ECO- LABLE

&
ECO- MARKS

ECOLABELING SCHEMES

Country Name of Prog. Year

Germany Blue angel 1977

Canada Environmental Choice 1988

Japan Ecomark 1989

Nordic Countries White Swan 1989

New Zealand Environmental choice 1990

Sweden Good Environmental Choice 1990

United States Green Seal 1990

Austria Austrian Eco- Label 1991

India Eco Mark 1991

European European Flower 1992

France NF- Environment 1992

South Korea Ecomark 1992

Singapore Green Label 1992

Netherlands Stitching Milieukeur 1992

Croatia Environmentally Friendly 1993

The Indian Govt. Lunched, "Ecomark", a voluntary ecolabelling scheme, in Feb 1991, with the
earthen pot as the symbol. Issued by the Bureau of Indian standards (BIS)
 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN TEXTILES & APPARELS
Textile industry: Evolution

 Clothing basic fiber (for coves & protection)

 Modern clothing (synthetic fibers & yarns)
 Smart textiles (technical textiles)

Technical textiles:

 Mobiltech

 Buildtech

 Meditech

 Agrotech

 Clothtech

 Packtech

 Geotech

 Oekotech

 Hometech

 Protech

 Indutech

 Sporttech
Past innovation:

1) Aerospace textile: Covers special finished products to highly engineered textile

materials. Include textile for:
 Aircraft
 Space suits
 Space shuttles
 Space transportation
 Lunar and mars mission

Stitching combined with resin film infusion that showed the greatest potential for overcoming
the cost & damage tolerance barriers in wing structure

(2) Medical textiles:-

 Provides bio receptive & biocompatible material.

Application:

 Artificial heart valve

(3) Sport textiles:-

Provides light weight material with safety features that are:

 Tougher them wood

 Breathes like Skin

 Waterproof like rubber

 Eco friendly & highly economical

(4) Digital printing: - is described as any ink jet based method of printing colorants onto fabric.
Started in late 1980s as a possible replacement for analog screen printing. With the use of easily
accessible files, much more complex wide format printers: a vast amount of subtle effects and
detail can be achieved.
Latest innovations in textiles:

1) Nano polymer technology: Nano polymer coatings impart amazing new properties to
materials.
 Increasing effectiveness
 Decreasing maintenance time and cost

Applications:

 Amni Soul Eco: launched in mid-2014

 Helps textile decompose in merely three years after having been discarded.
 Yarn is 100% recyclable and safe for use in adult, child and baby apparel.
2) Nano coating: Stainless material:
 Provides super hydrophobic textiles
 Completely water and oil repellent textiles
 Invisibility
 universal

3) Sensing T- shirts –

 Used for teenagers suffering from scoliosis

 Increase the comfort & effectiveness of spinal braces
4) Edema stocking
5) EQ- Top Seismic wallpaper

(6) New lite polyester yarn:

 Made from 100% post- consumer recycled plastic bottles.

 It is processed by mechanicals math them chemical means.
 Made in Italy, the fabric is used in fashion, sportswear, underwear, medical garments and
other clothes and furnishing.

(7) Mushroom material:

 New class of home-compostable bio-plastics.

  Based on mycelium: living organism analogues to the root structure of mushrooms.

Nano textile:-

Nano technology is design characterization production & application structures, devices &
systems by controlling shape & size at the nano scale

Types of Nano textiles:-

(1) Nano finished textiles

(2) Nano composite textiles

(3) Nano fibrous textiles

(4) Nano enabled non-woven

Nano Technologies:-

 Nano particles
 Nano composites
 Nano capsules
 Nano fibers
 Carbon nanotubes
 Nano coatings

Nano – enabled properties:

 Antimicrobial
 Fire resistance
 High strength
 Fragrance release
 Electrical conductivity
 Moisture management
 Stain resistance
 Static protection
  Wrinkle resistance
 Shrink resistance
 UV protection
 Water repellent (hydrophobic)
 Self- cleaning

Nano fiber: A Nano fiber is a continuous fiber which has diameter in range of billionths of a
meter. The smallest Nano fibers made today are between 1.5 & 1.75 nanometers.

Nano particle structure:-

(1) Whiskers :-

 Water repellent plant gives us the idea to make water repellent fabric. Complex
molecule called polymer is coated over normal fabric & heated until the polymer
bonded with the fabric. This coating implants Nano whiskers over the fabric so liquid
cannot touch it.

 Nano whiskers can make the fabrics stain & water repellent.

 The whiskers get hooked on the fibers to alter the fabric property.

2) Nets –
 Nano nets can alter the property of synthetic fibers like polyester to give feel of
cotton & linen.

 Wicks body moisture fast.

 Dries quickly & give the cooling effect.

3) Warps :-

 Increase strength & durability

 Improve in color fastness

 Static resistance
  Crease retention

Useful Nano particles:-

1. Clay Nano particles (UV protection):- These types of substances contain hydrogen
aluminosilicates, having different in the chemical composition and crystal structures. The
clay nano particles have a property of locking UV light. It also has electrical, chemical
and heat resistance. Hence the UV rays can be removed by the fabric having a finish of
clay nano particles.

2. Zno Nano Particles: - Can impart UV shielding in fabrics & can reduces static
electricity of nylon fibers.

3. Tio2 & Mgo Nano Particles (Photo catalytic self-cleaning): Photo catalytic activity of
Tio2 & MgO particles can break harmful & toxic chemicals & biological agents hence
imparts self- sterilizing function to fibers.

4. Sliver Nano particles: Anti-microbial & anti mold property of silver particles is utilized
to impart anti odor & ultra-fresh finishes to the under garments & socks.

Body measurement

The father of tailoring, Mr. Wampon, drew seven imaginary lines across the body structure for
the purpose of easy measurement in tailoring. The complete body structure was lengthwise
divided into eight equal parts, which is known as the eight head theory.

Eight Head Theory: - According to this theory, the normal body structure is considered 5'4"
height. This body is divided into 8 parts in which each part is 8" in length.

1. Hair to chin 6. Mid- thigh to small

2. Chin to nipple 7. Small to ankle

3. Nipple to navel 8. Ankle to feet

4. Navel to public organs

5. Public organ to mid- thigh

Ten Head theory: - The ten head figure is considered the fashion figure. This is mostly used for
fashion drawing and designing. The body structure is divided into ten equal parts. The ideal
height for this theory in taken to be 5'8''.

1. Head to chin 6. Knee Level

2. Chin to bust 7. Calf level

3. Waist level 8. Ankle level 9. Feet

4. The hip level 10. Below feet

5. The end of public organs

Taking body measurement:-

1. Bust: - Measurement has to be taken about the fullest part of the chest/bust by raising the
measuring tape to a level slightly below the shoulder blades at the back.

2. Waist

3. Neck

4. Shoulder

5. Front waist length

6. Shoulder to bust

7. Separation of bust point

8. Across back measurement

9. Back waist length

10. Armscye depth

Sleeve Measurements:

11. Upper arm circumference

12. Lower arm

13. Elbow Circumference

14. Wrist

15. Sleeve length

Skirt Measurements:

16. Waist

17. Hip

18. Waist to hip

19. Skirt Length

SEWING MACHINE

Sewing machine is a machine used to stitch fabric & materials together with thread.

Two major parts of the sewing machine

1. Upper parts: - The upper parts is composed of

(a) Head - is the complete sewing machine without a cabinet or stand.

(b) Arm- is the curve part of the head contacting mechanism for operating the needle.

(c) Bed - is the flat portion of the machine & beneath is the feed dog where it is mounted, &
the shuttle & lower thread are placed.
Parts of the sewing machine in the Arm:

1) Spool pin: is the thread holder.

2) Thread Guide: keeps the thread in position.
3) Thread Take up lever: releases the thread and interlocks with the bobbin thread.
4) Presser bar lifter: moves the pressure foot.
5) Tension: controls the looseness and tightness of stitches.
6) Needle bar: holds the needle in place.
7) Needle clamp: holds and tightens the needle.
8) Pressure foot: holds the fabric in place while sewing.
9) Needle: is a slender tool attached in the needle clamp used for sewing.
10) Bobbin winder: controls the bobbin while winding thread.
11) Stitch regulator: checks the length of the stitches.
12) Balance wheel: sets the mechanism in motion.
13) Belt: connects the balance wheel to the drive wheel.
14) Stop motion screw: hinders moving when loosened and starts.

Parts of Sewing machine under the Bed:

1) Feed dog: moves the fabric while sewing.

2) Throat plate: is the window of the feed dog and it is where the bobbin threads come out.
3) Slide plate: is a movable plate that covers the shuttle and bobbin case.
4) Shuttle: holds the bobbin case while sewing.
5) Bobbin: is a metal spool for winding thread.
6) Bobbin case: holds the bobbin.

Lower parts:

(a) Band Wheel - Leads the balance wheel through the belt connection.

(b) Band wheel crank - Moves the band wheel

(c) Pitman rod - holds the treadle to band wheel crank.

(d) Belt guide - Holds the belt to its place.

(e) Belt shifter: - removes the belt from the wheel.

(f) Dress Guard - protects the dress from the wheel.

(g) Treadle or foot pedal - is where the feet are stationed to drive the band wheel through the
pitman rod. It regulates the starting, running and stopping of the machine.

(h) Legs - support the cabinet of the machine.

(i) Cabinet - holds the head of the machine by interlocking screw on the hinges.

