Module 4

Management for Engineers

DR.BIJESH R
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
GEC Thrissur
Project
A project is defined as a combination of interrelated activities
which must be executed in a certain order in for its completion
The activities that has definite starting and ending points and
that result in a unique product or service
 A project is a one shot, time limited, goal directed, major
undertaking, requiring the commitment of varied skills &
resources.
It also describes project as a combination of human and non
human resources pooled together in a temporary organization to
achieve specific purpose
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Examples of Projects
Hosting a College Annual Function
Plan a Space Shuttle to Mars
Construct a Plant to Manufacture Ball Bearings
Plan for Wedding
Designing and Implement a Computer System
Executing Environmental Clean-up Of a Contaminated Site
Erect a New Lab in the Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

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Network Analysis
Network Analysis refers to a number of techniques for the planning and
control of complex projects.
It involves the development of a network to indicate logical sequence of
work content elements of a complex situation

The two most frequently used forms of network planning are:

1. Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
2. Critical Path Method (CPM)

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Objectives of Network Analysis
1. Minimization of total time

2. Minimization of total cost

3. Minimization of cost for a given total time

4. Minimization of idle resources

5. Minimize production delays, interruptions and conflicts

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Basic Components of Network
Events (node)
A specific point in time at which an activity begins and ends is called a node. It is
recognizable as a particular instant in time and does not consume time or resource.
 An event is generally represented on the network by a circle

Activity
An activity is a task, or item of work to be done, that consumes time, effort, money or other
resources.
 It lies between two events, called the ‘Preceding’ and ‘Succeeding’ ones.
An activity is represented on the network by an arrow with its head indicating the sequence
in which the events are to occur.

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Type of Events

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Network Construction

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Classification of Activities
1. Critical Activities:
Are those activities if consume more than the estimated time, the project
will be delayed.
More attention should be paid to the critical activities.
The activities have zero float or zero slack

2. Non Critical Activities:

Are those activities if consume more than the estimated time, the project
will NOT be delayed
The activities have non-zero slack
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Dummy Activity
An activity which only determines the dependency of one activity over the other, but does
not consume any time is called dummy activity.
 It is represented by dotted line arrow
It is introduced to maintain proper logic of the network.

A dummy activity in the network is added when:

(a) two or more parallel activities in a project have same head and tail events, or
(b) two or more activities have some (but not all) of their immediate predecessor activities
in common.

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Common Errors
1. Looping

2. Dangling

3. Redundancy

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1. Looping
Looping error is also called as cycling error in a network diagram.
Making and endless loop in a network is called as error of looping.
If an activity were represented as going back in time, a closed loop would
occur.

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2. Dangling Error
Whenever an activity is disconnected from the network it is called dangling
error.
 No activity should end without being joined to the end event.
If it not so, a dummy activity is introduced in order to maintain the continuity
of the system

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3. Redundancy
When the dummy activity is introduced and it is not required then it is called
redundancy errors.
If a dummy activity is the only activity emanating from an event the network is called to
be redundant
 The dummy activity is to be eliminated to eliminate the redundancy

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Critical Path Method (CPM):
Terminologies:
Earliest Start Time (EST) : It is the earliest possible time at which an
activity can start.
Earliest Finish Time (EFT): It is the earliest possible time at which the
activity can finish
EFT= EST+ duration of the activity
Latest Finish Time(LFT): It is the latest time the activity to be finished so
that the scheduled date of completion of the project may not be delayed.
Latest Start Time (LST): It is the latest possible time by which an activity
can start without delaying the completion of the project
LST = LFT- duration of the activity

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Float or Slack
It is the extra time over and above its duration which a non critical
activity can consume without delaying the date of completion of the
project
Slack is with reference to an event and float is with reference to
activity
Slack is used in PERT Float is used in CPM
But it may be used interchangeably

Float = LST-EST or LFT-EFT

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Types of Floats
a) Total float
Difference between the latest finish and earliest finish time for the activity
Total float = TFij = LFj - EFj
b) Free float
It is defined by assuming that all the activities start as early as possible. The free float for the activity
(i, j) is the excess available time over its duration.

FFij = ESj – ESi - tij

c) Interference float
The difference between total float and free float.
d) Independent float
The time by which an activity can be rescheduled without affecting the preceding or the succeeding
activities is known as independent float.
Independent float = Free float – Tail event Slack
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Critical Path
The path along which the Earliest Finish Time and Latest Finish
Time are equal.
It contains the sequence of activities decides the total duration of
the project
It is the longest path and consumes maximum time
It is formed by critical activities with zero float.
If the project is to be shortened , the time for activities in the critical
path to be shortened.

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Numbering of events-Fulkerson’s Rule
Step1: Number the start or initial event as 1, which has all the
outgoing arrows and no incoming arrows
Step2: From event 1, strike off all outgoing activities. This would
have made one or more events as initial events (event which do
not have incoming activities).Number that event as 2.
Step3: Repeat step 2 for event 2, event 3 and till the end event.
The end event must have the highest number. This node has all
the arrows coming in, with no arrows going out.

