, t55 ts31 31xa35, to31ts55 31xa35 table, desk, s31l55 (Lisu) table, t55ts31; -t55ts55; t55ts/31-; t55 ts31 tablet; pill, 55 ts31 l55 (Lisu) taboo, m31gm55 tadpole, n33 ga55 tn31 tael = 50 grams, measure word, ti31lu55 taels of liquor, two, 31i55lu5531 tail, bird, t55 i33tu55 tail, fish, u33 i33tu55 tail, horse, ma31 i33tu55 tail, i31/33tu55, 31i55tu55

303

304

appendix a

tailor; dressmaker, g31m31p55su55 take a beating, 31e35 tm53 take a ferry, 31s31dz5531 take a husband, di31tu55u31 take a husband, s31l35 take a picture, di3131d55u31 take a step, 55bn35 take a test, ku5555 take a wife, do31ku31m55u31s31 take an oath, m31dn5531 > m31d31u take apart (cloth), open, p55 u31 take apart, p31d5531 take away, a55 31bo33 take care of; be careful, p31 55 31 take care of; be careful, p31d5531 take cooked rice out of pot and put into a bowl, km53 take in fingers, 31tu31 take liberties with a woman, k31 m55 i31 mi31 take medicine = eat, n55ts31m55 take note of, pay attention to, 31km35 take off (clothes), (u55)ti31 55, tin55 take out (water); pump (water), n31; n31 take out, 31s55 take place of, 31d31 take the opportunity, i555531 take toward, 55 31 io33 take turns, 31ti5531 take, a55, l55; u53 (imperative) take root, 31z33 31lin55 take with hand, i55tin55 taken aback, stare blankly, p31z55 talk to ones self, 31lu55 31b31 tall person, u55 to55 m31 tamp (ground), ram, pound, 31dz31 u31 tan (hide), to, 31na31 tan, to, 55 sm31 31na31 u31 tangerine, z31m55t55 tapioca, m31tia35lu55 tares, to55ba55 target, di31 dz33 dm55 taro; sweet potato, ku31 du55 tart, pa55 tartar, 31s31i55 tassel; fringe, nm55 taste (a bite), di31dz31u31 > di31dz31 (u31) taste bitter (in the mouth), m55du31k33(55) tasty = fragrant, p31 lm31

the anong lexicon

305

tattered, run down, 31ma55 taxes, 31dzn55, sue55 (Ch.) tea cakes, l31t55 l55 tea leaves (pressed in a bowl shape, produced in Yunnan), l31t55 pn55 tea plant, l31 t55 dz55 tea tray, kn33 b55 tea, l31t55 tea house, ts31k5555z55 tea leaves shop, ts31x55vn55z55 tea snack, l31t555 teach, educate, learn, s31lam55u31, t35io31 (Ch.) teach, to, s31 lm55 (u31) teacher, s31lm55 su55 team or line of people or animals, ti55z53 teapot, t31 fu31 (Ch.) tear, to, to55 a55 tear, rip (paper), s53u31 > u53 tears, p33 tease (child), 31li31 u55 tease, play with a child, t55m5531xi5531du55u telephone, a, tin55xu55 telephone, to, tin55xu5555i31u31 television, tian3535ti55 tell a lie, im35 tell a story, m31sn31 tell a story, 31km35 tell fortune, so53 33 tell fortune, 31i33di31xn55 tell tales, k55tn31 tell, to, i31 in53 u31 temper, 35 temper, to, tse31 temporal (temp), t35, g55t35 temple, 3131 tim31 temple, p31i55tim31 (spirit+house) temple, dz55dz33lu55 temple curator, 33du33su55 temples, 31n31 tu55 temporarily, dz31dzu55 temporary bridge, go31za55(o31mn31za) ten thousand, (ti55)m31 ten, (ti55)tsa55; tsai55; ts55 (Lisu) ten cents, dime, i35to31 ten feet (measure word), i31ts35 ten odd, ti31tsa55 31 ten thousand, ti55m31 ten thousand, ti31 kn55

306

appendix a

tend cattle, i313131t31 tend ducks, i3155k31u31 tend pigs, o55k31u31 tender (vegetables), u55, o55 o55 tender, young, dn55 tendon, nerve, vein, d31gu31 tenon (on crossbow), t31n55 tso35 tense, tight, taut, 31di31t55 tent, 31v55 tent or shed set up for plays, ts35i3531v55 tenth, ti35s31 tenth, 53u31ti31tsa55 tenth earthly branch (chicken), k5533 terminative, 31pi55 terrace, nm31lim55z55dzu55tim31 terrible, p31z5531 testicles, k55lim31 testicles; penis, ti55lim31 thank, 55 mo33, l3131go35 that end, ku33t33k55 that kind of, n55 to31 m53 that reason, ku33 t33 k55, n55 tn55 that side, n55k31, ku31k55 that way, ku33 io55 (far), n33 (io55) (remote) that, ku55 (far), n55 (near) that (up there), n55 that (down there), i55 that (over there), o55 that way (far and near), n31io55 that way (far and near), ku33io55 that (yonder), ku55 thatch rushes, 33d31 thatched hay shed, 31d31 31 v55 tatched storehouse, 31di31tim31 the limit, dzn53 the more . . . the more . . ., l31xu55 . . . l31xu55 . . . theater, a, i35d53z55 theirs, 3155k31 then, g33t35, m31d35, m31d33 then and only then, t33 then and only then, ti31 there, n55 k31gm55, o55 there, n55k31 there, gm55 there are (people), have, no33 there is a fire, t31mi5531in5531ni33 there is a storm, n31bu31b3131fin55

the anong lexicon

therefore, o33to31l53 therefore, then, li31 these, i55 m53 they, 3155 they (two), 3155si31 they (two); both of them, 3155si31; 3155si31 thick (bamboo pole), u55 lom33 thick (book), (u55)ta55 thick (grove), 31pu55 thick (soup), dense, 55 thick (soup), ka55 thick, 31k55i55 thick, t35 -v thick, wide, 31t55t55 thief, petty, k53su55 thigh, pn33 cf. leg thigh bone, femur, pn55du55 thimble, in31 tim55 dim55 dm55 thimble, to put on a, in31tim55 g3155 thin (book, child), b35 b31 tn31; b35; very thin, b35b31 thin (in diameter), fine, tiny, u35t31 thin (in diameter), ti55s33 thin (grove), watery, ga3155 thin (person), di315531, d31z5531 thin (soup), gu55 li55 t55 di3131 thin (soup), bm55 thin person, d31 z5531 thin (pole), ti55s33 thin and small, tn31g35tn31 thin and small, di31z55g31di31z55 thin bamboo strip, 31lm31 thin vermicelli that has been hung to dry, 31z31u55t31pn55 thin; (body) get thinner, di31z55; 55 thing, nn33 thing, affair, matter, k55 think, remember, tsom55i53; tsom53 think, think about, tsom55, 31 think aloud; talk to ones self, 31lu5531b31 third, k31p5531som53, ti35 s55 (Ch.), s55m33ti31m33 (Lisu) third, 53u31som31 third day of lunar month, s31 l55 sm33 i55 third earthly branch (tiger), 31k3155 thirst, t3155za3155 thirsty, z31 a55 thirteen, ti55 tsai55 som53, ts31 s55 (Lisu) thirtieth day of lunar calendar, sm31 ts55 i33 thirty, 31som31 tsa55

307

308

appendix a

this condition, i55 i31 31 this end, t33k55 this end, n551tn55 this end, i31tn55 this item, thing, i55i3131 this kind of, i55 to33 m53 this much, i31io55 this period of time, i55 s55 31 this reason, t33 k55, i31 tan55 this side, i31k55 this way, i55 io55 this, i55, i31; ia55, i55 thistles, thorns; brambles, b55 x55 thorn of flesh, e.g. like the little piece of flesh that sometimes sticks out at the side of ones fingers, xu55dz53 thorough cleaning, 31d55di31kin31 those, ku55to31 m53 (far) those, n33io55 those (far and near), n55to31 m53 those (far and near), ku55to31 m53 thousand (1000), (ti55)tu31, j55, ti31 tu55 (Lisu) thousand, 31kn55 thrashing ground, m31dz31tm55 z55 thread for spinning, 55u31 thread needle, to, 55; 53u31 thread, woolen, 55min31b55 thread, b55, um55 z33; vm55z33 threaten, p31 z55 u3133 three days ago, u55 u31 i55 three days hence, i55 z31 i55, ti55 s31 i55 three years ago, t31 t55 55 three years from now, u55 u31 55 three, 31som53, s55 (Lisu) thresh (grain), 3131(31) thresh grain, tm55 u31 threshold, l31t55 kum31, n31t55 kom33 thrifty, te31io31 throat, l33 k55 ku31 through, open (road), tu55 throw (dice), i31 pu55 throw, cast (dice), vm53 throw away, i55 to31, to31 through away thrash, 55tn31tso53 throw backward, i55z31 k55 to31 throw forward, m55 u31 k55 to31 throw ones chest out, h5531 throw out (from), i31 k55 to31 io55

the anong lexicon

throw out (to), to31 31bo55 throw out (toward speaker), i31k55to31 io55 throw (rock), 31p53u31 throw (rock), i55 to31 throw upon, n31 k55 to31 throw upward, n31 k55 to31 throw, to, to31; to31; to31 throw, to, vm53 thumb, 31p31 m33 thumb, to, (ti55)b31t55 thumb, to, m31k33 trumpet, bu31lu55 (Lisu) thunder, mu55 da55; mo55da Tibetan language, k35 dzu55 55 v31 Tibetan language, k35dzu55 k55 Tibetans, k35 dzu55 (Lisu) tick, 55b33 ticket, piu35 (Ch.) tide ebbs, t31m31bn53 tide rises, t31m31b31 tidy, neat, ta55 ta55 tie, to, fu31 tie up cow, fa31u31 > fu31, k55v31u31 tie (shoe laces), nm31 tie up, bind, t55u tie up, bind, b31u31 tie waistband, m55(dm55nm31) tiger, 31k31 tight (bind tightly), (di31)t55 tighten, ln35li33 tightly woven, 31pu5555 tile, brick, u31 l31 b31 (Lisu) tiled, slanting, l55d31ni33t31d35 timber; lumber, 55 gu31 time (duration), o55t31 time, duration, (31)31 t31, t33b33 times (repetitions), number + -k55 times (repetitions), number + -fu55 (Lisu) times (repetitions), ti55d31 timid, cowardly, im31 ti55 l55 timid, cowardly, 31d31k55tn31 tin, ts31 (Lisu) tinder, xo31 bi31 s55 tinker, mend, di31ti35i55 tip of a file, b31tsu53 tired, fatigued, 31xu55 titmouse tu55g55

309

310

appendix a

tobacco ashes, 31i31 om55 tobacco leaves, cured, 31i31 m55 tobacco pipe, bowl, bag, la31k55 tobacco seeds, 31i31 i55 today, this day, d55 i33 toe nail, a31xa35 in33 toe, tip of, 31tim55 l31pu55 toe, a31xa35 i31 tim55, 31tin55 toes, 31xa53i31tim55 together, in the same place, d31si55, d33si55, t31si55 toilet paper, i31si55in31dm55 toilet, i55 i55 tim31 tomato, b31ki55lu55 tomorrow evening, 31p55 i31 55 k55 tomorrow morning, 31p55s31 tomorrow, 31p55 i31 tongue root, p31 l31 t33 tongue tip, p31 l31 l31pu55 tongue, p31l31, l55, 55 tonight, d5555k55 too late, m3135d31 too, excessively, -bm31 too, excessively, u55d31 tool; instrument, l31 m55 u33 nn33 tooth joint, 31s31 m31 dz31 tooth paste, i31 ku55 (Ch.) tooth root, 31s31 t33 tooth, canine, d31 g55 31s31 tooth, front; incisor, m55 u31 k55 31s31 tooth, lower, k31 p55 31s31 tooth, shu55 > 31s31 tooth, upper, k31 t55 31s31 toothbrush, 31s31 dn55 (dm55) toothpick, 31s31i55ko31lo31dm55 top of head, l31pu55ko31n55/n55 top, 55 topple, tear down (e.g., a wall), p31n33do31 torch, t31 mi55 dom31/dum31 torn (clothes), ga55 d35 tortoise, vu55kui55 (Ch.) total = together, 31d55 touch, n55 toward, facing, b31 toward, facing, k31 towel, in55im33dm55 town people, dz55du5531ts31 town; city, d55

the anong lexicon

township, 31ts31dzu33li31u31 township, 55 toy, a, 31hi55dm55 tracks, p31z55 tracks, to follow, di31tn35 tracoma, i55lu55b31si31 trade; barter, 31ti31 train, m33t33 (Burmese) train, to, tn3131d55u31 transfer; move, tiau35 transient reviving of dying, m55dz31du55 translator, k55i31tim55su55 transport, to, 31ti55u31 transport; donate, m 31do31 trash, 55tn31(s55dm55) travel, to, 55kin31do55 traveller, ti31z31dz55su55 travelling expenses, ti31z31dz55ti31p55 tray; plate, b55; kn55b55 tread, stamp feet, k5555/55 tree fork, 55di31ku55 tree name, ko33bu55, di3155, tree name, lim31, ba33ia55gu31, b33i55gu31 tree root, 55tim33, 31vn55 l55 tree seedlings, 55i31 tree shade, 55di31g55u31 tree trunk, 55 gu31 tree, flower, 55vn55 tree, 55dz55 tree, winter melon, s31m33 triangular, som31 t31 du55 tripe = pig stomach, p33 tripod, d31t55 (of metal), i33gu55 (of stone) troublesome, inconvenient, di31 35 trough (pig feeding), o55 di31 ku31 trough, groove, m31du31d31, tsau55kau55 (Ch.) trough, round wooden, 55 di31 ku31 trouser legs, 33 ma55 du55 trouser seat, 33du55 trousers belt, m33 dm55 trousers, pants, 33 ma55 truant, be, 55v31m31tn35in55d35 truce, k55u31du31 true (speak truthfully), t55 si31 di55 true, i53 true; really, si31di55 trumpet, a, k55u31du31

311

312

appendix a

trumpet, a, s55l55 Trung language, du31 lu31 k55 trunk (elephant), mo33 g33 s31 na55 trunk of body, ti55 z55g31 try hard, b3131man5531 try hard, 31 s55 d31 55, nu55li33 (Ch.) try, attempt, di31dzu31 try, 3131 tube for blowing on a fire, t31 mi55 31pu55 dm55 tube, 31d31 tuber (root), i31t55 tuber, k. of, bi3135di31 tuber, k. of, bi31pa31 tuber, k. of, b31l33go53 tuber, k. of, ku31du55 tuber, k. of, ku31du55tn31 tuber, k. of, mi31la55da55 tuber, k. of, m31nm31 tubers, i31ua31g55 tuck under arm, gu31lu55p3131tu31 tuition, tn55di31p55 tumor, small, d31 m55 tn31, b31 sum55 du31 tumor, swelling, d31du55 turban; scarf, l31pu35xu55dm55; l31pu35xu55 turn (body), (dz31 g31)po31 55 turn (cause to), 31xu5531 turn (head), po31 33 turn (round and round), 31xu55ni33 turn a corner, go31 l55 turn a door handle, xu53u31 turn a screw, xu31o55 turn around (the head), l31pu55xu3155 turn bad, spoil, 31ma55 31po55 turn head, po31 33 turn inside out; reverse, p55tn33po3155 turn off (light) = kill, sn53 turn off (water), t31u31 turn on (water), lim33 turn on (water), s31 l31 u31 turn on light, to light, f31u31 > f31u31 turn ones head, l31pu55po3155 turn or lift (to open), po33o55 turn over (body), po31 i55 turn over (food), 31n3155 turn over (on bed), z31g31po3355 turn red, tsa35 si55 31po55 turn the page, 55v31ti55p55 ti55p5531u31

the anong lexicon

turnip; radish tuber, l/i31 tsu31di31pu31 turtle, tortoise, (vu55)kui55 turtledove, d31f55; d31f55 tusk, mo33g33 31s31 tweezers = baby pinchers, m55m55tn31 twelfth lunar month, 3155s31l55 twelve, ti31tsai55i55, ts55i31 (Lisu) twentieth day of lunar month, 31i33 ts55 i33 twenty-one, 31i55 tsai55 ti31 twenty, 31i55 tsa55, i31 ts55 (Lisu) twice as much; many, ti31tu55 twin, i55dzi55 twinkle, to, ti31lm31 twist (leg), xu55 u31 twist (rope), 55 u31 55 u31, 55 twist (towel), di31tim31 twist in (screw), tin53 twist with fingers, so31 mu31 (feel, stroke), 55 u31 twist, sprain, ti31o55 twist, wring (towel), d31tim31 two hands (of rice), mo33gu53 > m31gu53 two- to four-stringed instrument, hi55 ha31 two-string bow instrument, hi55 ha31 two-times (roughly); about twice, ti31fu5553 two, 31i55, s55 (Lisu) udder (of cow, goat), 31tu55 l31 pu55 ugly, m31nm55 understand a language (can), to33so53 understand a language (cannot), to33m31so53 umbilical cord, bn33 tu55 ti33 umbrella, ko35di31 (Lisu), mo55pn55 umbrella frame, mo55pn55l55 unceasingly; continuously, m31tn55 u33 uncle; fathers younger brother, 31u31 uncle; husband of fathers sister, 31vu31 uncle; mothers brother, 31ben33 uncle, o55p31 underarm hair, gu31lu55min33 undershirt, in55 g31 m31 understand, 3131 d5531 undertand, take in aurally, so53 (31b35) underwear, in55g31m31 undress, to, (u55)tin3155 unfamiliar, m31so53m53 unfortunate, m31pa55 uniform, military, i31 g31 m31; h31 g31 m31