Bobbin driver (lock stitch sewing machine):

1) Transverse shuttle (longitudinal shuttle): Transverse shuttles carry the bobbin in a boat-
shaped shuttle, and reciprocate the shuttle along a straight horizontal shaft.

2) Vibrating shuttle: Vibrating shuttle machines reciprocate their shuttle through a short arc.
The earliest vibrating shuttles used boat-shaped shuttles, but bullet-shaped shuttles soon replaced
them.

3) Rotating hook: Rotary hook machines hold their bobbin stationary, and continuously rotate
the thread hook around it.

4) Oscillating shuttle: Oscillating shuttle machines mount their bobbin on the hook, and
reciprocate the hook through a short arc.

5) Oscillating hook: Oscillating hook machines hold their bobbin stationary, and reciprocate the
hook through a short arc.

Hand Stitches

Stitch Types

1) Backstitch (Prick stitch): A very strong, secure stitch. Sometimes a distinction is made
between the backstitch and brick stitch. Some authorities consider the prick stitch to be the
 shorter, finer stitch. Stitches are even and evenly spaced on the top side of the fabric. On
the back or underside, the stitches overlap slightly. The stitch is used:
 To hold fabric pieces together firmly–sew or repair seams.
 In place of machine stitching in handmade garments.
 As under stitching for delicate garments or a difficult-to-reach location.
 To put a zipper in by hand.

To do the backstitch, begin by securing the thread on the underneath side or between the fabric
layers. Bring the needle through to the right side of the fabric. Insert the needle approximately
1/16 to 1/8-inch to the back of where the thread came out of the fabric. Pass the needle under all
layers of the fabric and forward twice the length of the stitch (approximately 1/8 to 1/4-inch).
Bring the needle back to the top or surface of the fabric pulling the thread snug. Stitches will
have a chain-like look on the underneath side.

2) Buttonhole

A very strong stitch. It is worked from right to left with the point of the needle toward and the
raw edge of the fabric (edge of the fastener are covering). The stitch is used to:

 Make hand-worked buttonholes.

 Sew on fasteners (snaps, hooks, and eyes).
 Finish the edge of an appliqué cover hooks and eyes.

To do the buttonhole stitch, secure thread end and bring the thread to the outside edge. When
working a buttonhole, insert the needle to the back side between the lips, bringing the point of
the needle to the surface approximately a 1/8-inch below the lip.
Wrap the thread under the needle from left to right. Pull the needle through allowing the loop to
slide to the edge of the lip forming a knot as the thread is pulled very secure. When covering
hooks and eyes, bring the needle to the surface. Sew around the fastener looping the thread
behind the needle to form tight knots along one side. Stitches should be very close together and
very secure.

3) Catch stitch: Catch stitch has worked from left to right from one edge of the fabric to
another creating an X-like formation. The X-like formation provides some elasticity or
 ―give‖ in the stitch, which is ideal in some situations (working with knit fabric, tacking
facings, etc.).It is used:
 For hemming.
 For tacking a facing at a seam edge.
 To hold interfacing pieces together.

The catch stitch can be worked from edge-to-edge across a fabric edge. This is sometimes called
a flat catch stitch. A small stitch is taken ¼-inch down from the hem edge. Another small stitch
is taken in the garment at the hem edge. Notice the needle is pointing left as the stitching moves
from left to right creating the X-stitch formation.

4) Blind stitch

A blind catch stitch is worked with the hem edge turned back approximately ½-inch. The stitch
catches the backside of the hem to the back side of the garment. The stitches do not show from
the right or wrong side when completed. The blind catch stitch is used to create a tailor‘s hem.
With thread end properly secured, take a very small stitch (a couple of threads) of the garment.
Take the next stitch approximately ¼-inch to the right in the backside of the hem. Alternate
between the hem and the garment moving from left to right. This technique is generally preferred
as the hemming stitch for most knits.

Cross-stitch tacks a decorative as well as a functional stitch. The stitch provides a degree of
flexibility yet security to an area. It is often used when tailoring a jacket or coat lining to secure
the center back ease pleat and any dart tucks. A series of diagonal stitches are taken ¼ to ½-inch
apart through all layers of fabric, to form a series of ―X‘s‖ or crosses. Either single or double
thread can be used.

5) Diagonal basting

Diagonal basting is a custom tailoring term for a longer form of the pad stitch. It is used to hold
the interfacing to the facing. The stitch can be a permanent or temporary stitch. If it is to be
permanent, it must not show through on the right side of the fabric.
 6) Feather stitch (Briar): It‘s primarily a decorative hand stitch that can be used on the
inside or outside of a garment. The stitch can be functional as well as decorative. It is often
used:
 When tailoring a lining to secure the center back ease pleat and dart/tucks.
 To secure appliqué to the desired area.
 As an embroidery stitch.

A series of very small stitches are taken on alternate sides of a given line, pleat, or tuck area. The
thread can be single or double, decorative or plain. To do the featherstitch, begin by securing or
hiding the thread end. Bring thread to the surface in the center or on the ―given line.‖ Take a
small diagonal stitch, approximately 1/8-inch to the right of the center. Angle the needle to come
out on the centerline approximately 1/8 to 1/4-inch below the thread/stitch above. Position the
thread so that it crosses the centerline and is underneath the needle at all times. The next stitch is
taken diagonally from the left of the center line, pointing toward and coming out at the center
line. These formations are repeated for the desired length needed.

7) Felling

Felling is a slant stitch formation used to:

 Attach or secure edges of fabric such as the under collar to the neck edge facing of the
garment when custom tailoring.
 Close seams from the right side.
 Attach appliqués.

Using single thread, secure thread in an inconspicuous location between layers of fabric. Hold
the needle diagonal to the folded edge and pick up a very small stitch (a couple of threads) in the
fabric opposite the thread. Slip the point of the needle through the edge of the fold and
approximately ¼-inch to the right, picking up a few threads of the other side or garment piece.
Pull the needle and thread through. Stitches should be close together and pulled very secure.
Repeat stitch formation.
 8) French tack

It is a thread connection securing separate garment segments to one another i.e. a free-hanging
lining or a floating snap. The connection is usually 1/4 to 3/8-inch in length.

It can be formed one of two ways: Thread Bridge & Buttonhole Stitch – Using matching
double thread, connect the parts/pieces with a bridge of double threads, approximately 1/4 to 3/8-
inch in length. The bridge should consist of at least two sets of double threads. Starting at one
end of the bridge, work a close, tight buttonhole stitch across/around the threaded bridge.
Stitches should be very tight and very close together. At the end of the threaded bridge, lock,
secure, and hide thread end.

 Using matching double thread firmly secure thread. Take a very small stitch, leaving a
loop in the thread. Release the needle.
 Using fingers loop the thread.
 Pull loop very snug next to the fabric.
 Continue the looping process to create the desired tack length. Make sure loops are very
secure and snugly positioned against the previous loops.
 Insert the needle through the last loop to lock. Secure to the adjacent fabric segment and
hide thread ends.

9) Overcast

Overcast is used primarily as a seam or edge finish to prevent raveling. It is made by stitching
over the fabric edge and can be worked from either direction. A single thread is used. Secure
thread. Beginning with the thread on the top side of the fabric edge and to the side of the needle,
move the needle forward approximately 1/4-inch.Insert the needle from the back side bringing it
to the right side. Repeat for the length needed. The thread will wrap the raw edge of the area
(seam, facing, and hem).Secure the thread at the end of the line of stitching and hide thread end.

10) Pad stitch: It is a custom tailoring stitch. Stitches can form a chevron or ―V‖-like
formation, or be more parallel depending on the direction of each row of stitching–see
diagonal basting stitch. The stitch is worked using a single thread. The pad stitch is used to:
  Give firmness to a garment area.
 Attach the interfacing permanently to the garment piece.

When the stitches are short and close together, they provide more control and firmness. This is
especially needed in a jacket/coat lapel area, or in the stand of a collar.

11) Running

It is an in-and-out even stitch. It is very closely related to an even basting stitch, but stitches are
smaller and usually permanent. Use single thread. The running stitch is used for:

 Easing
 Very fine gathering.
 Hand darning.
 Very delicate sewing such as fine seaming and tucking
12) Saddle

The saddle is a long running stitch evenly spaced. It is used primarily for hand topstitching.
Buttonhole twist, embroidery thread, yarn, or multiple strands of regular sewing thread can be
used. Stitches are approximately 1/4 to 3/8-inch in length. Secure thread and bring the needle to
the surface of the fabric. Stitches can be worked from right to left or left to right. Beginning from
the right, take a stitch (1/4 to 3/8-inch), bringing the needle back to the surface. Thread should be
pulled securely, but not tight. Continue the desired length, taking care that stitches are evenly
spaced and an even distance from the edge

13) Slip (Blind) stitch

This stitch is an invisible yet secure stitch. Some make a distinction between the slip stitch
(stitches further apart) and the blind stitch (stitches very close together). The stitch is
characteristically used when there is a folded edge that needs to be secured in a neat manner.
Stitch length can range between 1/8 to 3/8-inch, depending on the construction area. Use single
thread. The slip stitch is used:

 To attach one edge to another, such as a tailored pocket to a jacket.

