Computer Science Year 1

SECTION

3 COMPUTER
NETWORKING

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Computer Architecture and Organisation

Data communication and Network systems

INTRODUCTION
The need to share information and resources among different computers has led to
computer systems being linked together, called networks, in which computers are
connected so that data can be transferred from machine to machine. The primary
purposes of computer networks are to facilitate communication and share resources
among connected devices. Using networks, computer users can exchange messages
and share resources, such as printing capabilities, software packages, and data storage
facilities.
Examples include an office network (connecting computers, printers, and a server
in the lab), your school Wi-Fi (allowing you to research, and learn on the extended
reading questions to the internet), and an ATM network (connecting ATMs to a bank’s
network to allow customers to access their accounts from various locations).

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Demonstrate understanding of computer networks and how they work.

2. Identify at least 3 Types of Network Systems.
3. Differentiate among three types of Network Systems.

Key Ideas
1. A computer network is a connection of two or more computers or computing devices.
2. Some components of a computer network are; hub, nodes, and network interface cards
(NIC).
3. A stand-alone computer is a computer that operates independently and is not
connected to a network.
4. A computer area network refers to a type of network designed to connect computers
within a limited area such as a building, campus, or small geographical area.
5. A network topology describes both the physical and logical arrangement of different
components (links, nodes, etc) in a computer network.
6. A network architecture: The design and structure of a computer network.
7. A client-Server model: Clients request services from centralised servers, ensuring
easier management, security, and scalability.
8. A Peer-to-Peer model: Is an architecture where devices or nodes share resources and
services directly without centralised control.

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9. A network topology: The physical and logical arrangement of network elements

(routers, switches, hub, cables etc.).
10. The cloud networks: It involves a network of remote servers hosted on the internet to
store, manage, and process data, rather than a local server or a personal computer.
11. The OSI model: It is a set of rules that explains the process of transmitting data between
network devices.
12. A wireless network or wireless data connection refers to the transfer of data between
devices without the use of physical cables.
13. A wired network or wired data connection refers to the transfer of data between
devices with the help of physical cables.

ADVANTAGES OF A COMPUTER NETWORK OVER

STAND-ALONE
Computer networking offers numerous benefits, which have significantly transformed
how we communicate, access information, and conduct business. Some of the key
advantages of computer networking include:

1. Resource Sharing
One of the primary benefits of networking is the ability to share hardware
resources (e.g., printers, scanners, storage devices) and software applications
among multiple users. This reduces costs and increases efficiency as each device
does not need to have dedicated resources.

2. Data Sharing and Collaboration

Networking enables seamless sharing of data and files between users, facilitating
collaboration on projects and tasks. This is particularly useful in business settings
where teams need to work together on documents and presentations.

3. Shared Internet Access

Networking allows multiple devices to share a single internet connection, making
it a cost-effective and convenient way for businesses and households to provide
internet access to all connected devices.

4. Centralised Management
In a business networked environment, system administrators can manage and
monitor multiple devices and users from a central location. This centralised
management simplifies tasks like software updates, security configurations, and
user permissions.

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5. Communication
Networking enables efficient communication through various means, such
as email, instant messaging and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol). These
communication tools help individuals and businesses stay connected regardless
of geographic locations.

6. Improved Efficiency
Computer networking streamlines various processes, reducing the need for
manual tasks. For example, automated backups and data synchronisation across
devices improve data reliability and reduce data loss risks.

7. Remote Access
With network connectivity, users can access resources and data remotely. This is
especially valuable for employees working from home or on the go, as they can
access some office resources securely from any location, when using the correct
tools such as VPN.

8. Scalability
Networks can be designed to easily scale to accommodate additional devices
and users as an organisation grows, without significant changes to the existing
infrastructure.

9. Cost Savings
By sharing resources, businesses can cut down on hardware and software expenses.
Additionally, networked environments can reduce paper usage through digital file
sharing and electronic communication.

10. Enhanced Security

While security is a concern in networking, a properly configured network can
implement security measures like firewalls, encryption and access controls, which
improve data protection and can prevent unauthorised access.

11. Real-Time Data Exchange

In industries like finance and manufacturing, real-time data exchange is crucial
for decision-making. Networking allows the rapid transmission of information
between systems and applications.

12. Global Connectivity

The internet and other wide area networks (WANs) enable global connectivity,
linking people, businesses and information worldwide. This has revolutionised
the way we access information and conduct international business.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer networks are composed of several key components that work together to
enable communication and data exchange between devices. These components include:

1. Hub
This device serves as a central connection point for multiple devices in a network.
It relays any signal it receives with some amplification back out to all the devices
connected to it. Hubs are less common today due to their inefficiency and lack of
intelligence in data transmission.