313

314

appendix a

unimportant, m31do55 unit of length, ti31d55 unitary, i35i31 unite; rally, 31d31 di55 unlined garment, ti55 i31 lim33 unlucky, m31 u31 d31 unlucky, 31m31to55 unmarried woman, s31l55z55 unmovingly, m31n55 u33 unoccupied house, tim31d31g55 unpack luggage, nn55pn53 unseam (clothing), p53 untidy (person), s31l31nm55mm 31t55 untie (person), gu53 untie (rope), p55 u31 untie, loosen SEE come loose untie; undo, pn55no31 until (time) (e.g., Until I came . . .), 31 . . . upbraid, to, p31z55u31 upper arm, (31vu35)ti31i55 upper back, da55gu31 55 upper course of a river, n55k55 upper garment, n55tn55gu31dm55 upper lip, k31t55 i55 bu31 upper part of body, n55k55tn55 31ta55ta55 upper reaches of river, to31 u31 n55 k55 upper storey, l31b55 5 upper tooth, k31t55 31s31 upside down, dim31di3131 upside down, reverse, po31 o55 upstairs, l31 b55 55 urge, hurry, speed, dz31dz55gn31 urgent, do55 urinary bladder, 31b55 pu31 urinate, 53 dn5531 urine, 5531 use, to, use; cause to use, dzom31 55, dzom31 m55 use, to, dzom31dm55 use or lean on (a walking stick), di31z31; di31z31s53 used to, i31 useless, dzom53 m3135 uterus; womb, 31tn31 d31 uvula, p31l31tn31 vaccinate against smallpox, n55 do55 31 u31 valley, ravine, k33l33 ku31

the anong lexicon

valley (mountain), 31p55 varnish tree, d31k55 vase, 55vn55du55 vegetable bed, kn31ti55t31; 31t31 vegetable soup, kn55t31 vegetable tray, kn33b55 vegetables, greens, kn55 village, dzu53 village name, ua55s5535 vegetable, kn55 vegetable soup, kn55t31 vegetables (dish), kn33 vegetable dish, kn55b55 (1/2 Ch.) vehicle, small, tan55 tim31 vehicle, small, l31t31 vehicle, small (car), mo55do55ti31z31 verdigris, d31kiu53, d31l53 vertical, upright, (53)d55 very (small), b3131, 31 very; most, 31k5531k55; 31k55 (Lisu) vest; sleeveless garment, gu31 dim55 dm55 victorious, do33d35 victory; triumph, do31 village, stockaded, dzu53 village, 55 vine, ti31 31 b55 vinegar, suan55 tsu35 (Ch.) violate, breach, e31fn53 violate the law, fn35f31 viper; poisonous snake, b31 t55 virgin land, t31 31 visit; tour, ts55ku55 (Ch.) visit doctor, i55s55d55u31 visitor; guest, m31nm35 voice, sound, s55 voluntarily, 31lo553155 vomit (noun), du5531n33 vomit, to, 5531 vow, swear vow, m31d31 u31 voluntarily, 31lo553155 vulture, ti31 m31 d31 vulva, l31 bi55 wade, to, t31 55 33 wag tail, i33tu55 xu31 s55 wage war, 31vm5531 wages, pay, 55 di31 p35

315

316

appendix a

waist, s53dm55 waist of trousers, p33 du55 waist, 31 t31, p31dim55 waist, s53dm55 waist belt, 55m55dm55 wait a second, hang on, 31d33 wait, expect, t31 u31 wake up; become sober, 31s55 walk (on foot), dz53 walk tiptoe, 31i35531dz55 walking stick, d3131(55) wall, enclosing, o55 wall enclosing house, d31 xm35 wall seam, d35 t55 wall, d35 t31 walnut, b31i55 walnut, b31 ko33 wane, recede, 31im55 want, need, o31, v53 want, like, 55, 31 want (to go), dz55mm 313135 war, fight, scuffle, 31sun55 ward off, t5531 warehouse, storehouse, m31 dz31 tim31 warm (weather), lim3155 warm, im5531; sm55 bu31 warm, roast, bake, di31g53u warm by fire, t31mi55 im55 31; lim55 warm up left-overs, 31ki31u55 warn, s31 u55 warp, ia31 55 (Lisu) warp raising stick, m55 d31 wart, d31 dn55 wash (water), m55z5531b55 wash, di31kin31dn53ts31 wash; bathe, z31g31dn5331 wash (clothes), dn55 (u31) wash (clothes), g31m31 dn53 wash clothes once, t3155k31 m55u31d53 wash face, ma55dn3131 wash feet, 31xa55dn55 wash floor, l55d55dn53 wash rice, di3155ta55dn53 washbasin, ma55dn31dm55 washcloth, ma55in31dm55 wasp, mu31ku31m55vi33 wasp, p31i55ku55

the anong lexicon

wasp, black, m35dz31 waste, to, l35 fei35 (Ch.) waste (grain), u53 waste money, d31x3131 ts55ts55s31m53u31 waste time, loaf, t55m55di31p55d53u31 watch, a, n31li31 watch, a, g31d31 watch (children), d53u31 watch a movie, tin35i55d53u31 watch a play, i35d53u3 watch dog, tim31 t55 d31g55 watch fire, 31gu5331ni33 watch; guard, n31t55ti31u watch the coffin, 31ts31m31t31u water (clear), t3135 x31 water (flowing), t3155 water (green), mi31l55d55 water (rice), di3155dn55 t31 water (sediment), to55 mn55 water boiling, ti31 lim33; t3135 x31 water buffalo, 31li31 water drawing, t3155b31tu31 water pot, t31 35 55 dm55 water spirit, t31 55 p31i33 water tap, t3135 55 dm55 water vat, t3135 55 dm55 water, boiling, 31su31 water, cloudy, to31mn55; to55 mn55 water, muddy, t3135 km3131 water, spring, t3135bo55t31 water, sprinkle, 31nn53 water, to, 31tm53 waterfall, t31 d55 watermelon, gu31tu55 waterstone, l31t55 wave, beckon, 31ti31v55 wave (hand), xu31 33 wave (water), di31k55 way, means, pan55 f31 (Ch.) we (inclusive), 31i35 we (plural), 31i55 we two, the two of us, n31 so31 (31i55 si31)31so31 we all, all of us, 3155 weak, debilitated, in poor health, s55 m3133 weak, s55 b33, 55 weaknesses, m31a33z55 wean, 31t55ku53u31

317

318

appendix a

weapon; arms, 31sn55 nn33 wear (clothes), gu31, 55gu31 wear (clothes), gu31 55 li31 wear (hat), m3155 wear (hat), d31mo55mo35o55 wear jewelry, 31b5531 wear (shoes), g31 wear, 35(u31), i35 wear horizontally, ln53 weasel, di31su55, t31v31 weather, mu55 weave (cloth), zan33 u31, an33, zn53 weave (rice winnowing basket), bn55 weavers shuttle, mi55gin31 wedding, i35pu31p31 wedding day, 31i31tin55 wedding dance, 31ts31 (fast dance) wedding feast, vi55o5531 wedge, peg, g31 s55 weed, to, k31 weed (grass), ke31u31 weed, to, bin53 weft, ia31 po55 weigh, to, ts31 weigh (food), to, i31u31 weigh less than, t55im31i31u31 weigh less than, 31i55m31lu55 weigh more than, u55m31i31u31 weight (1/2 gram), clf., 55 weight (100 grams), clf., gm55 weight (for grain; 1 decaliter), clf., d55 Weixi, 31dz55 welcome, greet, so33 m31 go33, xu55 i31 (Ch.) welcomed, be, ko55u55 weld, solder, x35 welding; soldering, i31mu33, li31mu33 well (n.), t3135 t31 om55 well trap, 31dim33 dm55 well water, t31a35bu5555; t31a53 bo55 z55 well, a, t3153t31 well; comfortable, s55 31 well; healthy, 31m55 well; healthy, s31l55m55u31li31 west, nm31 dim55 ku31 west, i31t55 west wind, nm31dim55 n31bu31 western-style house, n33tu55tim31

the anong lexicon

wet (clothes), dzm55 wet nurse, 31tu55o31m31 what? what kind? k55 t31 What day is it? (date), s31l55k55d55i33 what kind? what? k55 31 what time? k55t33, h55s55 n31 What time is it? k55d55dm55 what, k55 t31 Whats to be done? k31 i55 u31 m55 wheat (regular), a31a31 l55 z55, 3131 wheat, zu53 wheat, a31a31 wheat (buck), bitter, gu31k55 wheat (buck), u31k31 wheat (buck), po31u55 wheat bran, h55tn31; ti55 wheat flour, 3131 u55 t31, 5555u55t31 wheat husk, ti55 wheat root, a31a31 tm55 wheat straw, a31a31l 55z55 wheel, i55 li31 li31, l33 t31 when? k55t33 when? k55s55 when? h55s55 n31 when (time), s5531 when, at the time, o55t31 where, k55lu31 where? which side? k55 k31, k55b31; n55k31 where?, k5531; k55k31; k55b31 whet (knife), hu31 which (plural), k55 to31 m53 which (one), k31 lu55; k55k31 while away time, 31i55li53 bo31o31du35 whip, ma31 ka33 dm55 whip, to, di31xu53 whip mark, i55bu31d31 whip, thrash, di31xu53 whirl (of wind), n31bu31mi55z55u31b33 whirlpool, eddy, i55tu33 (Lisu) whirlpool, eddy, t31 55 31xu55 whirlwind, n31bu31xu53u55 whiskers, hair, 31i55to55 whisper in someones ear, b31t55b31t55 whistle, s55 l55 whistle, su35 ts33 (Ch.) whistle, brass wind instrument, b31 l55 (Lisu) whistle, to, 31f55 u31

319

320

appendix a

white crane, mo55 xa33, i31 t55 (Lisu) white fish, u55 t55 white oak tree, ts55 ko55 white; silver, pu55d31(xa31l55) whitewash, to, d3531m55u55 whitewash, to, 31t31 white, b55, ba33, ba33ba33 white, po55mo31 white (of eye), i55lu55ba33 who, k31 io55 who? k31lu55 whoever = each one, k31io55g55 whole, do55do33, 31d33 whole; entire, 55 a55 whole floor or ground, ti55m313155 whole life; generation, ti55ti31ts55 why, k55 t31 l55 wick, t55in55 wide (diameter), coarse (flour), 31g55i55 wide (road), u55g31 > u55g31 wide, thick, coarse, u55lom33 width, p31za33 width of finger, i31tim55 widow, widower, mi55 m31 wife, second, m31 li33 m31 wife, t31 m33 wife (of brother), ts55b55 wife of fathers elder brother; uncle, u53m31 wife of mothers brother; aunt, 31i53 wifes brothers son, s55dz31 wifes elder brother, p55dz55m31 wifes elder sister, p55dz55m31 wifes father; father-in-law, 31ben53 wifes father; father-in-law, 31ben53 s44p31 wifes mother; mother-in-law, 31u35 wifes younger brother, 3155 wifes younger sister, 3155 wild animal, 55, 31dm31 55 wild boar, p31 nm33 wild goose, t31go55 wild ox, 55 p31 wild sheep, 31s31 wild, ungovernable, m31kam55 wildcat, d31 ga31 will do, da5531 will, consent, u55 willing, 55 3

the anong lexicon

willing, prefer, 5555 will-o-the-wisp; jack-o-lantern, p31 i33 t31 mi55 wilt, to, 31d35 win, to, do31 win a war, do31d35 wind thread, xu55 u31 wind thread (onto a keel), gin31 wind blows, n31bu31fin55 wind, coil, rotate, vu55 ti55, xu55, xu55/53 wind, the, 31bu31; n31bu31; 31bu31 winding, crooked, b31t55 window, tsu55 ts31 (Ch.) windpipe, trachea, s55 31x31 dm55 wine drinking song, bu31 u55 wine pot, di31d55 (Lisu) wine yeast, l31 sm55 wine, kind of, m55 g31 t31 wine; liquor; rice beer, 31; n31 wine pot, di31d55 wine shop, 31vn55z55 wine shop; restaurant, 3155z55 wine, Chinese, di31z5531 wing, d31ti55 >d31 ti55 wink, blink, 55 tim55 u31 wink, hint, i55l55 31d3155 winnow (rice), to, i31 lm33 winnow, i31 55 u31 winnow, to, di31f55 winnowing basket, 55b31lu31 winnowing fan, l55 b55 winter, m31d55d31gm53 winter (cold weather), i31 u55 winter melon tree, s31m33 wipe (table), in55 (u31), i55 u31 wipe, wipe off, b31 tm55 u31 (dust), pm31 55 u55 (desk) wipe ones bottom, i31si55si35 wipe, to, i53 wire, 31 ka55 b55 wire, rubber-coated, 55 sm31 b55 wisdom teeth, 31ko55 wish, want, be willing, 55 31 wither, 31o55 d35 wither, 35vn5531d53 withered, 31i31 gn55 (shrunken) witness, di31 d31 31ts31 su55 wizard; sorcerer, d3155p31 wolf, i31 dz55

321

322

appendix a

woman, female, t31m55z55 wood, 55tn55 wood borer, 55om33 wood cabinet, 55 k33 ts33 wood carbon, xn31; x31(xn31) wood; log; timber, 55tn55 wood, k. of, li55ko55 dz55 wood pile, ti31 z55, xm55 gu31 woodcutter, 55u31su55 wooden partition, s55 l33 d31 t55 woodpecker, ko55 n55 wool (goat), 31b55 min55 wool, fleece, 31i31 min55 wool, knitting, 55 min31 b55 word; speech; character, k55 word; speech; character, 55v31 work, to, s35tin31u55u31 work, do work, u31 u31, 53 work; labor, l31 m35 u33 work; labor, 31p35 worker; laborer, s31lm55su55 world, m31 p31 l31 worm, kind of, b31l55 b31 t55 worm; insect, b31l33 worm-eaten, moth-eaten, 55do33do33 worm, earth, b31o31 worn (clothing), g31g55 worry, take to heart, mo31dzu5331 worship Buddha, 55 g31 worth, be, 31p3133 wound; cut, d33 m55 s31 wound, sore, da33du55 wounded, injured, di31 tso31 d31, i31 l55 wrap around, l31t55di31t53 wrap, to, gi31nu31 wrap, to, xu55, ko33d55, wrap, dumplings, di31p35 wrap a wound, d33m55pn3135 wriggler, t35p31 wring, xu53guu 31; xu55u31 wring, twist, d31tim31 wrinkle, 3155 g55 wrinkle, ruffle, g31 m31 31pn55 wrinkled, creased, 31k31lim55 wrinkled, creased, 31pn55 wrinkles; lines, 31d31 gn55 wrist watch, n31 li31 (Burmese), nm31d31dm55

the anong lexicon

write, 31zu55 (u31) write a letter, l31u5531zu53 write from memory, 55v31ko55mo55o31li31u31 write, make spots, p31zu55 writing (= book, by extension), 55v31 writing brush, pi31 (Ch.) writing pad, 55v31p53 wrong, 31b53b31 wrong, 31n31 (31b55 31b31) wrong, be; be in a mess, m31du31d31 wrought iron, 31k55in55, xu55mi55 (Lisu) xero, d33g55 Xianwei (place name), 31 dz55 yak, no31 (vowel unclear); u31 yam, m31 55 yam, sweet potato, 55m33 yam, sweet potato, 31pu55t33 yawn, to, di31gu31i31d53 yawn, to, 31s31 xm5531 year after next, m55 31 u55 year before last, d33 t55 33 year, last, t33 u55 year, next, n31 so33 u55 year, this, d31 i55 u55 year; age, 3155; 55 year of the chicken (rooster), k55 33 year of the cow, no31u31 55 year of the dog, d31g53 55 year of the dragon, lu31 55 year of the goat, 31b55 33 year of the horse, ma31 55 year of the monkey, i31 s31 55 year of the pig, o55 33 year of the rabbit, to31 l55 33 year of the rat, 31din55 33 year of the snake, b31 55 year of the tiger, 31k31 55 yell, to, i55 yellow, ga55 (dried up, withered) yellow, pu55 yellow, 5555mm55 yesterday, t55 i31, ti55i31 yesterday evening, t55m5555k55 Yi person, l35lo33 p31 (Lisu) Yi nationality, l31b31t55