 When an invisible, firm stitch is needed.
  Applying a lining.
 To secure hems, waistbands, etc.
 Joining two folded edges together.
 Closing two folded edges from the right side.
14) Slip basting

Slip basting is used when matching plaids, stripes, or fabric edges that must not slip when
permanent sewing or fitting takes place (setting in a tailored sleeve).The stitch is temporary.
Seam allowances should be marked on both pieces being matched. Fold one seam allowance
under on the seam line. With right sides up, match folded seam allowance to the piece to be
joined. Using single thread, working from either direction, begin at the folded seam allowance
edge. Slide needle approximately 1/4-inch and bring it out along the folded edge. Carefully take
a stitch through the other piece, directly on the seam line. Bring the needle back to the folded
piece and repeat. Continue the length of the seam, securing threads at the end

15) Stab stitch

Stab stitch – a permanent stitch that holds fabric parts together. Used most often in tailoring.
The stitch is invisible from the right side of the fabric/garment. The stab stitch is used to:

 Secure layers of batting, interfacing, or muslin when making a shoulder pad.

 Hold seams together and prevents shifting–i.e., gorge line, collar, and neck edge, etc.
16) Whipstitch (Overhand)

It is stitch formation is very similar to slant hemming. A single thread is used. The needle is
positioned and inserted into the fabric straight, resulting in slanted stitches. The whipstitch is
used to:

 Hold two fabric edges together.

 Secure a hem that has seam tape/lace on the edge to prevent raveling.

Different Types of Stitch Used in Garments:

There are different types of stitch used in garments; those are mentioned in the following:
  Class-100 (Chain Stitch)
 Class-200 (Hand Stitch)
 Class-300 (Lock Stitch)
 Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch)
 Class-500 (Over Edge Stitch)
 Class-600 (Covering Chain Stitch)

1. Class-100 (Chain Stitch):

Class-100 named as chain stitch, which is produced by one or more needle threads and are
characterized by interloping. In chain stitch, one needle thread is passed through the fabric, form
needle loop and is secured by the next loop formed by the same thread. It should be noted that,
chain stitch is elastic and thicker than lock stitch and can easily be raveled, where particular care
is required to prevent run back from the last stitch.

Class-100 (Chain Stitch) has three types- 101, 103 and 104. These types of stitch are used in
hemming, belt loops, padding operations and felling.

2. Class-200 (Hand Stitch):

Class-200 named as hand stitch which is produced from a single thread. This single thread is
passed through the fabric from one side to another and the stitch is secured by the single line of
thread passing in and out of the garment.

Class-200 (Hand Stitch) has four types- running basting, back stitch, diagonal basting and
buttonhole stitch. These types of stitch are used for stitching costly dresses, jackets and sample
dresses.

3. Class-300 (Lock Stitch):

Class-300 named as lock stitch which is produced with two or more groups of threads and two
threads are joined by interlacing. Here, loops of one group are passed through the fabric and are
secured by the thread of second group, where one group is referred as needle thread and other as
bobbin thread. Class-300 (Lock Stitch) has enough strength and same appearance on both sides.
Class-300 (Lock Stitch) has four types- 301. 304, 308 and 309. These types of stitch are used for
stitching underwear, most types and apparels and decorative purposes.

4. Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch):

Class-400 named as multi thread stitch which is formed with two or more groups of threads.
Here, loops of one group of thread are passed through the fabric and are secured by interlacing
and interloping with loops of another group. Among two groups, one group is called needle
thread and another group is called looper thread.

Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch) has an appearance of lock stitch on the top but has a double
chain effect formed by a looper thread on the under-side.

Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch) has three types- 401, 404 and 406. These types of stitch are used
for setting elastic in waist bands and decorative stitching on belts.

5. Class-500 (Over Edge Stitch):

Class-500 named as over edge stitch which is formed with one or more groups of threads. In
Class-500 (Over Edge Stitch), one group of thread passes around the edge of fabric so that no
thread from the fabric can come out. The most used stitch of this type have one or two needle
threads and one or two looper threads and thus forms a narrow band of stitching along the edge
of the fabric.

Class-500 (Over Edge Stitch) has three types- 503, 504 and 512. This type of stitch is used for
edge neatening of knitted fabrics, where extensibility of stitches is important, also used for
sportswear and dance wear garments.

6. Class-600 (Covering Chain Stitch):

Class-600 named as covering chain stitch which is produced with three groups of threads. Here,
threads of two groups can be seen from either side. In class-600 (Covering Chain Stitch), the first
group of thread is called needle thread, second group is called top cover thread and the third
group is called bottom cover thread.
Class-600 (Covering Chain Stitch) is very complex and up to 9 threads can be used in
producing these types of stitch.

Class-600 (Covering Chain Stitch) has three types- 602, 605 and 607. These types of stitches
are used for knits, lingerie, binding elastics, decoration, etc.

Important points: (from previous paper)

 Following machine bed types are used for sewing small curved awkward shapes as in
footwear- Cylindrical, Post bed
 Lock stitch- Reversible, used for precise stitching
 Holds the bobbin in the sewing machine- Oscillating hook
 Diagonal basting- Temporary stitch
 Hemming- Permanent stitch
 Herring bone- Decorative stitch
 Buttonhole stitch- Functional as well as decorative
 Throat plate- provides smooth surface for stitching
 Feed Dog- Moves the fabric ahead
 Pressure foot- holds the fabric in place
 Stop motion screw- stops the sewing mechanisms
 Following governs the selection of needle- Type of fabric

Garment manufacturing:

 Phases of attachment in sequence: 1) The pre attachment phase

2) The ‗attachment in the making‘ phase
3) The phase of a ‗clear cut‘ attachment
4) Formation of a reciprocal relationship
 Correct sequence of preparation for sending the consignment:
1) Dyeing and washing
2) Pressing
3) Quality control
4) Labeling and packaging
5) Shipping

 Steps of conversation in the sequential order:

1) Opening
2) Feed forward
3) Business
4) Feedback
5) Closing
 Correct sequence for marketing strategy:
1) Analyzing
2) Developing
3) Packing
4) Pricing
5) Distribution
6) Promotion
 Correct sequence of garment manufacture:
1) Pattern making
2) Grading
3) Marker making
4) Spreading
5) Cutting
6) Bundling
 Correct sequence of production in an apparel industry:
1) Production pattern
2) Grading
3) Marker
4) Cutting
5) Bundling
6) Assembly
 Correct sequence in the merchandising of apparels:
1) Costing and negotiations
2) Fabric sourcing
3) Preparing lab dipping, printing etc.
4) Developing sample
5) Production execution and tracking
 Correct sequence of work that goes in the cutting room of the garment industry:
1) Planning and reproduction of marker
2) Spreading the fabric to form a lay.
3) Cutting the fabric
 4) Bundling of cutwork for the sewing room.
 Sequence in fashion merchandising:
1) Awareness of market trends and fashion forecast
2) Knowledge and sourcing of fabrics and trims
3) Negotiation with vendors
4) Selling
5) Sampling
 Correct layouts of unidirectional fabrics for garment cutting are: lengthwise fold, double
fold, open
 Correct sequence for applying the following in a garment:
1) Interfacing
2) Underlining
3) Interlining
4) Lining
 Finish hundreds of garments at one time by a single operator: Tunnel finisher
 Sequence followed in the merchandising department of a garment industry:
1) Selling the concept
2) Booking order
3) Designing and sampling
4) Costing
5) Raw material procurements
6) Production follow up
 Correct sequence in the production of garments:
1) Cutting
2) Labeling
3) Bundling
4) Assembling
 Sequence for design development process of garments for fashion industry:

1) Making design brief

2) Identifying target market

3) Study of current trends

4) Study of forecast

5) Designing by maintaining identity of brand.

6) Presentation

 Correct sequence of cutting a garment:

1) Taking measurements
2) Preparing of drafts
3) Layout plan
4) Cutting the garment piece
5) Tracing the stitching lines

Elements and principles of design

1. Balance: In clothing, balance refers to a visual attribution of weight, from a central area.
Balance refers to the restful effect achieved through grouping design details to maintain a
feeling of equal weight or attraction from side to side, front to back or top to bottom.
Pleasing balance brings about a satisfying relationship among all design parts to produce
visual harmony.

When the design elements of line, form, shape, space, color and texture are in balance, a
pleasing harmony is established in clothing designs, three kinds of balance are observed:

 Formal balance, also called symmetrical balance or bilateral symmetry.

 Informal balance, also called asymmetrical or occult balance.
 Radial balance

a) Formal balance: It is a simple type of balance to employ, but its quietness may
sometimes monotonous. Occurs when object appears to equalize each other by repetition
and arranged at equi-distance from the centre. The upper and lower portions of the
design are so arranged, as to give an effect of balance. Thus there should not be the
effect of too much of weight at the bottom or a heavy appearance. Eg. Dark colored skirt
over lighter shade of pant make a short person appears shorter.

b) Informal balance: Occurs when objects appear to equalize each other but not through
repetition and the arrangement is in a haphazard manner. Here design of different sizes and
shapes and of different attractions are arranged. The larger and more attractive designs are
kept as far away from the centre. If used correctly, informal designs can be effective in being
attractive.

Sometimes formal and informal balance are combined in a single garment. This could happen
in a dress when the bodice is informal balance and the skirt design is in informal balance.
Such an arrangement often lacks harmony and relationship among the various parts. A design
with this mix can appear pleasing when there is an interesting transition between the parts
that unifies the two opposite effects. Formal balance is the least expensive to produce apparel
in mass production. Informally balanced garment is more difficult to produce. For each
section of the garment cuts will have to be probably handled differently.

c) Radial balance: Occurs when major parts of the design radiate from the central part.
Radial balance uses a central point as the focal point. Pleats, seams, gathers, darts or motifs
radiate from the focal point creating a sun burst effect.