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PERT
PERT is a three time estimate technique

Optimistic Time( to):- It is the shortest possible time in which an activity can be completed if
everything going exceptionally well
Most likely Time (t m) :- It is the time in which the activity normally expected to complete under
normal conditions
Pessimistic Time (t p) :- It is the shortest possible time in which an activity can be completed if
everything going wrong

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 𝑡 𝑜+ 𝑡𝑚 𝑋 4 +𝑡𝑝
Estimated (Expected) Time t e =
6

𝑡𝑝 −𝑡𝑜
Standard Deviation, St =
6

𝑡𝑝 −𝑡𝑜 2
Variance = [ ]
6

D− Te
Normal deviation, Z =
𝑆𝑡
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Difference between CPM and PERT

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Project Costs
Direct Cost: These are directly proportional to the quality of the recourses involved during
period.
Eg: man power, material involved.
Indirect cost:
Eg: Cost like overheads, supervisors salary, rent

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Project Crashing
In some projects, it is better to cut down the total project time, even if
it hikes cost.
This is particularly desired when cost considerations are not(or less)
important and completing the project in minimum time is absolutely
essential.
The process of decreasing the project time by consuming additional
recourses and time is called “ crashing”

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Crashing
Normal Cost: It is the lowest cost of completing activity in the minimum time,
employing normal means

Normal time: It is the minimum time required to achieve the task at normal cost

Crash Cost: It is the cost of completing the activity by employing all possible means
like overtime, additional machinery, and materials.

Crash Time: It is the absolute minimum time associated with the crash costs

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Cost slope

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 Scheduling

Scheduling

Bjesh R
 Scheduling

Scheduling
 Allocation of work to the facility with specification of time and
sequence in which the work is to be done.
 Determines the order upon which machine, which department, at
what time and by which operator.

 When, where and in what sequence the work will be done.

 Establishment of an activity time table which gives at which time to

start or finish
 Scheduling

Objectives of Scheduling
 To minimize total time and cost of
production.
 To get maximum capacity utilization.
 To reduce labor cost by reducing idle time.
 For better utilization of materials.
 To meet the correct delivery dates
 To minimize unbalance of work among
various workstations.
 Scheduling

Factors affecting Scheduling

 Internal Factors:-
 Factors within the control of the
management.

 External Factors
 Factors not within the control of the
management.
 Scheduling

Internal Factors
 Availability of man power
 Availability of material
 Availability of machines
 Manufacturing facilities.
 Feasibility of economic production runs
 Stock of finished product within the enterprise.
 Time interval to process finished products from raw materials.
 Scheduling

External Factors

 Customers demand
 Delivery date of customers

 Stocks already lying with dealers and retailers.

 Scheduling

Scheduling
 Single Machine Scheduling

 Flow shop Scheduling

 N jobs in 2 m/c
 N jobs in 3 m/c

 Job Shop Scheduling

 2 jobs in N m/c
 Scheduling

Flow shop Scheduling

 There are n jobs, each requires m
different machines.

 The process sequence for all the jobs

are the same.

 The processing time for different jobs in

a machine may be different.
Facility Layout : Flow Shop
Scheduling

Product 1

Input
A D B
Output

Product 2
C B A
 Scheduling

Flow Shop (Product Layout)

Product layout or line layout: Resources are arranged
according to the sequence of theoperations.

 high standardization, high speed

 low material handling, short flow time
 low flow unit processing cost
 high investment cost; needs mass production.
 special purpose equipment, and low skilled labor
prevent flexibility

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 Scheduling

Job shop Scheduling

 Each job has n different operations.

 The process sequence are not the

same.
Scheduling
Facility Layout : Job Shop
Scheduling

Output

Product 1

Input
A B
Product 2
C D
 Scheduling

Job Shop (Functional Layout) Module III

Similar resources in the same department.

 low volume, high variety customized products
 flexible resources
 skilled human resources
 jumbled work flows
 high material handling
 large volume of inventories
 long flow time
 highly structured information system
 high cost per unit of product but low investment
 Scheduling

Measuring Performance

 Job flow time.

 Makespan.

 Job lateness.

 Job tardiness.
 Scheduling

Job flow time.(Fj)

“The time a job spends in the service or

manufacturing system”
Fj = Cj – Rj
Cj= Completion time.
Rj= Ready time.
 Scheduling

Makespan:


The total amount of time required to complete a group of jobs.

 The time it takes to finish a batch of jobs.

 Measure of efficiency
 Scheduling

Job lateness(Lj)
 Amount of time by which the completion of time of job differs from its due date.
 Shows the job is completed ahead of, on, or behind schedule.
 Can be positive, zero or negative.

 Lj = Cj – Dj

 Cj = Completion time.
 Dj = Due date
 Scheduling

Job tardiness(Tj)
 How long after the due date a job was completed, measures
due date performance.

 Measure of lateness.

 Tj =Max (0, Lj)

 Scheduling

Commonly Used Priorities Rules

 First come, first served (FCFS)
 Last come, first served (LCFS)
 Earliest due date (EDD)
 Shortest processing time (SPT)
 Longest processing time (LPT)
 Critical ratio (CR):
 Slack per remaining(SR)

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 Scheduling

Critical Ratio
 CR =(Due date - Today’s date)/(Total
shop time remaining)
 OR
 (Time remaining before due date)
/(Remaining processing time )
 Scheduling

Slack time remaining(STR)

 Slack ={(Time remaining before due date) –

(Remaining processing time)}
 Scheduling

Problem
 Scheduling

Ans:-
 Scheduling

FCFS
 Scheduling

FCFS_Ans
 Scheduling

SPT
 Scheduling

SPT_Ans
 Scheduling

EDD
 Scheduling

EDD_Ans

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 Scheduling

CR
 Scheduling

CR_Ans
 Scheduling

Slack
 Scheduling

Slack_Ans
 Scheduling

Summary