323

324

appendix a

yield the road, 31n31 55 yoke for crossing a cable bridge, 31v55 yoke, cow, 55 l55 gu31 yoke, connecting, 31 ku31 p55 yokes, frames, tsi55 yokes, frames, u33 you plural, 31 55 you (possessive), 31k31 you two, 31 55 si31 you, 31 young (age), o3155 t31m55 young man, dz31 gu31 l55 (Lisu) young man, gu31t55z55 young man, youngster, lad, di31ts31z31 young married woman, female, t31m55z55 young = not old, m31ti31m31 young woman; girl; daughter, s31l55z55 yours, 31 k31 yours (pl.), n3155k31 yourself, 31 lu55 yuan (Chinese dollar), ti55l55

APPENDIX B

TEXTS1 Text One: Crossbows

t31n55 Crossbows. 31nu31 m31 Anong place g31 also 31 def n55 mood m31 place i33, be, 31. ind. n55 mood 55 wild.animal t31n55 crossbow i33. be. g33 i33, also be, i33. be. g31 also b3131 very o33 have 31, ind, m31 place i55, be, 55dz55 ti31-dz55 tree one-clf g31 also tim31 house g31 also d31tn31 steep i33 be lu55 stone

31p55 cliff

k31l31ku31 bamboo.gulley.deep 55 like.that 553 big

55x35 b31 forest loc

55sn55-dm55 3131 hunt-agt def 3131 def 31ts55 mulberry.tree

t31n55 crossbow

p55 spring

t31n55-ku55 3131 ko33bu55 i33, lim31 crossbow-stock def tree.name be, tree.name di3155 tree.name g33 also i33, be, 33 conj

t31n55-dz35 bow-install v55 string

31do55 become

31t31-31zu35-li33 bow-groove-system ln35li33 tighten t31n55 bow

t31n55 bow

mi55b55 linen.thread

mi53 instr

See the notes at the end of the three texts.

326
ko33tim55 mechanism t31m55 arrow dz55li33 spring u55dm55 become

appendix b
t31n55 load n33 mood 31bn55x35 (bamboo type) 31 ind tch35i31 only m53 pl du31 loc go31lo55 bow dz55u31 mechanism li31u53o33, load,

t31u55 dragon.bamboo io55 have o55 that 31 def 31 def 31 clf

31lu31 g33 m3133, (type) also neg-good, 31lu31 bamboo g31 also si55 only 33 good

ti55-55-31ti31 one-year 31. ind. ti31m33 old g31 also

m3155 neg-good

31di55m53, pl, t31m55 arrow m53 pl ti31 smooth

31dz55 bamboo l35n33 seek.prt

ts55si31m53si5533 red.prt.very.good

33 ind

tu55-tu31 straight-redup m53 pl si55 only 35 animal l35 good 55 die 55, ind, m31d55, neg-able, ti55-t31 one-kind 31n33, have, t31m55 arrow

m31go31l53 neg-curve mi53 instr

n33 conj 3131 def i55 this

55-55-dm55 animal-die-nom p31l55 poisoned.arrow 31t55-t55 casual-redup 31. ind. 31io55 have b31 loc b31 loc

p31l55 poisoned.arrow 31 clf 3131 def ti55-k31 one-place 3131 def 31n33. have. li33 dir 31 ind b33 go n33 mood

m31io55, neg-have, z55 place si55 only dz55 go k31 pull

ti55-k31 one-place

ti31 only

io55 have

z31u55 mountain z31u55 mountain

33k33-su55 hunter-agt

3131 def

p31l55 poisoned.arrow dz55 root z35 see

33. ind.

p31l55 poisoned.arrow

31do33 asp

go55no33li33 squat

texts
tu31 dig 35 ind 31k31 pull 55li33 cry 5533 def 31iu55 grass.name x35 piece b31 loc

327

o35o35o35! cock-a-doodle-do ti33-ki55 one-clf u33 do

tn33s33, roll, xo33-io55 like.that po35lo33-po35lo33 roll.about-redup

k33u33 pull

ti31-ki55 one-clf

tn33s31, roll, 3331 def o33di33 like.that k31 loc tim31 house m55 leaf 55 wild.animal o35 Oh! vm35 hit 31do33 asp t35 temp 55 cry

o55 like.that 31 def

tu35 dig

31do33 asp

na33 mood du53 loc

pn33dz33 moss z3531o33 back pom31 palm

di31p35 wrap b31 loc

u31li33, conj,

t31m31 house

t31 arrive li31, conj, 31do33 asp

na33, mood, pom31 palm na33 mood ti55-33 one-year t33b33 duration t35 temp m55 leaf mi53 instr

l53 seek di31p35 wrap

di31p35-u31, wrap-asp, xm31d55 pit.fire.frame si55 only z31 ability du55 loc ko35u31 pound t31m55 arrow 31tsu55 whittle 31do33 asp z31 ability b33 asp

53 above

lm35 roast.in.sun

b3331. asp. t35 temp p31l55 poisoned.arrow li33 conj 55 weak ki55 root b33t35, asp, b31 loc 31n35 rub li33. conj. u31li33 conj gm35 blow 31 ind 31 def i31k55 fire.ashes

31lu35u31 cover li33 conj 3131 def so33 conj t35 temp

t31m55 poisoned.arrow l31pu55 head i33li55 below i35ti31 knife b31 conj mi53 instr

31tsu35u31 whittle gm35 blow gu31lu31 line.path

328
xu35 rotate u55u31. asp. u31li33 conj

appendix b
p31l55 poisoned.arrow l3533 make s35u31 load 31dzm55 glue do3333 asp li33 conj du33 loc 31d31 tube 31 def li33 conj k33 hit b55u31 asp o55di35 like.that

p31l55 poisoned.arrow du3331. loc li33, conj 35k35 hunt

d31ku33du55 quiver km55-km35 cover-redup s35 load b55 go u31. asp. 31. ind.

ko33d55 wrap b55 go

t35 temp

z3531bo55 back

m55tm53 enclosed.area li33, conj

31 arrive

b55 go z35 see 31pu55 meet

t35 temp 31do33 asp 31do33 asp

55 animal na33, conj, t35 conj

p31z55 tracks

l55 seek

p31z55 tracks li31, conj, u31, asp

di31tn35 follow.tracks mi53 instr k31 loc vn35 hit

p31l55 poisoned.arrow

55p31 wild.ox vm35 shoot u31, asp, 55b55 dir 31do33 asp g55t35 temp li33vi55 poisoned o33 have m31vi5531 neg-poisoned t35, temp, u35u35u35 Wa!Wa!Wa! a55 cry o33 have t35, conj, 55lu55 iron.arrow

a33p31l55 poisoned.arrow vm35 hit za53 pursue 33, ind k35 pull

ti31-dm55 one-clf 31i35si31 slowly b31 loc

d31 see

vi5531 poisoned u55 asp b31 loc z55 see t31 temp to33 listen 31do33 asp 3131 def

p31l55 poisoned.arrow 31 ind l55 seek li33, conj,

o33di33 equal u31li33, conj 3131 def

xo3533s55 sound b33 go sm35 peel 31 ind

31sm31-sm35 skin-redup

31do33 asp

texts
31 cut 3131 def p35u31 open b31in33 lung l55, a.bit, li33, conj, l55, a.bit ti31vn31-m31-g55-su31 God-neg-discuss-agt 31i31s33 lung 31ti31z55 intestine l55 a.bit ti55t31 equal li33, conj, 33, ind, 31, def, ti31vn31m55 God u31g55 pray l55, a.bit l55, a.bit, l55 a.bit s35-pin33 seven-slices 31l31pu55 head m53 pl

329

31i31om31 heart l55, a.bit,

33 meat

ti55t31 equal k31 loc

55p31 bamboo.strip li33, conj,

35u31 wear m31gu31 sacrifice m55 pl si33 only l55 a.bit

35u31 wear

p31ia55 ghost

ti31vn31-g55-su33 God-discuss-agt 31li31 conj 55 meat b31 loc 3131 def b31 dir di31k35 sacrifice t35 insert ni31 abl i35p33 after ki33 eat z55 back 31 ind

ki33 eat l31pu55 head u31li33 conj

d33 asp

na33 conj

tim31 house

31bo33li33 dir

55sn55p31 hunter 3131, def u31li33, conj u31li33, conj,

t33m31 house 55 Z55 35 put t31n55 crossbow 31io31 I u31li33, conj

du55 loc

31 return

55 beast.spirit 31 wine 31ts31 household b33u31 dir 31 def

31im55 bamboo.slices

na31 conj t31n55 crossbow l31pu55 head

31lin33 run

k31l33 loc i55, dir b31 loc

31pu55 meet u55li31 like.that m31gm31 rich m31d35u31. opening. 31 he 33 meat 3131 def ti55-dzu31 one-village

330
di3131 dome l55 a.bit d55 give li33 conj 31 def li33 def mi55m33 widow dzn55po33 cut u31. asp 3131xa35 foot

appendix b
di31t55 orphan li33 conj l31pu55 head z31 pl ti33-zm55 one-house l53 a.bit 31 def 31vn55 divide 3131 def 3155 all 35u31 boil b31 io 3155 whole ti31-zm55 one-house

55sn55p31 hunter 31t31 soup m53 eat t55ti55 conj 55. ind

Anong Text One: Crossbows The Nu people live in a region with big and steeply sloped mountains and valleys that are filled with huge trees and thick forests. There are a lot of animals in those forests. The Nu used to hunt those animals with bow and arrow. The tongue of the bow is usually made of mulberry wood. The bow is made of wood from ko33, lim31, or di3155 trees. When making the bow, a groove for the arrow has to be carved. The bowstring is usually tightened with hemp string. A trigger mechanism has to be installed in the shooting component. Arrows are usually made of bamboo named 31lu31. Arrows made of the th31u55 dragon bamboo are usually of poor quality. Also, arrows must be made of old bamboo. One year old bamboo can not be used to make arrows. Some of the red color old bamboos are the best. Arrows made of such bamboo would not warp. The plain arrows cannot kill wild animals. Poisonous arrows must be made for such purposes. It is not easy to make poisonous arrows. The poison used to make poisonous arrows can only be found in the snow-capped mountains. When a hunter found the poisonous weed in a snow mountain, he would dig around it to pull out the root of the plant. Then the hunter would give out cries of happiness as he rolls on the ground. Each time he found one, he would cry out with joy while rolling on the ground, just as happy as when he catches an animal in hunting. After digging out the poisonous weed, the hunter would wrap it up in moss and bring it home. Then he would wrap it up well with palm skin to bake it over fire. A year

texts

331

later, when the weed is thoroughly dry, the hunter would bury it in hot ash for a while to soften it before pounding it into powder using a mortar and pestle. The hunter would shave a thin layer off the surface of the part of the arrow head which he would smear with the poisonous powder. The poisonous arrows are then stored in a securely covered arrow holder. On a hunting trip, the hunter would keep the poisonous arrows in an arrow bag. When the hunter reaches the area frequented by animals, he would follow the animals tracks. When he comes across a big animal, he would shoot it with the poisonous arrow. When hunting wild oxen, he uses arrows with metal shell heads. When he hits the target, he takes his time to see the effect of the poison. When he sees the poison taking its effect in killing the animal, he would cry out with joy and roll on the ground, just as when he found the poisonous weed. Then he would skin the animal and cut it open. Those hunters who are not religious would cut a small piece of the animals liver, lungs, heart, kidney and head and put them on a bamboo skewer to offer as a sacrifice to the ghost. Religious hunters would pray to God before roasting some meat over fire to eat. After the game is carried home, a sacrifice table will be set up with wine and bamboo strips to pray that on the next hunting trip, he will find animals frequently, and that even if other hunters come across animals, the animals will escape from them. After that, the meat would be divided equally among villagers regardless of whether they are rich or poor or single or orphaned. The head and feet of the game are used to make soup to be shared by the members of the hunters family.

332

appendix b Text Two: Overhead Cables and Boats

31l55 overhead cables si55 and 33 loc 31s31 boats ku33t55 this.side 33. ind. 31lm31 bamboo.strip 31 ind k55t55 what b31 loc si55 only li33 conj tm53 split.open io53 have 55 good 31l55 cable km55 bamboo 3131 def 33, ind, m33u31 summer 31 arrive g31 also m31l55 neg- good mi53 instr 55 twist li33 conj i33t55 that.side dz55 walk

31nu31 Anong g31 also

t31m31 Nu.river b3131 very

di3131 difficulty 3131 def

3135di31ts55 elders 31l55 cable

ln53 horizontal.wear 3131 def

31lm31 bamboo.strip 33. ind.

m55tm55 mountain.top 31lm31 clf

31bn55 bamboo.strip 33 def t35 conj

31g55 discuss ti55-ts55 one-ten

ti55-zm55 one-house li33 conj 3131 def tm3331 split.open do33 asp li33, conj b31 dir 3131, def na33 conj 31di31 rec kom31 put.together

31bn35 bamboo.strip 31, ind,

31bn55 bamboo.strip tm53 slices

ti55-ts55 one-ten 31n33, have

55-ts55 eight-ten 31l55 overhead.cable 31l55 cable ti55b31 some

31b31, loc b3133 dir

31n31 pull i55k31 next

bo33 go 31 arrive

55 twist

ba33ia55gu31 tree.name

l55 seek

u31li33, conj,

texts
31s33 earth ti55 one tu31 dig li33, conj, lu55 stone 3131, def t35 conj ku31 hole s31 caus 31do33 asp tu31, dig zom55 stand 3131 def k31 loc 31s33 earth tu31. dig b33i55gu31 tree.name 3131 def b33i33gu31 tree.name b31 dir 31l55 cable 3131 def t35 hit 31do33 asp som31 three gu31 root ku31 hole 3131 asp

333
31ts31 person

s31u31 load

di31ti55 surroundings do55do33 whole 31n55 shake 31l55 cable

31d31 cork m31d55 neg-able

55 twist

33, ind,

b55u31k55 first

31p31i55 intestines ti55-ts55 one-ten n5553 above xu53 coil o55di33 like.that xu55 coil

u31li31, conj tm53 clf xu53u33, coil.asp

31lm31 bamboo.strip m31tm35 hold u31li33 conj 31ki31 others m53 pl 31 def

n5553 above 31 def m31z55 neg-see b33u31 asp

3131 def xu53 coil d53 succeed

31p31i55 intestines u31, asp, 31do33 asp

ti55-tm55 one-clf 3131, def 31p55 connect 31pi55 again 31 def 31, def

31p31i55 intestines ti35-tm55 one-slices 31p31i55 intestines

u55 def 31tin31o33 connect k31 def

k31t31mo33 insert g33 also

31p55 connect.head li33, conj,

di33i35 insert

334
xu53 coil li33 conj 55 twist som31 three 35 compete ku31t53 opposite 31bo33, dir 31ki31 in.addition 31, ind. b55 root

appendix b
55-ts55 eight-ten lm33 armspan 33 many t35, temp, k55gn35 put.place

ti55-b55 one-root som31 three 53 twist 3131, def dz55 walk mi53 instr b55 root li33. conj. gu31t35 man b31li33, dir, bo55, dir k31 loc m3153 neg- work t35 conj b33 asp t35 temp si55 only o55di55 like.that u55 do ku31t53 opposite an55 pull m53 pl 31 def 55 twist 31do33 asp t35, temp

xo31io55 like.that d33si55 together

31do33 asp ti55b31 part.of

lo33dz35 cable.rope.connection 31 arrive v31 system u31 asp b33 dir u31li33 conj ku31t53 opposite ni53 abl 31l55 cable 31v55 slide.help li55ko55dz55 wood.kind 31 ind i33za55 length t35, temp 31 rec

an31a33 pull

ku31t53 opposite p55, untie

v35 system an31 pull li33 conj

31do33 asp 31du33 suitable

i31-t53 this-side t33o33, stop, 3131 def k31 loc b31 go 31i55 two ga35o33 chop u33di31 asp

di31gu33-dm55 slippery-nom i33, be 31v55 slide.help 3131 def ti31i55 southside m31 earth

tu35 dig 3131 def ti55b33 some 55 above som31 three o31io55 like.that 31g35lu31 slide.help.rear i35 wear u31. asp u55 do b31t55 handspan ti55b33, some,

b31t55 handspan 31v35 slide.help 31 center

3131 def 31ku31 hole

du53a33 loc

texts
k55p35 next p31za33 width dz33 go b31 dir k31 loc k31 loc 3131 def 3131, def u55 u31, do asp, di55ku55 slide.groove 31l55 cable 31ts31 person mi53 instr li33 conj 31ts31 person s31, asp, go31lo55 neck b31 loc 31l55 cable k31 loc ku31t53 that.side k31 loc o55di31 like.that