2. Emphasis: Refers to the dominance of one part with subordination of others. A good
design should have a design feature which is the centre of interest, while other features
support it. Designers often create emphasis partially through the careful arrangement of line,
texture and color. It could also be called as focal point. Every design needs same note of
interest that catches the eye on a specific area of the garment; contrasting color can be used
to emphasize an area.

A black dress with white collar and cuffs will direct the eye to the face and hands. Some
methods of lay emphasis can be:

 Grouping of design units

 Using contrast of hues
 By leading lines
 A combination of any of the above
 Repeating details such as tucks, gathers, buttons etc.
 Unusual shapes and textures
 Applied design on a contrast background.
While enhancing the design by concentrating in a focal point the designer must bear in mind
the figure and personality of the wearer.

The methods used to obtain emphasis are repetition or concentration. Decoration on a

contrast background.

3. Harmony or Unity: Refers to unity of design with slight contrast or variety to prevent
monotony. If the principle of proportion, balance, rhythm and emphasis are applied
creatively, the resultant design is said to have the harmony. First the various parts of the
garment (sleeve, skirt, collar etc.) should be related to the structure of the style that is every
detail should harmonies with each other.

4. Proportion or scale: good proportion refers to pleasing relationship between the sizes of
various design details in a dress and between the garment itself and the design details.

Proportion includes the relationship of height, width, depth and the surrounding space of
each design. The differences in proportion make designs look different from one another. For
example, a small girl is over powered with a big hat and large purse.

Greek law of space division: A space divided in the proportion of 2:3 is very pleasing to
the eye. Eg. In a garment proportion of the bodice length to the skirt length must be 2:3 and
the yoke length also bears the same proportion to the bodice length. Pockets on the bodice
and the skirt must also have the same proportion.

Scale: refers to the relationship between the garment and its design details as well as
between the wearer and the garment. Eg. Large applique motifs attached on a small dress
violate the principle of scale.

5. Rhythm: Refers to the smooth movement of the eye from one part of a design to
another. Therefore a rhythmic pattern needs to be established to give a costume unity.
Rhythm can be obtained through regular repetition of shapes and decorative details like
tucks, pleats, scallops, buttons etc. Gradation in size also contributes to rhythm. This type
is sometimes referred to as dimensioning rhythm.
Rhythm can be achieved through the combination of lines, shape, color and texture by the
following aspects in designing.

 By regular repeats of trims, texture and fabric design and prints.

 Progression or radiation in sizes of trims, colors, textures and fabric designs.
 Radiation or movement from the central point occurring within structural details such
as gathers, folds, tucks darts etc.
 Continuous flowing lines such as those in bands of colors, textures and fabric designs.

(Repetition, gradation and radiation)

The following are the different elements of Design:

1. Line

2. Form

3. Shape

4. Texture

5. Color

THEORIES OF CLOTHING

1) Modesty Theory: It suggests that people first wore clothing to cover or conceal
the 'private' parts of the human body. The modesty theory is based on the idea that
morality is dependent upon modesty, as expressed through the concealment of the
human body.
2) Immodesty Theory : Immodesty theory or sexual attraction explain that
individuals may have first worn clothing in order to attract attention to, rather than
to conceal, the sexual organs.
3) Adornment Theory: This theory refers to the decorative nature of clothes and
other forms of appearances; modifications for purposes of display, attraction or
aesthetic expression.
 4) Projection Theory: This theory suggests that clothes protect humans from the
elements, animals or even supernatural forces.

Fashion: Terminologies

1) Clothes :- It is a collective term for all items of apparel worn by men, women & children
2) Costumes: - The term costume can refer to wardrobe or dress of a certain period in
history, people or class. Costume also refer to the artistic arrangement of accessories in a
picture, statue or play, appropriate to the time, place, or other circumstances represented
or described to a particular style of clothing worn to portray a type of character at a social
event such as a masquerade, a fancy dress party or in an artistic theatrical performance.
3) Fashion: - It can be termed as a style or a particular look which is reflection of the social,
economic, political & environmental/climatic forces of any given time/period.

Fashion change in the western world is generally considered to have begun in the middle
ages and although is visible in many different kinds of material goods, it is particularly used
in apparel.

4) Style: - Style is any particular characteristic or look in apparel or accessories.

Style can be interpreted in 3 ways:-

Designers interpret fashion ideas into new styles as they offer them to public. The
manufacturers assign a style number to each new design which is used to identify it
throughout the production, marketing & retailing.

Designs having same characteristic such as a blazer style jacket, an empire line dress. A style
may come & go in fashion but a style always remains that style whether it is in fashion or not
ex:- polo shirt style will always be in fashion yet it will always have variations every season.
A person can have a style by wearing fashionable clothes particularly suited to them or a
designer may become known for a certain ―style‖ or look
5) Silhouette: - Contour or outline as shown in a solid black background on white
background. Formerly a term widely used to indicate trend in length & general outline of
garment for the coming season.

Named after a French author and statesmen ―Etienine de Silhouette, who made portraits in
black with no background

6) Motifs: - In creative work: Motif (narrative), any recurring element in a story that has
symbolic significance. Motif (textile arts), a recurring element or fragment that, when joined
together, creates a larger work. Motif (visual arts), a repeating theme or pattern

7) Repeat: - Repeat is the ―Repetition‖ of floral or geometric print in a fabric design. And
Repetition is use of same form again and again

8) Pattern: - Pattern is an underlying structure that organizes surfaces or structures in a

consistent, regular manner. Pattern can be described as a repeating unit of shape or form, but
it can also be thought of as the ―skeleton‖ that organizes the parts of a composition.

Fashion trend: - Direction in which styles, colors, fabrics and designs are tending to change.
Political events, films, personalities, drams, social and sports events often influence fashion
trends

Types of Fashion:-

 Classic: - Apparel made in a style that continues to be fashionable over a long period of
time, and that may return as high fashion at regular intervals. When revived, classic
fashions retain the basic line of the original style, but are sometimes altered in minor
details

 FAD: - Short-lived fashion that becomes suddenly extremely popular, remains for a short
period of time, and fades quickly.

 Avant Grade (ah-vant gard):- French term commonly used in English meaning new,
unconventional, ahead of its time. Used as an adjective to describe apparel that may be
provocative or startling
 Couture (Koo-ture) :- French term for business in which original apparel designs are
created by designers & the items are manufactured in the design house using
exceptionally fine sewing & tailoring and expensive fabrics

 Haute Couture (oat koo-toor):- Haute couture (French for ―high sewing‖ or ―high
dressmaking‖) refers to the creation of exclusive custom-fitted clothing. Haute couture is
made to order for a specific customer, and it is usually made from high-quality, expensive
fabric and sewn with extreme attention to detail and finish, often using time-consuming,
hand-executed techniques Firms that create model that may be sold to private customers
or other segments of the fashion industry who also acquire the right to reproduce other
designs. Designers show at least 2 collections a year of original designs to the public. An
original design is not the only one of its kind, but means only that the garment was
designed and made in the atelier of the designer.

 Knock-off: - An item of apparel copied from a more expensive item and generally
manufactured from low-priced components so it can sell at a lower price. Compare with
LINE-For-LINE COPY and PIRACY. Such as NIRE, SUNBUCKS, ABIDAS etc.

 High- Fashion: - Apparel of advanced design available from innovative designer and
firms. It is usually more expensive & is a trend-setting fashion.

 Bridge Fashion :- A line at the upper end of the apparel price range that is made with
fewer details and less expensive fabrics than designer clothing

 Pret-a-porter (pret-ah–por-tay):- French term for ready-to-wear clothes. Many Haute

couture designers produce special dress, less expensive pret-a-porter lines of clothing in
addition to their custom-made-lines. French, ―ready to be carried away‖

 Ready to wear (RTW) :- Apparel that is designed, marketed, and sold in standard sizes
and is mass-produced. Describing apparel that does not need any tailoring (example
hemming) before it can be worn off-the-rack. In French it is called prêt-à-porter & UK
off the rack or ―off-the-peg‖ in casual use)

Fashion related stores/ places and their types:-

 Atelier de couture :- Work rooms in which Parisian haute couture designers and their
work men produce their collections

 Boutiques (boo-teek):- Small shop selling a variety of merchandise including dresses,

jewellery, accessories, antiques, or object d‘art.

Different types of sleeves:

 Angel: Long flowy sleeves that are fitted at the armscye (armhole) and flare out like
angel wings with asymmetric ends at the wrist are known as angel sleeves. Also
see kimono sleeves.
 Batwing: Resembling the wings of a bat, batwing sleeves have a deep armhole, till at
least the waist level and are usually fitted at the wrist. Also dolman sleeves.
 Bell: Types of long or 3/4-length sleeves that are fitted at the armhole and flared out at
the bottom, either with a seam or seamlessly, are called as bell sleeves. Also
see butterfly sleeves, trumpet sleeves.
 Billowy sleeves: Voluminous sleeves that swell up along the arm, either towards the wrist
or throughout the length are called billowy sleeves. These may be of different types of
sleeves, including Bishop, trumpet, dolman sleeves, or a combination of these. Also
see poufy sleeves, voluminous sleeves.
 Bishop: A loose sleeve, voluminous or poufy at the lower half and gathered at the wrist
with large cuffs. Also see peasant sleeves.
 Juliet: A juliet sleeve is commonly found in medieval fashion and has poofiness just at
the top above an abrupt seam, after which the sleeve is tight and fitted.
 Kimono: Inspired by Japanese culture, kimono sleeves have deep armholes and are long
and flowy. These are similar to Angel sleeves in the west, with the difference being that
angel sleeves are fitted at the armhole, whereas kimono sleeves have deep armholes.
Furthermore, angel sleeves may flare out more than kimono sleeves, and have
asymmetric hemlines.
 Raglan: A type of sleeve that starts at the collar and goes down diagonally towards the
underarm is known as raglan sleeve.
  Trumpet sleeves: Long sleeves that are fitted or gathered at the armhole and then flare
out gradually towards the bottom, either with a seam or seamlessly, are called trumpet
sleeves. Trumpet sleeves are similar to bell sleeves, but the latter are fitted till the elbow
or lower arm and then flare out. Furthermore, bell sleeves are never pleated or gathered at
the armhole.