Figure 3.1: A hub connected to devices

2. Nodes
These are the devices connected to the network that can send, receive, and process
data. Examples of nodes include computers, laptops, servers, routers, switches,
smartphones, printers, and other smart devices.

Figure 3.2: Network with 6 connected nodes

3. Network Interface Card (NIC)

This is a hardware component that allows a device to connect to the network.
It is responsible for converting data from the device into a format suitable for
transmission over the network, and vice versa. A WNIC (wireless NIC) enables
wireless connectivity to a network.

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Figure 3.3: NIC

4. Communication Channels
These are the physical or logical pathways through which data is transmitted
between nodes. They can be wired (e.g. Ethernet cables, fibre optics) or wireless
(e.g. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

5. Switches
These are devices that facilitate the connection and communication between
multiple devices within a local area network (LAN). They use MAC addresses
(media access control addresses) to forward data to the intended recipient. A MAC
address is a 48-bit number assigned to each device connected to the network. This
intelligence is illustrated in Figure 9.4

Figure 3.4: A hub and switch

6. Routers
These are digital devices that connect different networks and determine the best
path for data to travel from the source to the destination across the internet or
other networks.

7. Modems
These devices are used to modulate and demodulate digital signals to enable
communication over analogue communication channels, such as telephone lines.
Modem router combo devices combine the functionalities of routers and modems.

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8. Protocols
These are a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted,
received, and processed over the network. Examples include TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), and
DNS (Domain Name System).

9. Network Operating System (NOS)

This is the software that manages and controls the network, providing services
such as file sharing, network security, and network administration.

10. Firewalls
These are computer network security systems (hardware or software) that monitor
and control incoming and outgoing network traffic, protecting the network from
unauthorised access and potential threats. It will filter data by checking to see if it
or its behaviour fits the profile of malicious code.

Figure 3.5: A firewall is an example of a network security solution

The main difference between a hardware firewall and a software firewall is that the
hardware firewall runs on its own physical device, while a software firewall is a
program installed on a computer. A common example of a software firewall is the
firewall built into most operating systems like Windows and macOS (Macintosh
Operating System).

11. Network Cables and Connectors

These physical cables (e.g., Ethernet cables) and connectors are used to establish
wired connections between devices in a network.

12. Wireless Access Points (WAPs)

These provide wireless connectivity to devices within a local area network,
allowing them to connect to the network without the need for physical cables.
Some WAPs can be wall mounted – see Figure 9.6

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Figure 3.6 WAP

13. Network Topology

This refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes and communication
channels in a network. Common topologies include star, bus, ring, and mesh.
(Topologies will be studied in Week 11)

14. Workstation
A term sometimes used to describe a computer (usually desktop) connected to a
LAN.
Each of these components plays a specific role in a network, contributing to the
efficiency and effectiveness of its operation. They work together to enable data sharing,
resource sharing, and communication between network devices and users.

Activity 3.1

In your groups, do the following;

Each group will be assigned a specific type of network hardware to research
(e.g., Group A: routers, Group B: modems, Group C: switches, etc.) discuss the
importance of your assigned network hardware.
1. Each group has a fictional budget of Gh¢1000 to source two examples of your
assigned hardware type.
2. Each device must cost no more than Gh¢1000
3. Use the internet to find two suitable examples of your assigned hardware
type within the budget. Note: Look for reliable sources such as tech websites,
online stores, and product reviews.
4. Collect information on specifications, features, prices, and customer reviews
for each device.
5. Compare the two devices your group found, considering factors such as:
a. What features does each device offer?
b. Are there any common issues mentioned in reviews?

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c. How do the prices compare to the features offered?

6. Discuss within your group to decide which device is the better option based
on your comparison.
7. Create a report or presentation summarising your findings to the whole class.

Activity 3.2

In your groups, observe the images of the network components below and
correctly name the devices labelled A – F.

Figure 3.7: Network components

Activity 3.3

In your groups, and with the help of the teacher, connect a network device to a
computer in your lab
Materials needed: Ethernet cable (network cable), a computer, switch/router/
modem/hub
STEPS
1. Locate the Ethernet port at the back of the desktop computer. On a laptop, it
can be found on the side or back of the device.
2. Take one end of the Ethernet cable and firmly plug it into the Ethernet
port on your computer. You should hear a click when the cable is properly
inserted.
3. Take the other end of the Ethernet cable and plug it into an available
Ethernet port on your router, switch, or modem. Again, you should hear a
click when it is properly inserted.