335
tu31 dig

o33di33 like.that 3131 def

dz33 walk

m33-dm55 slide.rope-nom 35u31 wear

31v55 slide.help u31. asp. z31g31 body p31dim55 waist 31b31 crotch 31i35-bu55 two-clf g55lu31 back g33t35 then 31l55 cable d31 times do31 look 31t35 conj u33u55 before 31ni53 abl

ku31 b31 hole loc

v35 fasten

ti55-t33 one-side b31 loc

3131 def k55v31 fasten

ti35-b55, one-root,

b31 loc b31 loc 33 def

ti55-b55 one-root ti55-b55 one-root 31v55 slide.help v31 fasten s33, asp g33t35 then 31vu35 hand

b31 loc

dzom31 seize

55li33 conj 31 arrive 3131 def 31 rec

s31-lu55 caus-slippery b3131. dir. ti55-55 one-year ti33 change

b5533, go,

ku31t53 that.side i33 this som31 three 31 ind 33 kind d31 times

u55 loc

31i55 two

m31ti33 neg-change

l333333, conj b3131. ind. ti31-io55 one-clf vn35 buy

31ts31 person

s31-lu55 caus-slippery

p55-dm55 cut.off-nom t35 temp no31u31 ox

31ts31 person ti55-31 one-clf

31 def 31 ind

ku31t53 opposite

336
31l55 cable di3133 center i31t53 this.side d33t35 temp no31u31 ox io33pun55 shake k31 loc b31 def 31ni53 abl ni53 abl g55n33 stop

appendix b
s31-lu35 caus-slippery d33 remain li33 conj a31ia55 come.over t35 conj 31 he 31 def m31-t33 neg-strong 3131 def di35 asp g33t35 life t35, conj, dz35 side 31 arrive li33, conj,

lu35d33 connect

an33-dm55 bundle-nom 31v55 slide.help 31ni35 inch

31lm31 bamboo.strip b31k31 loc v33 fasten

li33 conj t35 temp

31l55 cable p55dn55 cut.off t55ti55 conj

55m3155 swing-to-and-fro 31ts31 person t31m31 river i31u53 winter 31su31 prepare t55ti55 conj

no31u31 ox

u53 31d55 loc fall 31 arrive 31 def 31s31 boat x35m31 place 3131 def

d35, 31m31 li31 m31za35 i53. asp, corpse also neg-look dir. t35 temp 3131 def k31 loc 55dz55 tree l55 seek 55b31 dir 31s31 boat zm55 row b31 loc

s55, asp

31bn55 bamboo.strip li33, conj g31 also

55dz55 tree tim31 house

ti31-dz55 one-clf m53 pl l55 seek b3131, dir,

55 like.that

53u31 big

t3135 water l55 seek li33, conj,

53 over

m55zu53 float do33 asp

m53 pl 3131 def

55 tree p31om35 chop.down 31io33 dir

z5531 see

i55p55 after

3131 def

ti35-dzu33 one-village

gu31ta55 man

texts
31d33 whole 3131, def n31 chop u33 do 31v55 show.up.for a33za55 length 33, ind s33, asp, b55li33 dir k31 loc 55dz55 tree li33 conj ti55b31 some dz53 side 31 arrive

337
b31 go

31lin35 clf 3331, def,

ti55b31 some ti55b31 some u33 do

tn31 chop 3131 def

31p35-su55 labor-agt

tu55-su55 dig-agt 3131 def 31tsa55 dozens m55u31 infront, 31s31 boat an31 pull 31d33 all u31 asp an31 pull m31bo55 dir u33 do s31 asp

p33, mood,

31i55-k33 two-clf li33, conj, an31 pull 31io55, dir 33li33 conj

tu31 dig

31do33 asp

nm31 sun i33 day t31 first 31 def m31do31 neg-work

l35m31io55 roast.in.sun t35 temp si55 only

b3131. dir,

ti55-k31 one-clf

n31 block.way u55d31 big

ti31-tsa55 one-ten

mi35 instr

31 rec

ti55-dzu31 one-village b55li33, dir,

tn31 person ti55b31 some m55u31k55 infront an31 pull

31v55 show.up.for ti55b31 some u31, asp, t35 temp

i55z31k53 behind ti55b31 some 55ko55 rod l35 hold u31li33 conj go55tin35 pry.open

a31-su55 pry.open-agt 31 def 31i55-i33 two-day b3131. dir. t31 temp si55 only

an31 pull

t31m31s31 riverside

31 arrive

338
31i55-k31 two-clf t35 temp l31pu55 head di3131 center p35o33, fasten 31i33tu53 tail l31pu55 head ti35-pu55 one-slices 31s31 boat o31li33, conj t35 insert o55ke31 that.place ti55-t31 one-side ti55-io55 one-clf ku31-t55 that-side di33ku33 punt.pole 31ki31 others t31u33 bamboo di33 all

appendix b
t31m31s31 riverside k55gn35 put 55ko35 rod ti31-ko55 one-root k31 loc ti55-ko55 one-root p35o33, fasten an55 pull 35 arrive 31do33 asp

d33si55 together b31 loc k31 loc

li33 conj xam33d33 ti31-ko35 horizontal.log one-root p35o33 fasten

31i55tu55 tail k53 loc

3131 def km33 bamboo 31li33, conj b31 loc 31ku31 hole ti55-ku31 one-hole i35 chisel ti31-ko55 one-root b31 loc s55l31 rudder

xu53-dm55 rotate-nom dz35 load

i31tu55 tail 55-ko55 tree-root u31li33 conj

ti55-ko55 one-root l31pu55 head xu55-dm55 rotate-nom 31 def

31s31 boat

pa35o31, fasten b31 loc 31ti31 have i31-t55 this-side i33. be. t31u33 dragon.bamboo 31 def mi53 instr g31 also zm31 row 55 ind 3131, def mi53 instr zm31 row 31. ind. i31 this.way 5531 def 31s31 boat 31s31 boat 31vi55 starch p35o31 fasten li33, conj,

3131 def i33-33 this-clf

31m55ni33 delicate

texts
d31i55u55 this.year 53, above, b31 loc si55 only io55 have li33 conj b31 go l55 a.bit i31t55 this.side u55 do k31 loc 31 def 31t55 sand 3131 def a31 long 3131 def u31li33, conj, xm33d33 rod di3133 center k31 loc u33 do 31 ind ti31-ko55 one-root 55-ko55 tree-root m53 pl d31 beach ko35 root 3131, def, ti55-tsa55 one-ten

339
ko55 root

u55u31 do 31 arrive

di3131 center u55 do u31. asp.

m55u31k53 infront ku31t55 that.side bo33 dir 31s31 boat ti31-ko35 one-root 31i55-ko55 two-root p35o33 fasten 31lm31 bamboo.strip u55 do u31 asp

i31k55 next

ti31-ko55 one-root

55 short

o33di33 like.that l31pu55 head mi53 instr

p35o33 fasten

p35o33, fasten 31s31 boat ln35 fix 31s31 boat a31 long

31i31tu55 tail l31pu55 head u31li33 conj b31 loc di31ti55 side

b31k55 loc 3131 def km33 bamboo

v33-dm35 fasten-nom

31vi55 starch u55 do o33li33, conj

ti55-lm33 one-armspan 3131 def dz35 load i31-t55 this-side

l31pu55 head

b33 loc

s55l31 starch u31li33 conj dz33 walk

l31pu55 head zm55 row a33 good 31 ind b31 dir g33t35 then 31. ind. ku31-t55 that-side

340

appendix b Anong Text Two: Sliding Cables and Boats

In the past, transportation between the two sides of the Nujiang was very difficult. The ancestors used to make ropes out of bamboo strips, which they called sliding cables, to use as a means of crossing the river. What kind of bamboo strips are the best for making sliding cables? Usually, a special variety of bamboo used specifically for producing bamboo strips is preferable. When the summer comes, people begin to discuss plans for making the cables. Each household is responsible for cutting ten bamboo from the mountains and producing 80 bamboo strips. Then all of the bamboo strips will be gathered together to be transported to the spot where the sliding cable across the Nujiang will be installed. To install the sliding cable, first three poles of a kind of tree called b33ia33gu31 have to be found. Then a hole is dug in the ground. The three poles are inserted into the hole which is then filled with stones to make sure that the poles are solidly secured. Then one person will put 10 bamboo strips together as the center of a cable (like intestines) which are held together tightly while others wrap bamboo strips around the bundle. Where two bamboo strips meet, the ends are inserted into the center bundle so that no rough ends will stick out. When the cable reaches 80 chi (= 87.28 feet) in length, it is put aside. When three such cables are made, they are combined to make the big cable to be used as the sliding cable. When the big cable is completed, some men will find a way to get to the other side of the river while pulling one end of the big cable with them. Once they reach the other side of the river, they securely fasten the big cable to a wooden pole. Then the big cable is pulled taut. To use the sliding cable to cross the river, it needs a sliding harness, which is made of a hollowed-out section of a type of hard wood from southern China. It is about the length of three handspans between the tip of the middle finger and the tip of the thumb (= two feet). Sometimes it is two spans (= about one and a half feet) in length. The back of the harness has a hole below which there is a ladder. To slide across the river, a rope is threaded through the harness hole with the lower part being fastened to the persons pelvis, abdomen, and neck areas. The person grabs onto the back of the harness while sliding to the other side of the river. Each year, the cable has to be replaced twice or three times. If it is not replaced in a timely manner, the cable may snap when being used. One time, there was this person who bought a cow from a place on

texts

341

the other side of the river. He tried to slide the cow across the river. When the cow reached the middle, another person slid to the middle to reach the cow to secure the cow to the sliding harness with bamboo strips. At that point, the cow started to sway making the sliding cable sway with it. All of a sudden, the cable snapped, and that person fell into the river with the cow. Both were drowned and they never found that persons body. In winter, when the river tide is low, wooden boats are used. The material used for making the boat comes from the mountain where bamboo for making bamboo strips can be found. They look for trees that are as big as a house. Once they find one, they cut it down. All of the young men from the village would go to cut out the inside based on the length they need for making the boat. Some dig out the inside of the middle while others dig out the inside of the ends. Then it is placed in the sun to air dry. Dozens of days later, it is brought back down to the riverside. If the tree is too big to be transported by a few dozen people, then everybody from the village take part in the effort. Some pull in the front, some push from the back, and some use wooden poles to pry it along. Sometimes it takes two days to drag it to the riverside. Usually, this kind of boat is made up of two hollowed-out logs both ends of which and the middle are fastened together using wooden poles to make them into the shape of a boat. At the head of the boat, there is an oar made of golden bamboo, and at the end of the boat, a hole is made for the rudder that is made of golden bamboo and wood. This enables the boat to turn so that it can be rowed back and forth between the two sides of the river. Another kind of boat is made of dragon bamboo. One-year-old dragon bamboo is no good for making the boat. Usually ten or more bamboo poles are needed and the boat is usually made on the beach of the river. The bamboo pole in the center is a bit longer and each of the subsequent ones is slightly shorter on both sides of the center pole producing an arrow head shape of the head of the boat. The head, middle and end of the boat are also secured using wooden poles fastened with bamboo strips. An arms length (= 5 to 6 feet) oar made of bamboo is used to row the boat back and forth between the two sides of the river.

342

appendix b Text Three: Pythons

l55 pythons 31k31zm55 formerly 31t31m31 girl t35 temp 31ts31 person ti55-b31om35 one-house o55 have 31, ind,

ku55-io55 six-clf 55 def 31m31 3p-mother d3531u33, asp, o31li33, dir, 31i33u33 dir na33 conj 33d31 cogon.grass 31d33, put, lm55 roast.in.sun pn55 untie u31 loc 31di33u33, asp ki55 bite ti55-io55 one-clf b31 loc d55 give ne55 abl b31u33 loc u33, asp 3131 def l55 python o33 want mi53 caus li33, conj, 31 you l55 python 31 think li33, conj o33 back 3131, def, 3155k55 nightfall 33d31 cogon.grass o31mo35 long.ago u33li33 conj 55 die d35u33, asp,

o55 have

31. ind.

31p31 father 3131 def n53 cut z55 back

ti55-i33 one-day 33d31 cogon.grass ti55-o33 one-back o33 return tim31 house 31d3331 a.little.while 33d31 cogon.grass 33d31 cogon.grass ti55-31 one-clf

t31 arrive 53 above

33d31 cogon.grass o55-31 that-clf o33 back o55 have b31 io 31 def

31 a55m31 old granny t31m31 girl

31i33, dir

texts
m31d55 neg-give u33, asp, t31 dont i31l33, conj, l33 like.that ki55 bite 31 you d55 give 31i55, dir, 3131 def la35, mood, b31 pass ki55 bite 3331 be.going.to 31li33, dir 31t31m31 girl v33 speak

343

33 be.going.to 31m31 mother 31 you k31 io mi53, caus

a53o31-io55 eldest-clf o55 go l53 if 31m31 mother b33 dir o35 return k31 io

31m31 mother

ki55 bite

b31u33s31, asp,

31 you

b3331 dir m31ki35 neg- bite 31, def 31 you l35 dir l55 python b31 io v33 speak m31lu55 neg-go zn55 ask u33, asp v33 speak o33u33, asp, 55t33 3rd.person u33, asp, m31lu55 neg-go di33 all v33 speak g31 also m31lo55 neg-go b55 dir u33, asp, m31o33 neg-willing v33 speak i33 this 31i33 second.oldest u33, asp o55 go b33 dir g33t35 then

31t31m33 girl l55 python b31 io 55i31 second u33. asp. o35 go b31 snake b31 io

o55b31 go g33 also

gn33no33 speak b31 io 31 you

55t33 3rd.person ? b31 dir k31 io l35 sup 31 I ti31-io55 one-clf

k55p33 next u33, asp 31 he

5531 finally

344
zn55 ask l35 sup 31m31 mother 31m31 mother o35 return ti31z31 path l55 python g33t35 then di33g55 rest o55ku31 that.place o55 stay 31io31 I 55 louse l53u31 seek 31n55 have si55 only 55 gather 53 gather 33u33, asp, 31 arrive v33 speak k31 io 33 die b31 go u55 mood 31 def io55di33 this.way z55 place d35u33. asp. u33, asp, ki55 bite bo33 dir 31 dir dz33 walk

appendix b
l55 like.that 55gin55 six(th) 31 you o55 go b33 dir

31? Q b31u33s33, asp, 5531, fix, u33li33 conj 33u33, ind g31 also io55di33 this.way k31 loc l55 return d35 go u33, asp t35, temp u33, mood, 55gin55 six(th) u33 mood 31 you

ti55so33 a.little.while m31z31b33 neg- see dz33 walk

ti55-k31 one-place dz33 walk ti55-31b31 one-piece

31d31 arrive

t35, temp,

31ts31 person ti55 first

ti31-io55 one-clf di31g55 rest i35 dir u55li33, conj di31g55 rest t35, temp,

l31pu55 head 55 seek u33 asp u33, asp, 31n55 have 31 out i33 dir

31 def v33 speak b31 snake 31 def gn31 speak u33t35, temp g33t35 then u33, asp, tin55 slough m31o33 neg-have t35 temp b31 snake tin55 slough 31 def 3155 all l31pu55 head 55 louse