Fashion theories:

Fashion theories indicate the process of fashion ideas. The theories explain the fashion trend. It
also tells about how fashion moves from one stage to other stage.

1) Trickle Down Theory/ Downward flow theory

· This is the oldest theory of fashion

· It indicates the true fashion

· It starts from top social level people to low social level people.

· Royal families introduced the fashion in olden days.

· Gradually upper class people copy them and then by the lower class of people.

· Fashion passes from fashion leaders to the lower class people also.

2) Horizontal-Flow Theory/mass market theory:

· This is also called as Trickle Across Theory.

· In 20th century fashion became similar to all levels of people at the same time.

· Fashion is not created by any section of people.

· Celebrities give an identity to fashion.

· Various designers introduce new fashions in affordable prices.

· High priced garment styles are copied and produced in mass.

3) Trickle Up Theory/ upward flow theory:

· This theory is a newer theory.

· It is purely an idea of youngsters.

· Fashions pass from youth to the aged people.

· This is also called street fashion.

· Youth create new mix and match styles.

· Fashion gradually moves from lower class people to fashion leaders.

Steps of Fashion Cycles:

Fashion moves through different stages during its cycle of existence. Fashion acceptance is
generally called as a fashion cycle. The fashion cycle is usually represented as a bell shaped.

1. Introduction/ start of any fashion: Every designer has each season works on a new
collection, interpret their research into apparel. Designs first previewed during fashion
weeks at the major design centers. Then designers create new designs by changing
elements such as shape, line, color, fabric, and details and their relationship to one
another. In this stage product costs are high and as a result only few consumers can afford
it. Production in small quantities gives a designer more freedom, flexibility, and room for
creativity. Celebrities, TV stars, models buy these clothes as they want to wear them in
some events.
2. Rise/ Increase in Popularity: If new styles are seen worn by celebrities or famous
personality on TV or magazines it may attract the attention of buyers, the press, and the
public. In this case viewers become interest to purchase to buy the new styles. Some
designers or stylists may modify or copy a popular style. Manufactures use less expensive
fabric and modify the designs to sell in low price. Mass production reduces the price of
the fashion and become more sales.
3. Peak of Popularity/Culmination: Fashion at this stage is most popular, it may be in
such demand that many garment manufacturers copy it or produce adaptations of it at
many price levels. It can survive longer if the fashion becomes a classic. In this stage
 manufacturers carefully study trends because the consumer will always prefer clothes that
are in the main stream of fashion.
4. Decline in Popularity: In this stage, consumer demand is decreasing, going down the
slope. Many copies are mass produced that fashion as a result consumer get tired of the
style and begin to look for new styles. Fashion items available have saturated the market.
They are not willingly to buy with regular price.
5. Rudimentation /Rejection of a Style or Obsolescence: It is the last stage of fashion
cycle. Consumers are no longer interested in the fashion. In this phase of fashion cycle,
some consumers have already turned for new styles, thus beginning a new cycle. Price of
the fashion product may be low at this point, but consumers may not buy the product. The
rejection of a style just because it is out of fashion is called consumer obsolescence.

Fashion cycle:

1) Innovation
2) Rise
3) Acceleration
4) General acceptance
5) Decline
6) Obsolescence

Fashion Cycle Lengths: Fashion Cycles have no specific lengths. But can give specific cycle
name with type of acceptance.

 Flop Cycle- No acceptance

 Fad Cycle- Short acceptance

 Normal Cycle- Medium acceptance

 Ford Cycle- Strong acceptance

 Classic Cycle- Continuing acceptance

Important points (from previous paper)

 Following factors which are favor fashion: leisure, an economy of abundance,

transportation and communication
 Vertical lines- Activity
 Horizontal lines- Rest
 Curved lines- gracefulness
 Diagonal lines- Movement
 Sand paper, cotton and fabric are examples of variation in which element art- Texture
 French Designer- Dior, Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent
 Raglan sleeve is considered most appropriate for infant wear.
 Balance- Gathers coming from neckline, Repose
 Proportion- An empire line dress, Scale
 Harmony- Square yoke with square neckline
 Emphasis- Bow at the neckline, Focal point
 Rhythm- Organized movement
 Which element of art is used when shapes, colors and lines are repeated- Pattern
 Cotton is the most appropriate fabric for infant wear. Cotton is the most absorbent,
washable and breathable fabric.
 Which of the following are textile repeat units- Half drop, All over, Brick
 Godet- Triangular piece attached at the hemline.
 Gusset- Piece attached at sleeve
 Peplum- Short flare attached to the waist of a garment
 Gores- panels in a garment
 Japanese traditional costumes include- Kimono, Yukata, Zanshi
 Denim fabric is generally made of open end rotor yarns in both warp and weft. This
method is less labor intensive and faster than conventional spinning methods however, it
is limited to coarser yarns.
 Saree blouse- comfort ease
 Jackets- Layered ease
  Kurta- Style ease
 Swim suit- negative ease
 Which of the following is not a design repeat- Rotary
 Repeat design- Drop, Mirror, Satin
 Classic- Last through ages couture
 Fad- Short lived craze
 Haute- couture- Exclusive custom fitted clothing
 Pret- a- porter- Ready to wear
 Spandex also called Lyrca
 Asbestos use as fireproof cloth

Pattern Making

Pattern is a term used for the two dimensional blue print of any garment design on paper on the
basis of which the fabric is cut. Generally there are two terms used for this.

1) Drafting
2) Pattern making

The basic difference between drafting and pattern making is that Draft does not have seam lines,
allowances and any other information or can say Draft is the foundation of pattern. Once as draft
is made, all the seam lines are marked, all indications, ex: grain line, notches etc. all these when
properly marked on a draft, converts into a pattern. There are two related terms for the method
by which the patterns are made

a) Flat pattern method

b) Draping method

In flat pattern method the measurement are taken and converted to the paper and the same is
checked side by side on the dress form, while in draping method the fabric is draped directly on
the dress form or figure. The fabric pattern is then transferred on the pattern and after certain
corrections is then finally converted to a final pattern.
Pattern Draping: Pattern draping is otherwise known as toiling or modelling. Pattern draping is
the manipulation of two-dimensional fabrics on a three-dimensional torso or body form to get a
perfect fit. The dress form generally used for draping is a muslin padded dress form, positioned
in an adjustable stand that duplicates the human body structure. The dress form should be firm,
yet resilient and should not resist pins. A range of dress forms exist in standard sizes for
children‘s and men‘s figures. The steps for the preparation of a dress form are given below.

1. The dummy should be checked for both bust and hip measurement.

2. It should be padded to get the required measurement by using high density foam. The
foam is adjusted in such a way that it assumes the shape of the human breast.

3. A square piece of quilt batting is pinned onto the formed breast. While pinning the
batting, care is taken to see that it is slightly larger than the required size at the sides.
When it is covered with muslin, it gets compressed to the right size and looks more
natural.

4. Batting should be done equally on both sides.

Flat Pattern Technique: The flat pattern technique is a method of manipulating the pattern
while the pattern is laid flat on the table. Pattern manipulation is a common word applied to the
act of slashing and spreading or pivoting a pattern section to alter its original shape. Darts play
an important role in the flat pattern technique.

Pattern making terms:

 Notch: is a symbol used for making seam allowance, center lines, identify parts, sleeve
cap, placement etc. it could be marked with notcher or just with scissors. Notches are
very important when making items of clothing. They are allowances in the fabric for
sleeves and armholes and ensure that when sewn together, the fit is aligned properly.
 Bust point: A designated place on the bust and pattern and referred to in the flat pattern
making as the pivotal point or apex.
 Dart: Wedge shape in a pattern which ends towards the fullest area to control the fit of
the garment.
  Dart intake: The amount of fabric consumed by the dart to control the fit.
 Trueing: Blending and straightening of lines specially if a dart has been used, to match
the dart leg length for establishing perfect seam.
 Blending: Smoothing, shaping and rounding off angular lines.
 Pin marking: placing series of pins through the muslin or form to evaluate style line
placement.
 Grading – Grading is how a pattern is made bigger or smaller, depending upon the
measurements that you have. It sounds quite mathematical but it is really one way of
adapting the existing pattern so that it is going to work, and most importantly, fit.
 Oak Tag Manila – This is the most commonly used pattern making paper for commercial
garment production.
Fabric terms:
 Muslin: A plain weave cotton fabric mostly unbleached which comes in different weights
and used to check the drape of the pattern.
 Grain: The direction of the yarns in a fabric. The warps are in lengthwise grain and weft
in crosswise grain.
 Selvage: narrow, firmly woven and finished/unfinished strip on the sides of fabric is
selvage. The yarns parallel to this are warp yarns and perpendicular to this are weft yarns.
The diagonal grain is also called bias.
 Bowing and Skewing: Fabric whose grain is not a perfect 90˚. This term are used for off
grain fabrics, not perfect for making garment. This comes because of incorrect weaving
stress and strain.