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NOTE: On most devices, there are small LED lights next to the Ethernet
ports. When the cable is connected properly, these lights should blink or turn
solid to indicate a successful connection.
Conclusion: In a small home network setup like this, a switch is not required
because the Wi-Fi router acts as the central point where devices connect and
communicate. The router handles the switching functions internally, allowing
devices to share resources and access the internet without the need for additional
networking hardware like a switch.

TYPES OF COMPUTER AREA NETWORKS

Area networks include a personal area network (PAN), a local area network (LAN), a
metropolitan area network (MAN), or a wide area network (WAN).

1. PAN (Personal Area Network)

It is normally used for short-range communications—typically less than a few
metres, such as between a wireless mouse and a PC.

Figure 3.8: Personal area network

2. LAN (Local Area Network)

It normally consists of a collection of computers in a single building or building
complex. For example, the computers in a school or those in a manufacturing
plant might be connected by a LAN. LANs provide high data transfer rates and
low latency (delay in network communication), making them ideal for resource
sharing and collaborative work.

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Figure 3.9 Local area network

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

It is a network of intermediate sizes, such as one spanning a campus, a region or
even a city.

Figure 3.10: Metropolitan area network

4. WAN (Wide Area Network)

It links computers and devices over a greater distance—perhaps in neighbouring
cities or on opposite sides of the world. WANs can also connect other small and
medium networks like LANs and MANs – see Figures 3.11 and 3.12. The internet
is essentially a huge international WAN.

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Figures 3.11 A WAN Figure 3.12: Range of area networks

Figure 3.13: A WAN

TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and
connections in a computer network. There are several types of network topologies,
each with its advantages and disadvantages. Here are the main types:

1. Bus Topology
All devices are connected to a single central cable called the ‘bus’. Each device on
the network can communicate directly with the others. However, if the central
bus cable fails, the entire network will go down.

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Figure 3.14: Bus Topology

2. Star Topology
All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Each device has its dedicated
connection to the central hub, making it easier to manage and troubleshoot
individual connections. If one device fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.
However, the central hub becomes a single point of failure.

Figure 3.15: Star Topology

3. Ring Topology
The devices are connected in a closed loop. Each device is connected to two other
devices, creating a continuous circle. Data travels around the ring from one device
to the next until it reaches its destination. Ring topologies are less common due to
the risk of a single connection failure disrupting the entire network.

Figure 3.16: Ring Topology

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4. Mesh Topology
Every device is connected to every other device in a fully-connected mesh network.
This redundancy ensures multiple paths for data to travel, providing high reliability
and fault tolerance. Fault tolerance refers to the ability of a network to continue
operating without interruption when one or more of its components fail. Mesh
topologies are highly resilient but can be costly to implement due to the large
number of connections required.

Figure 3.17: Mesh Topology

A partial mesh topology provides alternate routes from each node to some of the
other nodes on the network.

5. Tree (Hierarchical) Topology

It is a combination of bus and star topologies. It has a central hub (root) connected
to multiple devices in a star configuration. Each of these devices can then have
additional devices connected to them, forming a hierarchical structure. Tree
topologies are useful for large networks that require subnetworks and hierarchical
organisation.

Figure 3.18: Tree Topology

6. Hybrid Topology
It combines two or more different types of topologies. For example, an example of
a hybrid topology is a ring star, where a star network is connected through a hub

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to a ring network. Hybrid topologies offer flexibility and can suit complex network
requirements.

Figure 3.19: Hybrid Topology

Each network topology has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of topology
depends on factors like the size of the network, the desired level of redundancy,
cost considerations, and the specific needs of the organisation or application.
Note that network redundancy refers to the process of adding additional or alternate
instances of network devices, equipment, and communication channels within a
network infrastructure. This is done to ensure network availability in case of a network
device or path failure.

Activity 3.4

In your group, do the following:

1. Observe the types of network systems in the diagram below.

Figure 3.20: Types of networks

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2. Select your group leader and secretary.

3. The secretary should write report on the activity.
4. Identify and match the types of networks labelled A, B, C, D to MAN, LAN,
PAN, and WAN in the diagram.
5. Select any of the labels identified and matched in (d) above.
6. Explain the selected network area type in your own words.
7. Explain the main features of these area networks you selected.
8. Use the computer, create PowerPoint Slide of the report.
9. Group leader should present the report to the class.

Activity 3.5

Let us look at the diagrams below.