3131 def 55 louse i33 asp o33l33 dir

ti55-bm31 one-clf i33, asp, b31 snake tin55 slough

31d33u33, dir

texts
o55 return d35u33. asp. t31m31 house ku31 hole b3131 very 31 def u35 loc k31 prt t55, separate, ti31-io55 one-clf 31m31dz53 ws.parents.home dz55 walk d33 pass t35, temp 31d31 arrive t35, temp

345

31p55 mountain.valley i33 be u33, asp,

d31 big 55 year

t31m31 woman o55 have

tn31 child

31ni55 inch

g33t35 then

d35u33, asp

31m31dz53 ws.parents.home t55 separate d31t35 temp

ti55ku33 one-section d3531u33, asp, mi53 caus u53 loc o33lo55 coral ti31-dz55 one-clf 31 he o55 return t35 temp 31 he

p55 dz55m33 elder.sis in31 carry 31n55, have, zom35 pick

31i33 two

31b33u33, ind, 3131 they.two 31 imp

ti31z31 path m31nm35 sisters 31 rec b31 io 31 he

u33li33 conj 31m31 mama

g55 discuss

33u33 asp

g33t35 then

t31m31 girl 55 climb d33t35 temp 31vu35 hand t35, temp, 3155 cry o55l35 top.of.head 31 cry

d55u33u33, asp, t31m55 girl

m3153 highest.point b31 io t31m31 girl

55 climb

31 arrive

33 def u31li33, conj,

mi53 instr

ti33 pinch

3155 cry

31ni55 inch

k55t31l53 why 31l33? mood 31 def 31 you o55l35 top.of.head to31u31 lay.aside k31 io v53 want u33li33, conj,

33u33, asp

346
ti55 so31 a.little.while s31-35 caus-cry 3155 cry i31lu35 necklace 31d31 separate s31-35 caus-cry 31 you v53 want tin55 take.off 31pi55 again t35 temp u31 asp 31l33? mood tin55 take.off

appendix b
31pi55 again k55 t31l53 why 31 you li33, conj, i31lu35 necklace k31 io v53 want u33li33, conj ti55-d31 one-times ti33 pinch u31li33 conj

to31u3333, lay.aside, ti55-d31 one-times ti33u31 pinch li33 conj

ti55 so31 a.little.while u31, asp

t35 temp g33t35 then 3155 cry

k55t31l53 why u33li33, conj, li33 conj

31l33? mood

31 you

g31m31 clothes

k31 io

g31m31 clothes to31u31 lay 33, aside t55 separate u31, asp, 31 you i31go33 earring k31 io v53 want ti55-d31 a.little.while t35, temp,

ti55-d31 one-times 3155 cry

s31-55 caus-cry 31l33? mood

k55t31l53 why u33li33, conj tin35 take.off k31 loc d31, mood, 31 he

i31go33 earring li31 conj ti55t31 equal g33t35 then 33 def

g31li33 also to33u3333, lay.aside g31 also s55dz55 tree t31m31 girl 5531 ind p31 caus om35 down b33u33, conj, 31 def 31m31 mother

m31 not 31 def

313155 3p-younger.sister m53 pl u53 loc gu31 wear 31d33 arrive 55li33 asp t35, temp, o55 return d35u33, asp

gu31-dm55 wear-nom t31m31 house

texts
gu31ta55 man 3131 def i55p55 after di33dz55 probe do55 ladle.out u33, asp 3131 def m3133 neg-be 31 def u33, asp 31io31 I tsom55 think m31dz31 food m31dz31 grain u33. asp. g33 also 31io31 I 31 def m31t55, neg-like, u55t35, temp, t31p31 rice.pounder i5531, dir, l31 piece k31 loc tsa55si33 red io55 clf u33t35, temp mi53 caus 31u33, ind 31io31 I t55 like d35 asp v33 speak u33, asp, du55 pound t35 temp 3131 def gn35 speak u31u33, asp t31m31 woman ti55-b31om55 one-house u33, asp, do55 ladle.out g35 also t31p31 rice.pounder du55 pound ti55b31om55 one-house 31 def du55 pound 31d55 shout u31li33, conj 31 def i55 this

347

m31so55 neg-know t31p31 rice.pounder u31 u33, asp 31tin55 toe l31 piece

31d55u31 cry

m31so53 neg-know 31x33 foot pa55pa55 flat-redup i55 this 31m31 mama dim33 press e33li33 so

m31t55, neg-like

3131 def dz53 infront.of 31 ind

pa55pa55 flat-redup ma55 face 3131 def 31 def 31 def

t31m31a33 woman d55 look u31 asp

ti55-b31om55 one-house t31m55z55 woman u35 do li33, conj,

m31-b31si31, neg-red, 31m31 mother b31si31 red dz53 infront d35. asp. l31m55 field

nm31 sun

348
i55p33 after 31tu31 put 31p31 3p father ti55-i33 one-day u55 loc 31 def t31m31 child

appendix b
g31 also 53 big ni33, inch, no31u31 ox

do3131 can mi53 caus 3131, def

ni33 inch no31u31 ox 31tu31 put 31d55 cry u31u33, asp,

t31om55 lake 31nm53 beautiful 31 def l5531 come.out 33li33, dir,

mi53 caus

t55 bird

si55li55si55li55o31, (bird cry) d31g55 o5531! messy dog! li3333 cry 31 def 33u33, asp, di31t55 orphan t31m55 child 31tu31-su55 put-agt 3131, def, k3333 io m31o31 neg-abuse d53? mood?

(abusive language!) b31 name g53 shout u33, conj, b31 loc no31u31 ox d53 look m31tm53 neg-have t35, temp, no31u31 ox no31u31 ox

o5531 that-clf to53 listen 31 def m55 eat 31 he

s55 sound o31li33, conj, 31ts31 person

m31dz31 crops i55 day 31 def 31tu31 put d33 asp g33 also

b31 dir b31 name

i55p33 after 3131 def

s55u31 (bird.cry) o5531 like.that

li33, conj, to53 listen

o35di33 like.that t35, temp

si55li55 si33li33 (bird.cry) no31u31 ox

53 cry 31 def

31u33, conj,

texts
31ts31 household 31p31 3p dad ti55-i33 one-day l33? mood? m31 neg m31dz31 crops mi53 caus ti55-i33 one-day 31p31 dad 55 have li33 conj m53 eat xo33 curse b31 dir u33 conj m53 eat 31d55 let u31 asp u33. conj 3155k55 evening

349

k55t31l53 why u31, voc,

g31m31 clothes 31ti31 chase.away u31 asp t35, temp

no31u31 ox 31, ind,

b31x55 thorn 31p31 3p dad u33, conj, o35di33 like.that 33 cry k31 loc m53 eat

ti33 stab mi53 caus i55p55 after

g33t35 then ti31-tm55 one-clf g33 also ni53 abl si55li55 si33li33 u31 (bird.cry) u55li33 asp di31ku53 wear u31d35 asp

g31m31 clothes i33 day u33 loc

t31om55 lake 31 u33, conj, to53 listen b31 dir

o5531 over.there li33 conj u33 conj no31u31 ox g31 also 31ts31 person m31dz33 crops

3155k55 evening 3131 def

31p31 3p dad 31p31 3p dad

mi53 caus k31 io

zn33u31 ask

u33 asp

o55 that

d31 times

s31l55nm55 good 31io31 I

i31-in55 caus-know 31 def

31p55 dad

u33, voc,

ti55-i33 one-day

ti55-i33 one-day

no31u31 ox

350
tu35 put 31 def 31io31 I s55 sound 31 def d33 asp t35, temp l55 come.out b31 name b31 loc 31ts31 household t35, temp, 3131 def g31 also ni53 abl

appendix b
t31om55 lake 31 asp 31s35u31 call to53 listen m31dz31 crops u55 loc o55 have li33 conj li33, conj, m53 eat ni53 abl li33 conj 33 cry no31u31 ox bo31, dir, u55li33 conj i33-in55 caus-know 3131, asp, o5531 like.that t33 bird 33nm55 beautiful

ti35-i33 one-day o55-i33 that-day ni53 abl 3131 def di31t55 orphan 31u31, asp, 31vu35 hand 3133 be 31vu35 hand g33t35 then

31p31 3p dad t31om55 lake ti55-31 one-clf

t55ti55 conj u53 loc xo35xi31 like.that

31tu35 put

d35, asp,

t55 bird li33. conj.

l55 come.out

31 asp

si55li55 si33li33 u31, (bird.cry), m31o31 neg-abuse 31p31 3p dad li33, conj, d53? mood? mi53 caus 31io31 I ti55-b31om55 one-house l33 conj u33li33 like.that 33 cry

k31 35 io g33t35 then du33 stretch na33, mood, pm53 palm t55 bird 31 asp 31 asp

31io31 I 31 fall 31 def 31 fall u31li33 asp i35u33, dir, 31so33 that o55-i33 that-day 3131 def t55 bird 33 dir u33li33 like.that m31d33 then u31 asp u33, conj,

31vu35pm55 hand palm 33 def l55 hold

texts
p55-dz55-di33 father-son-both g31 also s31-l35 caus-put 31si55 and 3131 def t31m31 house u53 loc b55d31 food k31 io u31 loc 55 meat 31d33 def io55 fall m53 eat 31 asp t35, temp, u55 loc o35 return d35, asp, t55 bird

351

t31m31 house u33, conj, 31tn31 3p child 31g33hi35 rice-bowl 31 def 31i33 shit

31p31 3p dad

u33, dir

t31m31z55 woman u31 loc u33, conj,

31g55-hi35 rice-bowl 3131 def ti31 only i33-io55 shit- clf u33, conj

ti35-i55 one-evening do35do33 repeat i33 this k55t31 what d33 asp n31 door t33 bird m33 neg o55 that

ti55-i55 one-evening u31 do io55t35 temp t55 bird u31li33 conj

xo33io35 like.that t31m31z55 woman 31 def mi53 caus pe53! bah!

to33 ghost mo33 use

k55i33 seize

u31 asp

li33 conj

do31san53 kill

t35, temp t55za31 in.rear m31 corpse 33 have k53 loc i55p31 after i33 day 31 def du53 look t35 temp

3131 def li33 conj ts31t35 scissors 3131 def ni33 instr b31 go u33-dm55, do-nom, u33, asp 31m31xu55 sackcloth u31 loc ti55-k31 one-grasp 31n55 have u33, asp,

ts31t55 scissors ts31 scissors

m31xu55 sackcloth 31 def

31kom35 assemble

352
i55p31 after u55li33, conj, ts31t55 scissors u33, conj, to33 ghost to33 misplace g33t35 then d3531 asp 31ts31 person t33 become g33t35 then si55si55 sharp h35u31 grind li33 conj 31io31 I b35 step 31io31 I 31io31 I i33 day d53 look mi53 instr g33t35, then, ts31t53 scissors 31b55 dir ts31t55 scissors u33, conj, io55 clf d3531 asp t31m31 child u33 adv u31 asp li33, conj, 3131 def u33, conj, 3131, def, a31n55 dir 3155 smash pe53, bah! k55t31 what u33, conj

appendix b
m31xu55 sackcloth t35, temp, u33 adv i55 this mo33 use u31li33, conj, tim31 house p5531 next ts31 scissors ni55 asp u33m31 do ni33 instr 31 def lu35 bring

3131 def

31ts31 person

ti55-io55 one-clf

31po55 change

s31l55z55 young.woman

i31nm53 beautiful

ti31-io55 one-clf

31p31 3p dad

mi53 caus

m31 knife

ti55-tm31 one-grasp

n31t55 kom33 threshold u33, asp, 3131 def

b31 loc

t35 frame

u31 asp

m31d33u31 then

ti55-b31om55 one-house n55io55 dir ti55-b31om55 one-house m31s31 knife.opening li33, conj,

m31s31 knife.opening

k33 loc

i55 this

m3133 neg-be k31 loc

u33 asp l55 mood

3131, def,

i33k31 this-loc

texts
ko31kom55 jump.descend t31m31z55 woman 31i55-io55 two-clf g53 shout 31 def b31 io g33t35 then 31 def 31ts31 person 3131 def io55 clf dz33 walk 31po33 change i31-u33 this-way 3131, def, d35 asp l55 good u33, conj, g33t35 then 55b35 step 31ia33u33, (stepping), 31ni55 ind li33, conj ts31t55 scissors g53 shout u33, asp dz31 walk 3131 try b33 dir li33, conj, xo33io55 like.that m31d35 then 31d35 asp

353
t35, temp,

u33li33 conj

u33. asp.

t31m31z55 woman k31ne53 abl 31ni33 inch io55 clf

31ki31 in.addition o55k31di33 that.place

ko31kom55 jump.descend o55 stay

o3155 that-clf

som31p33dz55 three-person-family

d35u33. asp.

Anong Text Three: The Python Once upon a time, there was a couple with six daughters. The father passed away a long time before. One day, the mother went to the mountains to gather cogon grass. Dusk came and she carried a big backload of grass home. After she got home, she started to spread the grass to dry in the sun. Suddenly a python came out of the pile of grass. It wanted to bite the old lady. It said, Give me one of your daughters. Otherwise, I will bite you to death. The mother replied, Dont bite me yet. Let me go and ask my daughters. She then went to ask her oldest daughter whether she would be willing to go (with the python). She also told her daughter that if she did not go, her mother would be bitten to death. And if she was willing to go, then the python would not bite her mother. Her daughter said, I am not going if it means marrying the python. Then the old lady went to ask her second oldest daughter (to see) whether she would be willing to marry the python. Her second daughter did not want to marry the python either. Then she asked the

354

appendix b

third daughter who also said no. She asked her daughters one by one who all said no until she asked the last one, her sixth daughter. The sixth daughter said, If I dont go, mother will definitely be bitten to death. Therefore, I will go. On their way back with the python, suddenly the python disappeared when they reached a particular spot. A person was sitting by the river who said, Lets rest here for a little while. While they are resting, that person spoke again, Please see if there are lice in my hair. However, she did not find any lice in his hair. Instead she found some snake skin. She said to that man, There are no lice. I only found some snake skin. Then they returned home. It happened that their home was in a big cave. Several years later, they had a child. Therefore, they wanted to go and visit the wifes mother. After staying at the wifes mothers home for a few days, they returned (to their) home. Upon departure, the wifes second sister said, Please take me along. When they reached a place where there was a coral tree, the two sisters discussed plans to pick coral. The older sister asked the younger sister to climb up the tree to pick coral. At that moment, the child was pinched and started crying. The mother in the tree asked, Why is my child crying? Her second older sister said, The child wants the ornaments in your hairdo. She then took out the ornaments and threw them down (to her sister). A moment later, the child was pinched again and started crying again. The mother again asked, Why is my child crying again? Her sister said, He wants your necklace. The mother took off her necklace and threw it down (to her sister). A little while later, the child was pinched yet again and started crying yet again. The mother again asked why and was told that her child wanted her clothes. So she took them off and threw them down. Another moment later, the child was once again pinched and once again started to cry. The mother once again asked why and was told that her child wanted her earrings. She took them off and threw them down (to her sister). In the end, the mother had nothing left on her. After that, the older sister cut the tree down and put on the younger sisters clothes and everything (that goes with them) and returned home (i.e. to the younger sisters home). When she got home, the husband thought (to himself), This woman does not look like my wife. So he asked her to go and fetch grain to test her. Just as expected, she did not even know where the grain was stored. Later she was asked to go and pound (rice) with mortar and pestle. She did not know about that either. Then he saw that this womans feet were flat so

texts

355

he asked her why she did not look like his wife. The woman replied, My feet were squeezed flat when I pounded (rice) with mortar and pestle at my mothers house. At that moment, the womans face turned red. The man thought (to himself), My womans face was not red like this. So he asked the woman why. The woman said, My face was burned red by the sun when I worked alongside my mother. In time, the child grew up and could take care of the cows. One day, his father asked him to go and let the cows graze. Suddenly, a beautiful little bird flew out of the lake. The bird was chirping, and called the lonely childs name, and asked the boy to ask his mother whether his mother was mistreating him. The boy was listening to the bird and was not paying attention when the cows ate the neighbors crops. The next day, the boy again heard the bird calling his name and after that he again forgot to keep an eye on the cows, and the cows again ate the neighbors crops. In the evening, his father scolded him and asked him why the cows had eaten the neighbors crops every day. The son said, Dad, because I dont have clothes (to wear), so when I tried to chase the cows away, thorns hurt me. And I failed to keep cows away (from the neighbors crops). Then his father gave him an article of clothing to put on. The next day, again a bird flew out of the lake, chirping. The lonely child heard it and again forgot to keep an eye on the cows. The cows again ate the neighbors crops. When his father asked him in the evening, this time he told him the truth. He said, Dad, every day when I go and graze the cows, a beautiful bird flies out of the lake and calls me by my name. Because I was listening to the bird, the cows ate the other peoples crops. The following day, his father went to feed the cows with him. On that day, as expected, a bird flew out of the lake and started chirping just like before and called out his sons name and asked his son whether he was abused. At that moment, the father reached out his hand and said, If you are my wife, please come to the palm of my hand. Then the bird indeed came up and landed on his palm. That day, father and son brought the bird home and the bird flew back and forth in the house. At mealtime, meat would fall into the fathers and sons bowls (from no where) while crap would fall into the womans bowl. This happened again and again every day, which annoyed the woman who spit at the bird saying, You useless damned bird! She seized the bird and killed it. She threw the dead bird behind the door. The next day, the dead bird disappeared and a pair of scissors showed up in the same spot. When using the scissors to cut cloth, the next day the cloth would be in many tiny pieces. Angered,