Tucks
In sewing, a tuck is a fold or pleat in fabric that is sewn in place. Tucks are stitched folds of
fabric mainly used to decorate garments. Sometimes, released tucks may be used for shaping the
fabric to the body. When the tucks are very narrow, they are called pintucks or Pin-tucking.

Types of Tucks in Sewing:

 Pin tucks: These are minor ones.

 Spaced tucks: These tucks have gaps or spaces between the stitching.
  Blind tucks: The stitching of one tuck overlaps the previous tuck.
 Shell tucks: These can be stitched using a sewing machine or by hand. Blind stitches are
used to produce a uniform design.
 Released tucks: These tucks are partially stitched and are not stitched along the
complete tuck length.

Darts
Darts are folds and sewn into fabric to take in ease and provide shape to a garment, especially for
a woman's bust. It is an essential part of garment construction because they allow flat fabric to
take on a shape that will fit the body well. Darts help in shaping the fabric to fit the body and
thus provide comfort to the wearer. They provide fullness to natural body curves. Darts are very
rarely used for decorative purposes like providing a design line. The fitting, marking, stitching
and pressing of darts should be done accurately.

Types:

 Straight dart: Straight darts have only one point with dart legs along the edge of the
pattern. It is a straight line of stitching from the point to the seam line. This can be
noticed in the underarm of the front bodice, back skirt, shoulder, elbow and back
neckline. They‘re probably the most common kind of dart in home sewing.
 Bust darts: Bust darts usually start the side seam of a garment and end near the apex of
the bust in order to make the bodice of a garment more formfitting.
 Curved outward dart: The stitch line curves outward along the path from the point to the
seam line. This gives a snugger fit to the garment. This is sometimes used on a bodice
front to make a mid-body fit snug.
 Curved inward dart: The stitch line curves inward from the point to the seam line. This
facilitates a better fit along the body curve. It is frequently used in pant and skirt fronts.
 French darts: French darts are a type of elongated bust dart that start at the side seam,
down near the waistline, and end up near the bust point.
 Neckline dart: This is usually a solid line marking on the back neckline indicating a
straight dart of 1/8″.
  Double pointed dart: This dart is unique as it tapers in a straight line from the middle to
both the ends and is clipped at the widest part. Double point darts tend to be found on
dresses with simple lines. It is usually made from the waistline (widest point). It finds
application in princess and A-line dresses, over blouses and jackets. Double pointed darts
are used to give shaping to the middle of a garment like in a dress or fitted jacket.

Darts help in shaping the fabric to fit the body and thus provide comfort to the wearer. They
provide fullness to natural body curves. Darts are very rarely used for decorative purposes
like providing a design line. The fitting, marking, stitching and pressing of darts should be
done accurately.

To create new designs for garments, it is specially used for ladies garments. It save fabric
wastage and also use to remove excess fabric. Darts are needed to turn two-dimensional shapes
into three-dimensional shapes and to fit clothes closely to the body.

Dart manipulation techniques:

Dart manipulation is one of the most important techniques when it comes to pattern drafting.
Fashion designer must identify the location of the dart before manipulating the pattern and how
manipulate the dart. Dart manipulation mainly starts with a basic sloper, which they then convert
into their stylish designs. Darts become princess seams, gathers, tucks or cowls. New styles lines
are added or moved, necklines are reshaped. There are three dart manipulating techniques in flat
patterns. These are suitable for manipulate dart to any location. The slash & spread or pivot
method mostly use to transfer darts to the bust, neck, armhole or anywhere you want!

1. Pin and pivotal dart transfer technique.

2. Slash-spread transfer and overlap technique

3. Dart equivalent technique

1) Pin and Pivotal dart rotation technique:

Pattern designers use pivoting methods to make fashion changes. They move darts or add
fullness by anchoring the basic pattern with a pin and moving the pattern in, out, and around.
The pattern swings back and forth like the pendulum on a grandfather clock. Use this
pivoting motion to change the pattern width. In this method does not require the working be
slashed in order to change its original shape into design pattern. It is a transfer method and
with experience, it is preferred.

2) Slash-spread dart rotation and overlap technique:

Pattern graders use the slide motion to change pattern sizes. They slide patterns up, down,
and to the side to gradually increase or decrease from one size to the next. Use this sliding
motion to add or subtract length.

Pivot and slide techniques combine these two motions to fit a pattern simply, yet accurately.
Make all of the changes on a worksheet (pattern paper or tissue paper), keeping the original
pattern intact—no more cutting and taping. By changing the pattern equally on both sides of
the grain, the seam and the design lines are kept in proportion to the original pattern.

3) Dart equivalents technique:

Pleats or gathers in the fabric can be used as for the same purpose as a normal stitched dart.
These are called dart equivalents. Darts can also be worked into style lines. The dart excess
can be used to create a wide variety of other design features such as, tucks, gathers, pleats,
and even cowls. Essentially, the dart or its equivalent is always present somewhere in the
pattern. The dart or its equivalent will always radiate from the pivot point.

Seam

In sewing, a seam is the join where two or more layers of fabric, leather, or other materials
are held together with stitches. Seams in modern mass-produced apparel, footwear, house
hold textiles and sporting goods are sewn by industrial sewing machines. Home shoe making,
dressmaking, quilting, crafts, haute couture and tailoring may use a combination of hand and
machine sewing.
Types:

Class 1 – Superimposed seams: These generally start with two or more pieces of material
superimposed over each other and joined near an edge, with one or more rows of stitches.
There are various types of seams within this class.

Stitches Used

A superimposed seam can be sewn with Stitch Types 301 or 401 to create a simple seam. The
same seam type can also be sewn with Stitch class 500 (Over edge stitch) or Combination
stitches (e.g., Stitch class 516)

Application

Used to create neat load bearing seams for lingerie, shirts, etc.

Class 2 – Lapped seam: In this class of seam, two or more piles of material are lapped (i.e.,
with edges overlaid, plain or folded) and joined with one or more rows of stitches.

One of the most popular of this class is the Lap felled type, involving only one stitching
operation – a strong seam with fabric edges commonly used to protect jeans or similar
garments from fraying. The superficially similar French seam type involves two stitching
operations with an intervening folding operation – a flat, folded seam with only one row of
stitching visible on the top surface.

This seam class consists of a minimum of two components and can have different varieties
consisting of a number of rows of stitching.

Stitches Used

The lap felled seam is generally sewn with a 401 chain stitch.

Application
The looped seam is the most commonly used seam. It is used in jeans manufacture because
of its strong construction. The French seam is commonly used for rain wear, and edge
stitching front facings on jackets and dresses.

Class 3 – Bound seam: These are formed by folding a binding strip over the edge of the
piles of material and joining both edges of the binding to the material with one or more rows
of stitching. This produces a neat edge on a seam exposed to view or to wear. There are a
variety of bound seams.

Stitches Used

401 chain stich or 301 lock stitch.

Application

Necklines of t-shirts.

Class 4 – Flat seam/ Fell seam: In these seams (sometimes called Butt seams), two fabric
edges, flat or folded, are brought together and over sewn with stitches.

The purpose of these seams is to produce a joint where no extra thickness of fabric can be
tolerated at the seam, as in underwear or foundation garments. The looper thread must be
soft, yet strong and the cover thread may be decorative as well as strong. This seam is
referred to as a flat seam because the edges do not overlap one another, they will be butted
together.

Stitches Used

Zigzag lock stitch, chain stitch or covering stitch (class 600).

Application

This type of seam will consist of two components and can be seen on very fine knitted
garments where seams are required to be free from bulk. This is a flat durable seam used on
men‘s sports shirts, work clothes and children‘s clothes and pyjamas.
Piping seam Class 5 – Decorative/Ornamental stitching: The ornamental stitch is a series
of stitches along a straight or curved line or following an ornamental design, on a single ply
of material. More complex types include various forms of piping, producing a raised line
along the fabric surface.

Application

The stitching results in decorative surface effects on the fabric e.g., pin tucks, application of
braids, etc. This seam type consists of a minimum of one component.

French seam: This is a ridge seam and is used on transparent and light weight fabrics,
especially on baby clothes and delicate blouses. It is a neat and durable finish as the raw
edges are completely enclosed. It is a neat and durable finish as the raw edges are
completely enclosed. The two pieces of materials to be joined are placed together with wrong
sides facing. Work a row of stitching 1/8 inch. Press the seam and turn the work so that the
right sides are together. Crease the first row of stitching so that it is directly on the edge.
Tack and stitch along the seam line about 1/8 inch from the fold.

Slot Seam: This is a variation of lapped seam and is often used down the center front or
center back of skirts, coats and dresses. This gives a decorative effect when a different
colored fabric is used for the backing piece stitched in between the two pieces of fabric,
which are lapped on to it. Machine bastes on the seamline, leaving long threads at each end.
Press opens the seam. Cut a 1 ½ inch wide underlay of same or contrasting fabric. Center it
under seam and baste.

Counter Seam: This is also a durable flat seam used for very thick materials, men‘s wear
and reversible garments. This can be made by one of the two methods.