356

appendix b

the woman threw the scissors beneath the house. At that moment, the scissors changed into a beautiful young lady. The father then whetted a sharp knife and placed it over the threshold of the house with its sharp edge pointing upward. He said to the sisters, Let it be that she who is my wife can cross the threshold easily and that she who is not my wife fall over onto the edge of the knife. Having said that, he summoned the two women and asked them to cross the threshold. The woman that used to be the scissors crossed the threshold. However, the other woman fell onto the knife. After that, the father, mother, and son lived happily ever after. Notes on the Three Texts 1. The three texts were elicited from two separate informants. The first two texts were from Hn Wnjn while the third was from Fn Gupu. There are stylistic differences between the two informants speech. In the process of transcribing the texts, no modifications whatsoever were made. 2. During elicitation of the texts, we noticed that the tones and the pronunciation of the initials and finals of some of the words showed variation in specific contexts particularly when compared to pronunciation of words in isolation. The variation was preserved in our transcription for the benefit of those who are interested in studying variation resulted from blending. 3. Although most of the grammatical phenomena found in the texts had been covered in our grammatical description of Anong before collecting the texts, we did encounter some new grammatical features. We tried our best to incorporate them into our grammatical analysis. However, for several of those points, even when we used the same kind of contexts to elicit examples of them, we failed to obtain satisfactory examples. These include certain functions of the numeral one, the functions of certain measure words, the functions of some structural particles, the functions of certain aspect suffixes, the functions of certain conjunctions, etc. Their uses are all preserved in our transcription of the texts for further investigation in the future.

APPENDIX C

AN ACOUSTIC LOOK AT ANONG Ela Thurgood 1. Introduction In this appendix, an acoustic analysis of some of the phonetic structures of Anong is presented. Data are discussed in terms of both variability and comparison to the traditional articulatory descriptions given by Sun. The vowel system is examined from three angles: First, the vowels are located in acoustic space. Second, the acoustic patterns of raised and nasalized vowels are examined in detail. And, third, possible influence of Lisu on the Anong vowel system is discussed. A particular interest of this study is in the phonetic reality behind two phonemic contrasts: a three-way laryngeal contrast of voiceless aspirated, voiceless unaspirated, voiced stops and a three-way coronal contrast of alveolar, retroflex and alveolo-palatal fricatives and affricates. An acoustic analysis of Anong tones looks at the tonal space characteristics and a correlation between tones and the tense-modal register. Although not in the forefront, the question of how the language death affects the range, distribution, and degree of variability is also considered. 1.1. Anong Data Sun (2005) collected the Anong data during his six field trips, in the 60s, 80s and 90s. The data used in this study have been selected from recordings made by Sun in 1999.1 His consultant was a fluent speaker of Anong and Lisu, who used Anong when speaking to his mother and elders, but Lisu when speaking to his wife and to his four children. He was quite possibly one of the last fluent speakers of Anong. Suns recordings made on a camcorder are of words produced in isolation, and thus they represent qualities in clear citation forms. Sun

1 I would like to thank Professor Sun Hongkai for sharing his recordings with me and making this acoustic study possible.

358

appendix c

asked his consultant to repeat each word twice in a row. Both tokens were measured. Using SoundEdit 16 version 2, the recordings were downsampled at 11,025 Hz for vowel analysis and at 22,050 Hz for consonant analysis. The data were analyzed using Scicons Macquirer software system. 2. Vowels2 Sun (this volume) distinguishes eight main vowels, with [y] a ninth one restricted to a handful of obviously Chinese borrowings. The notational system used by Sun in this study and in 2000 differs slightly from the one used in 1988, with the difference in the symbols for the low back vowels (see Table 1).
Table 1: Anong vowels 1988 (Sun 1988:30) i (y) e u o 2000 (Sun 2000:69; Sun (this volume)) i (y) e a u o

To characterize the qualities of the vowels more precisely the frequencies for the first three formants (F1, F2, F3) were calculated at about the mid-point for each vowel over a 23 ms window. The mean formant frequencies and the number of tokens measured for each vowel are shown in Table 2. The vowel /y/ is not included in the analysis, because no examples were available in the recorded data. The positions of the Anong vowels in a two-formant space are plotted in Figure 1, with ellipses drawn around each cluster of points representing a single vowel type. Figure 1 shows that the two vowels /e/ and // are not well separated in the F1/F2 space, even though /e/ is slightly higher and more peripheral than //. The vowel //, as produced by Suns consultant, is a relatively high vowel. It is possible that // and /e/ constitute allophones of the same phoneme.

2 This section is based on an earlier analysis of vowels in Thurgood (2007) with some new data on vowels, particularly on the vowel [e], included in this analysis.

an acoustic look at anong

Table 2: Mean frequencies of Anong vowels n i e o u = 5 3 4 6 7 8 6 F1 356 416 477 600 416 379 380 F2 2096 1924 1886 1044 753 967 1849 F3 3500 2979 3426 2739 2743 2854 2912

359

Figure 1: Anong F1/F2 vowel space

2300 F2 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 1100 900 700 500 200 300 400

i e

u o

500 600 700 F1

The back vowel /u/ shows a centralizing tendency (F2 = 967Hz). It becomes more peripheral only when it follows a bilabial stop, as in, for example, [k55pu31] cuckoo or [pu31] blow air on fire. When after a bilabial, the F2 lowers by ca 200 Hz (mean F2 = 675 Hz); these tokens of /u/ are included in Figure 1 resulting in a large scatter for the vowel. Of special interest is the vowel described by Sun as the back unrounded vowel //; in his work, Sun observes that // is more central than the symbol would lead one to expect, and, as the acoustic analysis shows below, a more appropriate IPA symbol for // would, in fact, be //. Accordingly, in Figure 1 // is used instead of //. The low vowel // becomes the most open and central vowel when it functions as the prefix [a31], as in, for example, [a31s53] earth, dirt, soil or in [a31t55] to stride forward. Based on 8 tokens, the F2 of [a] increases by ca. 200 Hz. In Table 3 mean values of the formant frequencies for both allophones of // are given for comparison.

360

appendix c

In Table 4, Suns vowel configuration is compared with E. Thurgoods vowel configuration based on her acoustic study. The difference is in the representation of the vowel //, now marked as //, and in the lack of [a], now analyzed as an allophonic variant of //.
Table 3: Mean values of F1, F2, F3 for the two allophones of // F1 [] [a] 600 582 F2 1044 1217 F3 2739 3141

Table 4: Anong vowels Sun (this volume) i (y) e a u o E. Thurgood (2007) i e u o

2.1. Vowel Raising Vowel raising occurs when / o/ follow an alveolo-palatal. Formant frequencies of / o/ were measured when they followed //, /t/, /t/ and /d/. Additionally, the affricate retroflex /t/ also causes vowel raising.3 Measured in the middle, the three non-high vowels are raised to what in IPA would be [i u], respectively. Formant values of the main vowels / o/ and their raised counterparts are given in Table 5; their formant frequencies are plotted in Figure 2. The influence of the alveolo-palatal consonants is greater for the low vowel // (the F1 is lowered by ca. 130 Hz) than for the mid vowels // and /o/ (their F1 is lowered by ca. 70 Hz). However, the two mid vowels also show an increase in F2 vis--vis their neutral counterparts. In the case of //, the F2 is increased by ca. 200 Hz, in the case of /o/ it is increased by ca. 220 Hz. As a result, when raised, // almost overlaps with /i/ and /o/ partially overlaps with /u/. The vowel //, on the other hand, occupies a new vowel space.

3 This points to [t] being more [t]. The retroflex affricate is analyzed later in the section devoted to coronal contrasts.

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Table 5: Mean formant frequencies for / o/ and their raised counterparts F1 // // /o/ 477 390 600 472 416 345 F2 1886 2032 1044 1062 753 979 F3 2996 2885 2739 2681 2743 2293

Figure 2: Allophonic variation in Anong

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2.2. Apical Vowel / / Sun reports that Anong has the apical vowel //. In E. Thurgoods (2007) study, the vowel described by Sun as // is measured in two contexts: (1) When it follows either an alveolar or a retroflex; and, (2) When it follows a consonant cluster /b/, /f/, /k/ or /g/. Altogether 26 tokens of // were measured. As the earlier study shows, depending on the preceding consonant, // is either a very peripheral high front vowel partially overlapping with /i/ or a very central high vowel partially overlapping with //. It overlaps partially with /i/ when after /b/, /f/, /k/, or /g/; It overlaps partially with // when after an alveolar or retroflex consonant. Table 6 gives the mean formant frequency values of the two variants. Figure 3 presents Suns apical vowel in the F1/F2 vowel space. The two scatters of the vowel are marked with the symbol .

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Table 6: Allophonic variants of Suns apical vowel // F1 F2 1756 2231 F3 2963 3816 when after /t /, / d/, or /dz/ when after /b/, /f/, /k/, or /g/

= =i

393 388

Figure 3: Suns apical vowel in the F1/F2 vowel space

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2.3. Nasal and Nasalized Vowels According to Sun, in Anong there are nasal vowels. The examples given in Table 7 were available in the data. The values of the first three formants of the nasal and oral // were measured using the procedure outlined in the introduction to the oral vowels.
Table 7: Examples of oral and nasal // l33 ku33 to look, seek bee l31 ku31 to swim hole

It is clear that in Anong, nasal // is now retained somewhat randomly. On the one hand, the nasalization observed by Sun in [l31] to swim has disappeared, making the difference between [l31] to swim and [l33] to look, seek just tonal. On the other hand, however, in a different word, /p31/ five, the final nasal [] is no longer pronounced, but nasalization on the vowel is preserved. The word is pronounced as [pa31]. Figure 4 presents a spectrogram of [pa31] five. An acoustic analysis was also conducted to see how // followed by a nasal fits into the patterns of the oral and nasal //. The examples

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Figure 4: Spectrogram of [pa31] five.
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Table 8: Examples of // followed by a nasal /m/ /n/ // in [sm53] to pour in [bn55] to weave (baskets) in [d55] to climb a tree, [l55] piece (of stone), [ts31] person

Table 9: Mean formant frequency values for oral and nasalized allophones of // F1 [] [a] [] [] 600 582 472 405 F2 1044 1217 1062 1015 F3 2739 3141 2681 3237

analyzed are given in Table 8. The results are given in Table 9. For comparison, the formant frequencies for the oral allophones of // are also given. As Table 9 shows, nasalization triggers raising in the low vowel, an observation also made for other languages (see, for example, Gordon and Maddieson 2004). The values for the nasalized [] and the raised [] are very similar. The only consistent and robust difference between [] and [] is in F3. For [], F3 is by ca. 550 Hz bigger than for [].

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appendix c 2.4. Influence of Lisu on the Anong Vowel System

Despite the richer vowel inventory of Lisu, with one minor exception, Anong has not shown any expansion of its vowel inventory. The exception is Anong /y/, which now occurs in a handful of Chinese borrowings into Anong, undoubtedly in part because the /y/ already occurs in Lisu. Table 10 presents the vowel inventory of the northern Lisu dialect, with which the Anong speakers are primarily in contact with (Bradley 1994).
Table 10: Northern Lisu vowels (Bradley 1994) i e y a u

As in Anong, the two processes, vowel raising and nasalization, are also found in Lisu, however, the directionality of change and end results are different. Lisu does not appear to have affected Anong. Specifically, although fronting has been reported in Black Lisu, it only involves // to // after alveolo-palatals. Raising has been reported to occur but only in Southern Lisu and even then the results are different: the mid vowels /e o/ are variably raised to /i y u/ (Bradley 2003). Nasalization has also been found in Lisu, but unlike the variable nasalization in Anong, Lisu nasalization is not just predictable but is subject to distinctly different environmental constraints: It occurs in syllables beginning with a vowel or with h- (Bradley 2003). 2.5. Summary In Table 11, Suns vowel configuration is compared and contrasted with the one based on this acoustics study. The difference is in the representation of the vowel //, now marked as //, and in the lack of /a/, now analyzed as an allophonic variant of //. The vowel /y/ is put in parenthesis to mark the fact that its acoustic values have not been checked due to the lack of tokens.
Table 11: Anong vowels 2005 (Sun, this volume) iy e a u o 2007 (E. Thurgood 2007) i (y) e u o

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The data reveal that in Anong vowels following alveolo-palatals are systematically altered in height. The allophonic variation of / o/ is manifested as shifts predominantly along the high/low dimension, but the front/back dimension is also altered. The data also reveal that the vowel // shifts along the front/back dimension. Nasalization has been shown to trigger // raising. A tendency to denasalize a vowel that is not followed by a nasal has been observed. A tendency to drop the final nasal but to keep the vowel nasalized has also been observed. These two tendencies could be presented as the following chain: [ > > ]. 3. Consonants Sun (this volume) distinguishes 47 consonants (see also Table 12 below). As observed by Sun, a number of consonants presented in Table 12 no longer exists in Anong. Of particular interest are nasals and retroflexes. Of the five nasals /m n /, Anong now has three /m n /. // is an allophone of /n/ occurring only in front of a high front vowel, as in [d55i33] today. There is no distinction between the voiceless and voiced nasals: Voiceless nasals are pronounced as voiced. Nasals in codas begin to disappear leaving their traces on the preceding vowel (see the section on nasalized vowels). The retroflex // is pronounced as [n]. For example, [t3155] younger sibling is pronounced as [t31n55]. The retroflex series of stops / / and the lateral // have shared the fate of the nasal retroflex. They have also disappeared. / / are now pronounced as [t t d]; // is pronounced as [l]. The fate of the fricative and affricate retroflexes is discussed in the section on coronal contrasts.
Table 12: Anong consonant inventory (after Sun this volume) bilabial stops fricatives affricates nasals lateral fricatives approximants approximant p p b fv m m alveolar t t d sz ts ts dz n n l retroflex t t d alveolopalatal t t d velar k k g x glottal h

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appendix c 3.1. Variation in Consonant Production

Variation in pronunciation is observed in the production of crosslinguistically less common segments such as the lateral fricative //. When asked to produce words with the fricative //, the consultant always produced the approximant [l] at first and only later, having been prompted to change his pronunciation by Sun, he produced the voiceless fricative []. Figure 5 illustrates this variation in the word [53] (from 55u31) to lick.
Figure 5: Variation of // in the word [53] to lick
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Variation in the production of the fricatives /x / can also be observed. The velar /x/ is palatalized when followed by /i/ and pronounced as the alveolo-palatal []. For example, /xi55/ to laugh is pronounced as [i55] (Figure 6). However, with the prefix a31, only part of the velar fricative is palatalized. As a result, /31xi55/ to laugh is pronounced as [a31xi55] (Figure 7).
Figure 6: Spectrogram of /xi55/ to laugh [i55]
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Figure 7: Spectrogram of /31xi55/ to laugh [a31xi55]

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The voiced fricative // is often only produced when the consultant is prompted by Sun to say it. Figure 8 gives the first pronunciation of /31/ a saw (Suns 31) without the velar fricative; Figure 9 gives the second pronunciation of /31/ with the fricative //.
Figure 8: Spectrogram of /31/ a saw [:31]
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Figure 9: Spectrogram of /31/ a saw [31]

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Anong has a three-way laryngeal contrast of voiceless aspirated/voiceless unaspirated/voiced stops. The phonetic nature of the laryngeal contrast, illustrated in Figures 1011, is determined by measuring the voice onset time, i.e., the period from the release burst to the onset of voicing of the following vowel (i.e. the first glottal pulse). The number of tokens measured in this study ranged from 2 for the unaspirated series to 4 for the voiced series and 5 for the aspirated series. Figure 12 shows the mean VOT durations.
Figure 10: /k/ in /k55/ bamboo box

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Figure 11: /k/ in /k55pu31/ cuckoo

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[ k

Figure 12: /g/ in /g55/ bright

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Figure 13 shows that VOT clearly distinguishes between the three series. Voiceless aspirated stops are well distinguished from voiceless unaspirated stops by a considerably longer voicing lag (positive VOT) than the one characterizing the unaspirated series. The voice distinction is realized through the presence of prevoicing. The voicing lead (negative VOT) of voiced stops separates them clearly from unaspirated voiceless stops. Scheffes post hoc tests show all of the pairwise comparisons to be highly significant: voiced vs. unaspirated voiceless, p < .0001; unaspirated vs aspirated, p < .0001.
Figure 13: Mean VOT values for the three series of stops
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Cho and Ladefoged (1999) have shown that cross-linguistically there are often statistically significant durational differences in VOT associated with different places of articulation. In Anong, however, the differences in VOT among the aspirated bilabial, alveolar and velar stops are not statistically significant. Figure 14, in which the aspirated stops are separated for their places of articulation, shows the VOT of /p/ to be the longest. The VOT of /p/ is ca. 7 ms longer than that of /k/ and ca. 16 ms longer than that of /t/, but pairwise comparison by Scheffes post hoc tests does not indicate any statistically reliable VOT difference between any pair of aspirated stops.

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Figure 14: Mean VOTs and standard deviations for the aspirated stops
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Figure 15: Mean VOTs and SDs for the aspirated affricates
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An analysis of variance of VOT has also been performed for aspirated affricates /ts t t/. Results are shown graphically in Figure 15. The differences in VOT values between /ts/ and /t/ are statistically significant at the p < .05 level according to Scheffes post hoc tests. The differences in VOT values are not statistically significant when /t/ and /t/ are compared (p = .132), nor when /t/ and /ts/ are compared (p = .612).

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Figure 16: Mean VOT values for the three series of affricatives in Anong
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Figure 16 shows that VOT clearly distinguishes between the three series of affricates. Scheffes post hoc tests show all of the pairwise comparisons to be highly significant: aspirated vs. unaspirated, p < .0001; unaspirated voiceless vs. voiced, p < .0001. Voiced affricates require special attention. In contrast to voiced stops, they may be realized phonetically as fully voiceless. In our data, of the three types of affricates, the alveolo-palatal affricate /d/ is regularly produced as its voiceless counterpart [t] during the first repetition of a word; for example, /d53/ to read is pronounced as [to53]4 and /do31/ to win as [tu31]. However, in other words /d/ is always pronounced as [d], as in [di55di55] to polish. When /d/ is fully voiced, it has a long voicing lead of ca. 53 ms (Figure 16). The discussed variation in the production of /d/ is for one speaker only. It would be interesting to see how other Anong speakers pronounce the voiced affricates /dz/, /d/ and /d/. 3.3. Coronal Contrasts Anong has a three-way coronal contrast of alveolar, retroflex and alveolo-palatal fricatives and affricates. In the light of the observation that retroflexes are disappearing in the language, the retroflex series / t t/ is of great interest, particularly, how the retroflex series contrasts

Vowel changes are discussed earlier.

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with the alveolar series /s ts ts/ and the alveolo-palatal series / t t/. The discussion of the phonetic nature of the contrast presented here is based on an earlier acoustic study of coronal contrasts in E. Thurgood (2009). In this work, the three-way distinction among the voiceless fricatives /s /, among the aspirated voiceless affricates /ts t t/ and among the unaspirated voiceless affricates /ts t t/ was analyzed on the basis of FFT spectra, gravity center frequencies5 and the formant frequencies of the following vowel // measured at the onset and in the middle of the vowel. The data consisted of 28 tokens of /s / and 28 tokens of /ts t t/. For the unaspirated affricates /ts t t/, and in particular for /t/, the data were sparse, something that Sun observed as early as in 1988. However, 10 tokens of /ts t t/ were used to compare whenever possible the unaspirated series with the aspirated one. 3.3.1. Spectral Properties The study on coronal contrasts has shown that there is considerable uniformity across the analyzed data in the spectral characteristics. Figure 17 (based on E. Thurgood (2009)), in which the averaged spectra are separated according to the following vowel, illustrates the spectral characteristics. Among the fricatives, the most prominent spectral peaks for /s/ occur at higher frequencies than for // and for //, at approximately 7.2 kHz regardless of the following vowel. In contrast, // and // display their most prominent spectral peaks at lower frequencies, between 2.2 and 4 kHz depending on the following vowel. The spectra for the two fricatives differ in that // shows a less prominent, secondary peak cluster between 5.1 and 6.2 kHz, while // shows a relative flat spectrum following the most pronounced noise peak and then a steep decline. The spectral shapes of Anong coronal fricatives pattern well with spectral shapes of coronal fricatives in other languages with the three-way contrast. Among the coronal affricates, the highest spectral peaks of /ts/ are centered at higher frequencies, between 5.6 kHz and 6.8 kHz. Spectra for /t/ and for /t/ show a very similar display of noise distribution with the most pronounced peaks between 2 and 4 kHz. For both affricate types before the non-back high vowel, the spectral peaks are followed by a relative flat spectrum and then a decline. However, before the low

5 The center of gravity was calculated following the method described in Gordon, Barthmaier, and Sands (2002) for each token and then averaged together for each coronal appearing in each context.

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vowel, the spectra of /t/ and /t/ are characterized by secondary peaks between 5.7 kHz and 6.4 kHz. When before the non-back high vowel, the spectral shapes of /t/ and /t/ are similar to the spectral shape of //; When before the low vowel, the spectral shapes of /t/ and for /t/ are similar to the spectral shape of //.
Figure 17: Acoustic spectra for Anong coronal fricatives and affricates
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3.3.2. Gravity Centers The center of gravity well differentiates only between /s/ on the one hand and // and //, on the other. The center of gravity for /s/ is the highest; it is always greater than 6 kHz. The centers of gravity for // and // are always smaller than 5.5 kHz. Scheffes post hoc tests reveal the difference between /s/ and // and between /s/ and // to be significant at minimally the p < .05 level. However, pairwise comparison between // and // does not reach statistical significance. The center of gravity well differentiates between the three types of coronal affricates. The alveolar /ts/ has the highest gravity center values, while the alveolo-palatal /t/ has the lowest gravity center values. Pairwise post hoc comparisons involving /ts/, /t/ and /t/ show a significant difference at minimally p < .05. For the unaspirated affricates, the comparison is more restricted. However, even though the data are limited in the number of tokens available, the gravity center frequencies of unaspirated /ts/, /t/ and /t/ pattern in the same way as the gravity center frequencies of aspirated /ts/, /t/ and /t/. The alveolar affricate /ts/ has the highest gravity center values, while the alveolo-palatal affricate /t/ has the lowest, with the gravity center values of the retroflex affricate /t/ placed in between.
Figure 18: Mean gravity center frequencies for coronal fricatives and affricates
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fricatives

aspirated affricates

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3.3.3. Formant Frequencies of the Following Vowel Table 13 presents formant frequencies of the vowel // in different contexts. It shows that all three Anong coronal fricatives are well differentiated by the formant frequencies of the following vowel. The alveolo-palatal // triggers a significant lowering of F1 and a raising of F2 in the following //. The lowering effect of // on F1 and the raising effect of // on F2 persist into the middle of the vowel. The retroflex // triggers a significant lowering of F3 in the following //. The effect of // on // persists well beyond the portion of the vowel immediately adjacent to the fricative. There is no difference in formant values between the beginning and the middle of the vowel when // follows the alveolar /s/. The formant frequency values of // following /s/ pattern with the formant frequency values of // arrived at in the earlier study (E. Thurgood 2007).
Table 13: Averaged frequencies of // at the onset following /s/ following // following // following /ts/ and /ts/ following /t/ following /t/ and /t/ following a non coronal F1 580 424 455 541 398 388 600 F2 1124 1245 1201 1281 1216 1230 1044 F3 2939 2373 2749 2825 2699 2788 2739 in the middle F1 581 567 461 573 457 443 F2 1086 922 1150 1085 1071 1036 F3 2969 2382 2794 2847 2693 2721

The fricative components of coronal affricates pattern only partially with their fricative counterparts: F1 is lowered and F2 is raised when // follows /t/ and /t/; F1, F2, F3 are not changed when // follows / ts/ and /ts/. The difference between coronal fricatives and affricates lies with the retroflex affricate /t/. The fricative component of /t/ does not trigger lowering of F3 in the following vowel. Instead, it patterns with the aveolo-palatals /t/, /t/ and // in triggering a lower F1 in //. A lower F1 reflects a longer constriction not characteristic of a retroflex (Halle and Stevens 1997; Stevens 1998). It again points to / t/ being more like /t/.

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3.3.4. Retroflex Fricatives and Affricates As for retroflexes in Anong, the spectral shapes of // and the formant frequencies of the following vowel show that // is acoustically a retroflex. First, the spectral shape of // with its two spectral peaks not only differentiates it well from the remaining two coronals /s/ and //, but it also patterns well with the spectral shapes of the retroflex fricatives in other languages (see E. Thurgood 2009). Second, Anong // triggers a significant lowering of F3 in the following //, a feature that has been associated with the presence of retroflexion. It is of interest that in Anong the effect of // on the following vowel is observed not only at the vowel onset but also into the middle of the vowel. In contrast, the /t/, termed a retroflex by Sun, is not a typical retroflex acoustically. First, the fricative part of /t/ does not consistently pattern with the fricative //. Second, the spectral peaks of /t/ are not different from those of /t/. Third, the vowel //, when it follows /t/, does not show a lowered F3, but instead a lowered F1. Thus, in the speech of one of the last fluent speakers of Anong, the retroflex affricate /t/ has been lost along with other retroflex series even though it did not become /t/. In contrast, the retroflex fricative // is still preserved. 4. Tones and Tense-Modal Register 4.1. Tones Anong has five tones: two level tones (the high 55 tone and the mid 33 tone), and three contour tones (the rising 35 tone and two falling tones: 53 and 31). Tone 33 is a new tone, one that developed between 1988 (not noted by Sun (1988)) and 2000 (recorded by Sun (2000)). The words illustrating the five tones are given in Table 14. The pitches illustrating the tonal contrasts in these words are given in Figure 19. The pitch contour of each token is 170 ms long measured (in Hz) from the onset of the vowel. Pitch measurements are given at 10 ms intervals.
Table 14: Words illustrating Anong tonal contrasts tu55 tu33 tu53 tu35 tu31 (earthen) jar to play straight; press to fish dig up

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Figure 19: Pitch traces of Anong tones
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Figure 19 illustrates pitch contours for Anong tones elicited with the consultants full attention on differentiating among the five words given in Table 14 by tonal distinctions. In this elicitation, tones 55 and 33 are relatively close to each other in their fundamental frequencies (F0). They are only ca. 10 Hz apart for the first 60 milliseconds of the vowel and then ca. 30 Hz apart. The rising tone 35 and the falling tone 31 begin at approximately 160 Hz. Tone 35 raises ca. 30 Hz; tone 31 falls ca. 30 Hz. A pitch contour of tone 53 displays first a quasi hat-like pattern with a small rise of 10 Hz and then a steep fall of ca. 60 Hz occupying over half of the duration of the vowel. The mean F0 values of Anong tones are graphically presented in Figure 20. The duration of the vowels was normalized by measuring the fundamental frequency at 8 evenly divided points across the duration of the vowel: the onset and the endpoint of the vowel, and six intermediate points. For each tone from 12 to 6 tokens were measured. In contrast to the earlier elicitation, during the recording of these tokens, the consultant was focused more on a word meaning than on a tonal pitch. Pairwise post hoc comparisons indicate significant differences at minimally p < .05 between tone 31, on the one hand, and the remaining four tones, on the other. Post hoc tests indicate that there are overlaps and crossings of the four remaining tones. The possible correlation between consonant aspiration and a tonal contour has been under investigation (see, for example, Xu and Xu, 2003). In this study, an interaction of an aspirated consonant with F0 of the following vowel // is tested in the high tone 55 and in the lowfalling tone 31. The F0 of // following an aspirated consonant /p t ts

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Figure 20: Mean F0 values for five Anong tones
tone 55 240 220 200 Mean F0 (Hz) 180 160 140 120 100 1 2 3 4 Time 5 6 7 8 tone 33 tone 53 tone 31 tone 35

Figure 21: Average F0 contours (aspirated vs. voiced consonants)

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k/ is compared with the F0 of // following a voiced consonant /b d g l/. Figure 21 presents the average F0 contours separated for a consonant type. The solid lines represent F0 measured after an aspirated consonant. The dashed lines represent F0 measured after a voiced consonant. The curves are time normalized. Figure 21 shows that a consonant type correlates with the F0 of the following vowel. It is higher following an aspirated consonant than following a voiced consonant by ca. 20 Hz through the first half of // in tone 55 and by ca. 35 Hz through the first quarter of // in tone 31. Statistical analysis shows that the onset

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F0 values of the two curves for each of the tones are significantly different (p < .001). The consonant effect decreases over time towards the syllable offset, but it never disappears completely. 4.2. Tense-Modal Register Anong vowels are described as tense, a new feature first recorded only in 1983 (Sun 2005:152). In descriptions of southeast Asian languages, the feature tense is used to refer primarily to a laryngeal setting, in which the vocal folds are tense and vibration is partially inhibited when compared with the vocal folds of modal phonation (cf. Maddieson and Ladefoged 1985). Anticipating the discussion below, the terms tense and laryngealized are used interchangeably in referring to the nonmodal phonation (or register) employed in Anong. In this study, tense-modal register is analyzed on the basis of the low vowel //. Some of its acoustic characteristics can be seen in Figure 22. The waveform of // measured in the middle of the vowel (between 190 and 225 ms) shows irregularly spaced pitch periods and reduced acoustic
Figure 22: Waveform and spectrogram of [d55] thunder

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intensity. The spectrogram shows increased distance between the vertical striations. It is also characterized by a final glottal closure. The final glottal closure could be analyzed in two ways. It could be analyzed as part of the tense register on the vowel that creates a full glottal closure at the vowel end. It could also be analyzed as a glottal stop in the coda. That, in turn, would imply that tense vowels arise as the result of the preceding []. The evidence is inconclusive. Following Suns analysis, the word given in Figure 22 is transcribed as [d55]. Figure 23 presents a waveform and a spectrogram of // in the word [k55] bamboo box transcribed by Sun without [] in a coda. The waveform of // measured in the middle of the vowel (between 200 and 245 ms) once again shows irregularly spaced pitch periods, and the spectrogram shows increased distance between the vertical striations in the second half of the vowel.
Figure 23: Waveform and spectrogram of [k55] bamboo box

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Figure 24: Spectrogram of [tn55] (from [t31 n55]) younger sibling

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As noticed by Sun, vowel tenseness can be observed not only in open syllables. In Figure 24, // is followed by a nasal, in which case not only the vowel but also the following nasal are laryngealized. From the spectrogram in Figure 24, it is clear that the vowel becomes progressively more laryngealized. The irregular pitch periods are particularly noticeable in the second half of []. Tense vowels are distinguished from modal vowels in terms of their spectral properties. On the basis of their analysis of Jingpo, Hani, Nasu, and Wa, Maddieson and Ladefoged (1985) show that the most consistent acoustic feature of tense vowels is energy increase in higher formants and energy reduction in fundamental frequency (see also Gordon and Ladefoged 2001). This study looks at the acoustic properties of tense vowels in Anong by analyzing the power spectra of //. Figures 2526 present two Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) spectra calculated over a 23 ms window. The differences between them are in the amplitude of the second harmonic when compared to the amplitude of the fundamental. In Figure 25, the amplitude of the second harmonic is slightly less than that of the fundamental. In contrast, in Figure 26, the amplitude of the second harmonic is slightly greater than that of the fundamental. Another difference between the two spectra is that the spectrum of // in /k55/ shows a slightly steeper increase in intensity as one moves from low

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frequency components to higher frequency components. These differences imply that in /p33/ the vowel is not laryngealized as much as it is in /k55/.
Figure 25: FFT spectrum of // in the word /p33/ basket
dB

40

20

Hz

1000

2000

3000

4000

Figure 26: FFT spectrum of // in /k55/ bamboo box

dB

40

20

Hz

1000

2000

3000

4000

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It has been shown that a non-modal register sometimes correlates with a particular tone only. For example, among the three TibetoBurman languages discussed by Maddieson and Ladefoged (1985), in Jingpo and Nasu, each of the tones correlates with a tense and nontense (lax) register, but in Hani, only the mid and low falling tones cooccur with a tense register. One obvious explanation of the differences in the spectra of vowel // in Anong would be that the high tone 55 co-occurs with a tense phonation and the mid tone 33 co-occurs with a modal phonation. The acoustic parameters of the vowel // were measured for every tone to see whether in Anong there is a correlation between a phonation and a pitch. The amplitude values measured in the middle of // were those of the first harmonic (H1) of the fundamental, the second harmonic (H2), and the first formant (F1). The comparisons between the amplitude values were made by subtracting the intensity of the first harmonic from the intensity of the second harmonic (H1H2), and by subtracting the intensity of the first harmonic from the intensity of the harmonic closest to the first formant (H1F1). The results of these comparisons were checked particularly carefully for // tokens produced in tone 55, where among the four pairs of words, in one, /d55/ thunder, // was recorded by Sun as followed by //. It was established that the amplitude values measured in the middle of // were no different whether // was marked as being followed by a glottal stop or not. As a result, all the tokens of // produced in tone 55 were averaged together. Figures 27 and 28 present amplitude comparisons across the five Anong tones. The mean H1H2 amplitude differences show that H2 is about 5 dB above H1 for the high tone 55 and about 4 dB above H1 for the highfalling tone 53. It is about 2 dB above H1 for the mid-rising tone 35. The difference is much smaller for the mid-falling tone 31 and the mid tone 33. For these tones, the amplitude of H2 is only about 1 dB above the amplitude of H1. The mean H1F1 amplitude differences show a similar pattern. Once again the difference is the biggest for tones 55 and 53. It is about 5 dB. For tone 33, the mean H1F1 is 2.7 dB. The difference is the smallest for tones 31 and 35, for which the amplitude of F1 is only about 1dB above the amplitude of H1.