MethodI
Turn down a little on wrong side (WS) of one piece of fabric and on right side (RS) of the
other piece and iron them firmly. Keep wrong side of the first piece of fabric on the right side
of the second piece along the edges, maintaining the seam allowances, and tack it in position.
Machine stitch along the folded edges. This is called three-layered counter seam.
MethodII
Turn down 0.5 cm on the wrong side of one piece of fabric and on right side of the other and
iron them firmly. Keep wrong side of the first piece on the right side of the second piece and
slip the turned down edges under each other. Pin it in position, tack it and machine
stitch along the folded edges from the right and wrong sides. This is called four-layered
counter seam.

Hems

A hem is an edge finish given to a garment. Though it is the final step in garment
construction, due consideration is to be given while finishing it. The purpose of a hem is to
finish off the raw edge of the garment and help the garment hang better. A hem on the fabric
edge can either be made in a single fold (suitable for bulky fabrics) or on a double fold. They
can be narrow or wide, stitched with hand or on a machine or given a decorative touch by
using laces, ribbons etc.

Lining:

Lining is a piece of fabric which is used to cover the inner surface of garments. This fabric is
especially used when inner face employs different materials from the outer surface. Different
kinds of lining are used in the garments manufacturing process such as jacket, coat, overcoat,
trouser, etc. In the garment manufacturing process lining fabrics are used as silk lining,
printed lining, light weight cotton, Stretch lining, Satin lining etc.

 To make the garment less see-through

 To add warmth and durability

 To make the inside part of the garment soft and pleasant to the touch

 To lend a luxury note to a garment

 To improve the structure of a garment

 To help the garment slide on easily

 To conceal seams, padding, interfacing, etc.

Interlining:

The Interlining is known as supportive fabric in garments which is used between two layers
of fabric. This fabric attaches to garments through the sewing or heating process. The main
purpose of these fabrics is used to hold up, support, control area of garments and to keep real
shape. Generally two types of interlining are used in garment processing which are fusible
Interlining and non- fusible interlining.

Facings: are used as a means to tidy up the raw edges in garments. They are often used at
necklines, front openings and armholes of sleeveless styles. It is a layer of fabric that is sewn
to the garment Together. It is the turned to the inside of the garment and lies flat so it is not
seen. It is usually cut in the same fabric as the garment but may be cut in contrasting fabric
for a decorative effect or if the fabric is too thick. Interfacing is often applied to the Wrong
Side of the facing to provide structure and stability. The facing may be indicated by a
separate pattern piece, however, it may also be included with the garment section and cut out
with the garment section.

Important points (from previous paper)

 Which of the following are not dart equivalents- Ruffles, Frills

 Which of the following are dart equivalent: Control seam, Gathers
 Body suit- One piece fitted garment
 Culottes- Garment that hangs like a skirt but is actually pants
 Caftan- Long full robe with a slit
 Breaches- Pants reaching below the knee
 Pattern engineering increases the efficiency of a marker. Pattern engineering involves
splitting pattern pieces, reducing seam allowances and adjusting pattern dimensions.
 In a high quality garment, which of the following are key seams and locations where
pattern matching is expected- Center front and center back, side seam, Pockets and
pocket flaps
 The fastest method of pattern making is- Flat patterning
 A dart can be shifted from one place to another without changing the fit of the
garment. In shifting of darts, angle of the darts remain same.
  Sequence in the production of line assembly for trousers-
1) Pre-preparation of pockets, fly and labels
2) Production of back of trousers
3) Production of front of trousers
4) Assembling of garment parts
 Correct sequence for applying the following in a garment:
1) Interfacing
2) Underlining
3) Interlining
4) Lining
 Following tests are mandatory for exports of children‘s clothing- Zipper strength,
Snap strength, needle detection
 Marker efficiency can be enhanced by pattern engineering. It divides the awkwardly
shaped patterns in two pieces.
 A dart can be relocated without changing the fit. Shifting of dart to various places
does not change the angle of dart.
 Sequence followed in the merchandising department of a garment industry:
1) Selling the concept
2) Booking order
3) Designing and sampling
4) Costing
5) Raw material procurements
6) Production follow up
 Break point of the collar is marked on the placket extension.
 Which of the following is a double pointed dart- Fish

Identification of Textile Fibers

There are different methods are used for identification of fibers:

o Non– technical Test: a) Feeling test b) Burning test

In this test there is no requiring any special equipment or chemicals.

o Technical Test :

a) Microscope test

b) Density Measurement test

c) Staining Test

d) Chemical Test

Feeling test: Different fibers shows different behavior when place on hand.

1) Cotton: – Cool to touch, feel soft and inelastic.

2) Linen: – Cool to touch, feels smooth and lathery.

3) Jute: – Cool to touch, feels smooth and leathery.

4) Silk: – Warm to touch, feels elastic and smooth.

5) Wool: – Warm to touch, feels elastic and springy.

6) Rayon: – Cool to touch, feels smooth, inelastic and lustrous.

7) Acetate Rayon: – Warm to touch, feels smoother more elastic and resilient then rayon.

8) Nylon: – Feels very smooth, light weight elastic and lustrous.

9) Polyester:-Feels very smooth and stiffer.

10) Acrylic: – Feels of wool, but light weight and slippery feeling.

Burning test:

1) Cellulosic Fiber (Cotton/Jute): Burns with little ash and yellow flame smell similar
to that of burned paper.

2) Protein Fiber (Silk and Wool): Burns slowly with slight sizzle and cease flaming.
The ash is dark and crisp and can be crushed easily with fingers. The smell is like burning
of feathers or human hair.
 3) Nylon or Polyester fiber: Burns slowly with melting. The ash is brittle and hard black
bead will be formed.

4) Acrylic fiber: The sample fuses and shrink away from flame, melts then burns
vigorously leaving a hard, dark brittle residue.

Chemical test: The fiber cab is placed in a chemical, at a particular temperature and the
solubility will confirm the type of fiber.

o Wool and Silk :- sodium hypochlorite ( 5% chlorine, 25˚c)

o Silk :- cold 70% sulphuric acid

o Cellulosic Fiber :- 75% sulphuric acid at 25˚c

o Viscose Fiber :- sodium zincates

o Acetate, Triacetate Rayon: – acetic acid/25˚c or cold acetone.

o Nylon 6 and nylon 66:- Hcl at 25˚c or formic acid at 25˚ c.

o Acrylic: – DMF at cold/ ammonium thiocyante (70% at boil).

o Only Nylon6 :- DMF at boil

o Polyester: – METACRESOL AT 95˚C / CHLORO-PHENOL AT BOIL.

o Polypropylene: - Meta xylene at boil.

Microscopic test:

1) Cotton:

Longitudinal View

 Mature flat and ribbon-like with convolutions, thick wall and small lumen

 Immature very thin wall and a large lumen with few convolutions

 Dead very thin and almost transparent

 Mercerized smooth and cylindrical, fewer convolutions and lumen or sometimes may be
absent

Cross-Sectional View

 Kidney Shaped

 Elliptical

 Very thin like a strip

 Nearly round or circular

2) Linen

Longitudinal View

Smooth and Bamboo like with cross marking nodes, no lengthwise striations, narrow
lumen

Cross-Sectional View

Sharp polygonal shape with straight sides. Immature oval shape with a large lumen.

3) Hemp

Longitudinal View

Smooth and cylindrical with a cross marking nodes, no lengthwise striations, broad
lumen

Cross-Sectional View

Partly polygonal

4) Jute

Longitudinal View

Cylindrical with uneven in diameter, a lumen is broad and varies greatly

 Cross-Sectional View

Rounded polygonal with a central lumen

5) Ramie

Longitudinal View

Irregular and broad with cross marks irregular distributed, a conclusion may appear

Cross-Sectional View

Oblong

Natural Fibres: Animal Fibres

1. Wool

Longitudinal View

Cylindrical, irregular, rough surface, scale-like structure, dark medulla may appear on
coarse wool fibres

Cross-Sectional View

Nearly round or circular, medulla may appear

2. Silk

Longitudinal View

Smooth surface, Structure less, triangular shaped transparent rod (Wild silk/Tussah silk –
broader fibre with fine, longitudinal lines passing across filament)

Cross-Sectional View

Triangular shape with rounded corners (Tussah silk flat wedge or spindle-shaped

Man-made Fibres

1. Viscose Rayon
 Longitudinal View

o Normal type fairly dense longitudinal striations or fine lines

o Special type-may be smooth and Structure less

Cross-Sectional View

o Irregular with a serrated outline

o Oval or round

2. Cellulose Acetate fibres

Longitudinal View

Uniform in width with a few distinct longitudinal striations

Cross-Sectional View

Irregular with a serrated outline

3. Acrylic

Longitudinal View

Smooth surface, uniform diameter, rod-like appearance, some types with irregularly
spaced striations

Cross-Sectional View

Rounded or Dumbbell shaped

4. Polyester

Longitudinal View

Structure less, uniform diameter, rod-like appearance

Cross-Sectional View: Circular

5. Nylon

Longitudinal View

Structure less, uniform diameter, rod-like appearance

Cross-Sectional View

Circular

 Organizations involved in standards development for textile end-use include the

following:

 American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

 Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)

 Federal Trade Commission (FTC)

 Society of Dyers and Colorists (SDC)

 International Standards Organization (ISO)

Methods of Washing of Clothes

(a) By friction. Cotton cloth, linen etc. are washed by rubbing with hands or brush, or on
scrubbing board. Small clothes are rubbed with hands whereas excessively dirty clothes
are cleaned by rubbing with] brush or on a scrubbing board.