386

appendix c

Figure 27: Differences in H1H2 amplitude across the five Anong tones
tone 55 0 tone 53 tone 35 tone 31 tone 33

-1

-2

dB

-3

-4

-5

-6

Figure 28: Differences in H1F1 amplitude across the five Anong tones
tone 55 0 tone 53 tone 33 tone 35 tone 31

-1

-2

dB

-3

-4

-5

-6

an acoustic look at anong

387

Figure 29 offers another look at the modal-tense register in Anong. It gives the averaged H1H2 values at three percentage points (25%, 50%, and 75%) across the vowel duration for two tones for which the H1H2 values are most different, tones 55 and 31. To avoid effects of the preceding consonants, the vowel onset was excluded. To avoid effects of the following glottal stop, the vowel offset was also excluded. By sampling the amplitudes at three points instead of one, it was hoped to learn more about a correlation between a register and a pitch in Anong. Figure 29 makes it clear that in Anong laryngealization is a vowel feature. Figure 33 makes it also clear that laryngealization in Anong is a matter of degree. Tone 55 correlates with a tense register. The amplitude of the second harmonic is greater than that of the fundamental at the three points measured across the vowel duration. Tone 31 correlates with tense-modal register, as the amplitude of the second harmonic is only slightly above that of the fundamental.
Figure 29: Averaged H1H2 comparisons across // duration for tones 55 and 31
-1 0 -1 -2 dB -3 -4 -5 -6 time 1 time 2 time 3 tone 55 tone 31

388

appendix c 5. Conclusions

The study looked at different aspects of phonetic structures of Anong. It can be summarized as follows. The seven vowels of Anong are for the most part well differentiated on the basis of their F1 and F2 values, even though individual tokens of /e/ are not well separated from the tokens of //. Possible influence of Lisu on Anong vowels was not observed despite the fact that both systems are characterized by vowel raising and vowel nasalization. Variation in the production of those consonants that are crosslinguistically less common pointed to the effects of language attrition. The three-way laryngeal contrast of voiceless aspirated, unaspirated and voiced stops was established for stops. For affricates, the three-way contrast was at times simplified to a two-way contrast between voiceless aspirated and voiceless unaspirated affricates. The three-way coronal contrast was established for fricatives and affricates. The analysis showed that despite the disappearance of retroflex stops, nasals and liquids, the fricative // was acoustically a retroflex, while the affricate /t/ was not acoustically retroflex. The analysis shows that in Anong tenseness is not an acoustic cue to any of the five tones in the same way that the pitch is. Neither is it a contrastive property of vowels. However, a degree to which a vowel is tense (laryngealized) correlates with a pitch level. Namely, there is a strong tendency for a high tone to co-occur with a fully laryngealized vowel, and for a mid and a mid-falling tone to co-occur with a slightly laryngealized vowel. References
Bradley, David. 1994. A Dictionary of the Northern Dialect of Lisu (China and Southeast Asia). Pacific Linguistics Series C-126. Bradley, David. 2003. Lisu. In G. Thurgood and R. J. LaPolla (eds), The Sino-Tibetan Languages, 222235. London, New York: Routledge. Cho, Taehong and Peter Ladefoged. 1999. Variation and universals in VOT: evidence from 18 languages. Journal of Phonetics 27:207229. Gordon, Matthew and Peter Ladefoged. 2001. Phonation types: a cross-linguistic overview. Journal of Phonetics 29:383406. Gordon, Matthew, Paul Barthmaier and Kathy Sands. 2002. A cross-linguistic acoustic study of voiceless fricatives. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 32:141174. Gordon, Matthew and Ian Maddieson. 2004. The phonetics of Paici vowels. Oceanic Linguistics 43:296310.

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Halle, Morris and Kenneth N. Stevens. 1997. The postalveolar fricatives of Polish. In S. Kiritani, H. Hirose and H. Fujisaki (eds.), Speech Production in Language: In Honor of Osamu Fujimura, 177193. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Ladefoged, Peter. 1983. The linguistic use of different phonation types. In D. M. Bless and J. H. Abbs (eds.), Vocal fold physiology. Contemporary research and clinical issues, 351360. San Diego: College-Hill Press. Maddieson, Ian and Peter Ladefoged. 1985. Tense and lax in four minority languages of China. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 60:5983. Stevens, Kenneth N. 1998. Acoustic Phonetics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sun Hongkai. 1988. Notes on Anong, a new language. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 11:2763. 2000. A brief introduction of Anong language. Minzu Yuwen 4:6880. 2005. The Anong language: studies of a language in decline. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 173:143157. Thurgood, Ela. 2007. Phonetic variation in Anong vowels. In Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, edited by Jurgen Trouvain and William J. Barry, 609612. Saarbrcken: Pirrot GmbH, Dudweiler. Thurgood, Ela. 2009. Coronal contrasts in Anong. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 39:5366. Xu, Ching X. and Yi Xu. 2003. Effects of consonant aspiration on Mandarin tones. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 33:165181.

INDEX
ablative, 100, 105, 164 Abor-Miri-Dafla, 167 adjectives, 9498 adjectives > adverbials, 97 adverb placement, 100 adverbial, 49, 97, 100, 107, 116, 165, 166 adverbs, 53, 9899 conjunctive, 99 degree, 98 modal, 99 scope, 98 agent, 164, 165 agentive, 90, 100, 101, 102, 114 allophonic variation, 132, 133, 361, 365 alternative interrogative, 117 amplitude differences, 385 Anong attrition, 1217 burial, 7 diet and food sources, 6 dwellings, 56 language research, 89 language use, 912 legends, 3 marriage and family, 5 people, 12 population, 12 religion, 7 social and economic conditions, 45 Anong in TB, 16676 phonology, 16676 Anong vowels, 357365 A-Not-A interrogative structure, 117 antonyms, 423, 95 apical vowel, 24, 361 aspect, 76, 77, 8081, 88, 117, 141, 1634 attitudes, 1216 attrition, 17 autonym, 1, 2, 145 auxiliary verbs, 9395 Bahing-Vayu-Newari, 168 Benedict, 168, 169 Bengru, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176 bird sounds, 523 Bodo-Garo, 167 Bokar, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176 Bradley, 3, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 67, 364 Burmese loans, 39, 124 by way of, 165 causative, 46, 8284, 103, 13940, 162, 164 cause and result, 120 caves, 5 Chinese borrowings, 38, 129, 145, 148, 358, 364 Chinese historical documents, 4 Cho and Ladefoged, 371 Christianity, 7 classifiers, 5660, 6772, 135, 157, 159, 160, 174, 175 borrowed, 37, 70 noun, 5660 measure words, 679, 135, 157, 159, 160, 174, 175 verb (adverbial), 712 comitative, 100, 106, 142, 165 comparatives, 96, 100, 1056, 140, 141, 165, 166 comparisons with other languages, 14376 grammar, 15665 lexicon, 15356 sounds, 14453 tones, 1501 conditionals, 120 conjunctions, 61, 100, 1078, 165 consonant clusters, 19, 21, 2223, 61, 129, 132, 144, 146, 151, 153, 168, 170 consonants, 1923, 130, 131, 132, 134, 140, 1446, 149, 151, 152, 16970, 174, 365378 coordinate compounds, 50 copulas, 49, 78, 902, 94, 1412, 162 coronal contrasts, 3738 countering questions, 109 crossbow, 126 Darang, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176 definite, 98, 100, 101, 106, 108, 109, 141, 142, 164, 165

392
derivation, 44 diminutives, 59, 96, 1578 diphthongs, 267, 128, 146, 147, 148 directionals, 44, 45, 85, 87, 88, 105, 1356, 162, 163, 1756 distal, 73 elaborate expressions, 512 exhortative particle, 109 functional load of tones, 152 futility marker, 110 future progressive, 80, 88 genealogy, 34 genitive, 165 Gordon and Ladefoged, 383 Gordon and Maddieson, 363 Gordon, Barthmaier, and Sands, 374 grammatical comparison, 15665 case markers, 1645 diminutives, 1578 classifiers, 15960 plurals, 157 possessives, 158 reflexives, 160 verbal, 1604 grammatical restructuring, 13542 causatives, 139 copulas, 141 grammatical particles, 140 noun plurals, 135 numbers, 136 person marking on verbs, 137 possessives, 136 stories and texts, 142 gravity, 374, 3768 Gyalrong, 167 Gyarung, 167 Halle and Stevens, 377 Han Wenjun, 3, 4, 8, 9 homonyms, 41 Idu, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176 imperative, 856, 87, 118, 162, 163, 175 indicative, 85, 91, 118, 162, 163 instrumental, 100, 104, 141, 164, 166 interjections, 55, 11013 intermarriage, 134 interrogative particles, 108109, 117 interrogative pronouns, 117 inverse marking, 789

index
Jingpo, 1, 2, 8, 36, 60, 77, 124, 130, 144, 176, 177, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152, 166, 16877 Kaman, 169, 174, 175, 176 Konyak, 167 Kopang, Joel, 8, 16 Kuki-Chin-Naga, 167 LaPolla, Randy, 1, 76, 82 laryngeal contrast, 357, 369, 387 Lepcha, 167 Lisu, 1, 2, 3, 815, 17, 27, 369, 41, 48, 65, 66, 69, 98, 1247, 1302, 136, 137, 163, 171, 357, 364 loans, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 48, 1248 locative, 65, 75, 100, 102, 116, 140, 141, 164, 165 Lolo-Burmese, 1, 2, 8, 36, 127, 130, 143, 167 Luish, 167 Luoba, 166 Maddieson and Ladefoged, 381, 383, 385 matriarchal, 6 mensural classifiers see measure words measure words (classifiers), 679, 135, 157, 159, 160, 174, 175 modified-modifying, 50 modifying-modified, 50 monophthongs, 23, 129, 130 mood, 76, 80, 85, 108, 112, 117, 162, 165 mood particles, 108 Mugujia Township, 12 Mugujia Village, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 65 mutual intelligibility, 8, 17 Myanmar, 3, 8, 9, 10, 16, 66, 173 nasalized vowels, 15, 21, 25, 77, 79, 127, 128, 133, 146, 147, 150, 357, 3623, 365 native words, 27, 35, 36, 38, 41, 43, 125, 126, 127 negation, 141 nominalization adjectives, 967 verbs, 89 nominalizer, 48, 97, 115, 162, 163 noun-complement compounds, 50 noun classifiers, 5660 nouns, 5559 gender markers, 59

index
number, 5556 possessive prefixes, 5658 Nu ethnic group, 1, 8, 19 Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province, 1, 2, 8, 12, 15 numeral classifiers see noun classifiers numbers, 6066 approximative, 603 birth order, 64 cardinal, 60 compound, 601 fractions, 65 multiples, 65 ordinals, 60, 65 place, 64 prefixes, 60 Nung, 143, 1446, 15660, 164, 167 Nusu, 1, 8, 14, 15, 17, 14365 object, 78, 79, 89, 90, 93, 94, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 113, 114, 116, 137, 165 onomatopoeia, 44, 53, 99 optative, 87, 118, 162 particles, 100107 adverbial, 9293 agentive, 101102 object, 102103 possessive, 101 parts of speech, 55112 patriarchal, 6 perfect progressive, 81 phonology, 1954 polysemous words, 42 possessive, 569, 100101, 114, 122, 136, 140, 141, 158, 164 prefixes, 20, 24, 33, 437, 5660, 64, 70, 7580, 824, 867, 956, 105, 133, 1358, 140, 150, 156, 158, 1601, 163, 168, 1713, 175 prompting interjections, 110 pronouns, 7276 demonstrative, 73 indefinite, 76 interrogative, 735 personal, 72 reflexive, 7576 proximal, 73 Qiang, 35, 36, 67, 169, 173 reciprocal, 82, 84 reduplication, 44, 52, 55, 70, 76, 95, 100, 160 reflexive, 72, 75, 82, 160, 1612 register, 37887 restructuring, 123142 increased loans, 1245 lexicon, 126 loss of consonant clusters, 129 loss of retroflexes, 130 new 33 tone, 132 new allophonic variation, 132 new nasalized vowels, 128 new laryngealized vowels, 131 phonology, 12734 vocabulary loss, 126 rGyalrong, 167 rhetorical particle, 109

393

sentences, 113132 complex, 118 contrastive compound, 103 declarative, 117 estimations, 118 exclamatory, 118 imperative, 118 interrogative, 117 relative contrast compound, 119 requests, 118 simple, 117 successive compound, 11820 source = ablative, 164 Stevens, 377 subordinate clauses, 119 suffixes, 20, 33, 44, 479, 53, 556, 59, 64, 65, 70, 7582, 8590, 92, 968, 117, 137, 151, 1567, 160, 162, 175, 176, 356 Sulung, 16774, 176 Sun, 1, 8, 9, 44, 45, 47, 67, 99, 102, 107, 139, 163, 164, 168, 181, 35762, 3646, 368, 374, 378, 3813, 385 supplicative particle, 110 surprise markers, 111 syllable structure, 31, 144, 147 synonyms, 41 syntax, 55113, 113122 overview, 55 temporal, 68, 98, 99, 100, 104, 116, 120, 141, 164, 165 Thurgood, E., 358, 360, 361, 364, 374, 377, 378 Tibeto-Burman, 1, 8, 19, 35, 36, 40, 44, 47, 49, 51, 55, 57, 61, 67, 72, 778, 82, 85, 90, 92, 104, 109, 12930, 132, 136,

394

index
present progressive, 80, 88 reciprocal, 84 voice, 76, 82, 113, 162, 163 vowels, 2330, 357365 nasalized, 15, 21, 25, 77, 79, 1278, 133, 1467, 150, 357, 3625 sequences, 26 simple, 23, 25 with codas, 23, 27 weakened syllables, 31, 171, 172 word order adverbials, 116 attributive, 1145 SOV, 1134 writing system, 3, 15, 16, 113 Yi, 1, 2, 35, 36, 48, 67, 143, 147, 149, 151, 169, 175 Zauzou, 1, 2, 14, 14365

13941, 143, 14650, 155, 15760, 164, 16671, 1746 Tibeto-Kanuri, 169 tone sandhi, 30, 60, 49 tones, 19, 30, 41, 88, 132, 133, 144, 150, 151, 152, 158, 170, 171, 180, 356, 357, 37888 triphthongs, 26, 27, 128, 148 Trung, 1, 2, 3, 8, 13, 36, 48, 60, 67, 123, 132, 14376 verb-object compounds, 51 verbs, 35, 37, 45, 48, 55, 68, 69, 71, 7688, aspect, 80 causative, 82, 83 experiential, 81 future progressive, 80 mood, 85 nominalization, 89 perfect progressive, 81 perfective, 81, 88 person and number, 7688, 91, 137