(b) By light pressure. Silken and woolen clothes should be washed by light press Clothes
with delicate laces are washed with light hands after applying soap. In this way, clothes
are cleaned without being damaged.
 (c) By application of suction. This is done by suction washer. It is available in two sizes-
small and big. It is made up of a non- rusting metal. In this method, the clothes are dipped
into a tub containing soap solution and the suction. The suction machine is moved on it
and the dirt is removed. Use for big and heavy clothes like coat, blanket, etc. Suction is
washed by this method.

(d) By washing machine. These machines are commonly used these days. These are of
three types-1. Manual washing machine, Semi-automatic machine, and 3 fully automatic
machines

Laundering agents:

1. Detergents

Strictly speaking, the term detergent can be applied to any cleaning agent. Its usage is
known generally restricted to those cleaning agents containing significant quantities of a
group of chemicals known as surfactants. A number of other chemicals are frequently
included to produce a detergent suitable for a specific use.

Essential properties

1. Reduce the surface tension of water so that the cleaning solution can penetrate the soil
and surface.

2. Emulsify soil and lift it from a surface.

3. Suspend soil in the cleaning solution

4. Be soluble in cold water

5. Be effective in hard water

6. Be harmless to user and surface to be cleaned

7. Rinse easily to leave no streaks or scum

8. Be economical in use.

Chemical composition:

a. Surface active agents (surfactants) are chemicals, the molecules of which when
dissolved in water possess a water-seeking (hydrophilic) end and a water repelling
(hydrophobic) end. They may or may not carry a negative or positive electrical charge.
The molecules are dispersed through the water so that they reduce the surface tension of
the water by overcoming the forces of attraction between the water molecules, thus
allowing the water and surfactant molecules to penetrate the soil and surface. The
hydrophobic ends of the surfactant molecules are attracted to the soil, surrounding
particulate soil particles and lifting them from the surface while breaking and rolling up
grease into small particles and lifting them from the surface. The hydrophilic ends of the
surfactant molecules point out from the soil particles into the surrounding water. As
individual particles approach each other the hydrophilic parts of the surfactant molecules
on different particles repel each other keeping the soil in suspension and preventing it
from settling back onto the surface.

b. Builders are alkaline chemicals that influence the effectiveness of cleaning agents in
one or both of the following two ways:

 They sequester (combine with) calcium ions in hard water to form water-soluble salts,
thus preventing the adverse effects of calcium.

 Enhance the emulsifying and dispersing properties of the detergent.

Complex phosphates e.g. Sodium Tripolyphosphate, are included in many detergents

powders and act in both of the ways described. Sodium metasilicate and sodium
carbonate are included in many liquid detergents and function in the second of the ways
described Builders, in general, can have damaging effects on many surfaces e.g. chrome,
aluminium, wool, silk, paints, wood and linoleum.

c. Water softeners are frequently comprised of complex phosphates e.g. Sodium

hexametaphosphate because of their sequestering properties.
d. Foaming Agents Increase or stabilize the foam formed by a detergent. Foaming can be
used to indicate surfactant activity the level of foam is dependent on the amount of
surfactant active in a cleaning solution. Alkalonamides derived from coconuts oil are
frequently used for this purpose. Other foaming agents can be used to produce stable,
relatively thick foams in which the other chemicals are dispersed. The foam will stick to
the non-horizontal surface and the cleaning chemicals.

e. Chelating agents are relatively complex chemicals which are included in many liquid
detergents to sequester calcium ion. In simple terms, a combination of sodium carbonate
or metasilicate and a chelating agent will have a similar effect to tripolyphosphate alone.
Tripolyphosphate is not normally included in a liquid detergent because it tends to break
down in alkaline solution. Chelating agents are now frequently used as descaling agents,
being a more acceptable alternative to strong acids. Suspending agents e.g. Sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMS), increase the amount of soil that can be held in
suspension in the cleaning solution.

f. Bleaches will break down by oxidation, stains which have not been removed from a
surface by surfactants or builders. Sodium perborate, weak bleach is included in
detergents intended for washing textile.

Bulking Agents

Eg:- Sodium sulphate, contribute to the volume of detergent powders

Conditioning Agents

Ensure that the granules in detergent powders are crisp firm and dry

g. Whiteners: Absorb ultraviolet light and transmit it as visible white light. The
whiteness of a surface will normally depend on the amount of natural light reflected from
it and received by the eye. Whiteners, therefore, increase the amount of light received by
the eye.

h. Enzymes are complex proteins that will break down organic substances e.g. blood
stains, adhering to a surface. They are most effective at 30- 0 C and are inactivated at
temperatures above 0 C. Anticorrosive Agents. Inhibit the formation of water films on a
 surface. Chemical reactions resulting in corrosion are generally dependent on the
presence of water

i. Perfumes and dyes are included to increase consumer acceptability but increase the
risk of allergic reaction.

j. Suspending Agent

 The role of the suspending agent in cleaning is to hold the dirt in suspension and prevent
it from re-depositing onto the surface of the article.

 It playsacrucialroleinthelaundryagentduetotheamountoftimethattheclothes rotate in the

machine while the dirt is in suspension.

 The suspending agent is carboxylmethylcellulose.

Sequestering Agent

 These act along with the suspending agent to hold dirt in suspension. They assist by
holding a greater amount of dirt in suspension thereby reducing the likelihood of re-
deposition.

 They also have the additional ability to dissolve lime salts that are responsible for
temporary hardness in water.

 Sodium polyphosphates act as sequestering agents.

Other Laundering Agents

2. Alkali

Alkalis used in the wash process include:

1. Washing Soda (sodium Carbonate Na2CO310H2O)

2.SodiumPhosphate
3.SodiumHydroxide
4.SodiumMetasilicate
 5.Borax
6. Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)

The role of the alkali in the wash process

 Combines with calcium ions in hard water to form water-soluble salts, thus preventing
the adverse effects of calcium

 Enhance the emulsifying and dispersing properties of the detergents

3. Bleaches

 These are used on white articles only.

 They remove coloring matter by their oxidizing or reducing action.

 If not in liquid form, they should be dissolved in hot water in order to ensure that no
powder residue remains in the washing machine which may affect later loads.

 The bleaches commonly used in the laundry process are sodium perborate and sodium
hypochlorite (Javelle water).

S.NO. OXIDISING BLEACH REDUCING BLEACH

1 Chlorine bleach Oxygen Bleach
Reducing bleach which
2 Oxidizing bleach which liberates the oxygen from Bleach
reduces the level of oxygen
3 It is stronger It is milder
4 It goes well with cold water It goes well with hot water
It is basically used on
5 It removes all type of stains, except animal
animal stains

Sodium hypochlorite( Javelle Water) (NaOCl) Sodium Hydrosulphite (

Sodium Perborate (NaBO2H2O23H2) Sodium Chlorite Na2S2O4) Sodium
6
(NaClO2) Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) Bleaching Bisulphite
Powder (CaOCl)cotton Sulphorous acid (HSO3)
4. Antichlors

These are agents used to neutralize the chlorine bleach and are essential particularly in
the case of polyesters. The use of chlorinated bleaches has a tendency to leave yellow
deposits.

5. Sour/acid agents

 This is used only in industrial laundering in the final rinse, to neutralize any alkaline soap
residues that may be present.

 It brings the pH of the linen articles to a level between 5 and 6.5, which is agreeable to
the human skin and also gets rid of yellow or brown deposits caused by residue alkali.

 Acetic acid is used as the sour.

 In cases where there is a high iron content in the water, Oxalic acid is used which

 Serves a dual purpose, by also getting rid of the reddish, iron deposits.

 If starch is being used, sour should be added 2 minutes before the starch to achieve a pH
of 5.0 to 5.5. If a sizing agent is being used, the ideal pH is 7.0 to 8.0 so sour is generally
not used.

a. Oxalic Acid

 Sold in white crystals

 Used for removal of fruit stains, bleaching of brown stains after using potassium
permanganate and tannin base of ink stains together with Hydrogen peroxide.

b. Salt of lemon

 Salt of Sorrel

 Compound of Potassium Oxalate and Oxalic Acid referred as Potassium binoxalate

 Used for neutralizing strong alkali.

 c. Acetic Acid: Removes excessive bluing agents and as a neutralising agents

d. Oleic Acid

 Unsuitable for colored fabrics.

 Produces soap when mixed with alkali

 Used for grease and oil stain

e. Fabric conditioner/Softener

 A fabric conditioner or softener has surface active agents like a detergent but they don‘t
perform the function of cleaning.

 Fabric conditioners are based on cationic surface-active agents, carrying a positive charge
and create anti-static properties.

 A fabric conditioner is never used on loads where starch or sizing will be used.

 The role of the fabric conditioner in laundering

6. Optical brightener

 This is an optical brightener/ whitener, which is, in fact, a very fine dye, which gets
bleached in course of time.

 It has a fluorescent effect by reflecting the UV rays of the sun.

The laundry blue in a powder form tends to accumulate in the weave of the fabric and
causes it to turn grey and is no longer used in modern laundries

7. Starch

 This is a stiffening agent used to impart a better appearance to the fabric.

 The use of starch has declined due to the minimum-iron finishes on fabrics and garments
and the reduced use of cotton in favor of man-made fibres.
 However, there are some articles that have a better feel and drape when starched and it is
particularly essential for napkin folds.

 Since polyesters do not have the ability to absorb starch they are stiffened with sizing
agents.

Types of starch

 Hot-Water Starches

 Cold-Water Starches

 Gelatin

 Glue

 Synthetic Sizing