Figure 3.21

Individually, perform the activities that follow:

1. What name best suits the whole diagram above?
2. Identify the diagrams labelled A, B, C, D and E.
3. Describe each of the identified labels.
4. State and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each of the labels.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF NET-

WORKS
These notes will only look at the differences between the three types of area networks,
LANs, MANs, and WANs. Other criteria other than those given in the Table 3.1 can be
added when comparing these networks as we will see in later weeks. See Figure 3.19
for the range of these networks.
Table 3.1: Table showing the difference between the types of networks

Criterion LAN MAN WAN

Area A network that A network that The network covers

connects devices in connects large areas a large area such as
a small geographic than LANs such as a country or several
range. small towns or cities. countries.

Example School network University network Internet, ATM

network

Ownership Private Public or private Public or private

Topology Star, Bus, or Ring Ring, Mesh, hybrid Point-to-point, Mesh

Transmission High Moderate Low

speed

Fault tolerance More fault tolerance Less fault tolerance Less fault tolerance

Maintenance Easy to maintain as More complex Maintenance and

has a less complex structure than LAN the
structure and is also more
difficult to maintain. design structure
is more complex
compared to LAN
and MAN.

Congestion Less More More

Point-to-point networks are used to connect two locations together via a private,
dedicated line.

Activity 3.6

In your group, do the following:

1. Select your group leader and secretary.
2. The secretary should write a report on the activity.

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3. Each member should pick one of the following topologies: Bus, Star, Mesh,
Ring, Tree, and Hybrid.
4. Explain in your own words the type of topology you picked.
5. Explain the main features of each type of topology.
6. Use the computer to create a PowerPoint slide of the report.
7. The group leader should present the report to the class.

Activity 3.7

Do the following:
1. Individually, think of possible criteria to compare different types of area
networks such as geographical area and ownership.
2. Get into your groups,
3. Share your individual views with your members.
4. Settle on the five (5) most appropriate ones.
5. Fill in Table 3.2 with the five (5) criteria under criterion with aid of computer
and PowerPoint application.
6. Complete the table with the differences between these four area networks
under the criterion identified.
7. Present your results to the class with PowerPoint presentation.
Table 3.2: Comparing different types of area networks

Criterion PANs LANs MANs WAN

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NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
Take a look at the classroom, just like how a classroom is organised with desks, chairs,
students, and a teacher, computer networks are also arranged in a specific way to make
sure everything runs smoothly. We will learn about the world of Computer Architecture
and Organisation, focusing on data communication and network systems. We will find
out how networks are designed and managed, reveal the secrets behind client-server
and peer-to-peer models.
Picture the network as a well-organised classroom: the teacher is like the server,
providing information and resources to the students (the clients). In another setup,
students might share and exchange information directly with each other, much like
a peer-to-peer network. As we journey through this topic, you will gain a practical
understanding of how data travels across networks, ensuring seamless communication
in our digital world.
Let us take a look at the network architecture and the two most common models,
client-server and peer-to-peer models.

What is Network Architecture?

This refers to the way network devices and services are structured to serve the
connectivity needs of the user devices. This includes the hardware, software, protocols,
and configurations used to create and manage the network. There are several types of
network architecture, each serving different purposes and catering to specific needs.
Two of the most common models are client-server and peer-to-peer.

1. Client-Server Architecture
In this architecture, devices on the network are divided into two categories: clients
and servers. Clients (e.g., computers, smartphones) request services or resources
from servers (e.g., access to webpages from a web server, access to files from a file
server). Servers respond to client requests, and this model allows for centralised
management and resource sharing. Servers tend to be quite powerful machines.
They need the processing power because many other computers connect to them.
Clients may not store data, and they have no control over the network as a whole.
Because this model is centralised, it is more secure and easier to back up data.
It is suitable for both small and large networks and for situations where many
computers need access to the same information. Many schools use this model.
Client-server networks are generally more stable than P2P networks but can cost
more due to the infrastructure and maintenance required.

2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture

In this architecture, all devices on the network are considered equal peers,
capable of both requesting and providing resources (i.e., acting as both a client
and a server). There is no central server. Each device can directly communicate,
request and provide services to other devices on the network, which makes it a
decentralised network.

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P2P typically is used for smaller networks, often with fewer than 10 computers, or
where fewer computers need access to the same data. It is less expensive and easy
to set up compared to client-server networks. However, they can be less stable as
the number of peers increases and may have security challenges since each node
has equal authority.

Figure 3:22 Two types of computer architecture

Note the link between network topology and network architecture. Network
topology is the practical implementation of network architecture. A network
topology is the arrangement of different elements within the network, including
devices like routers, switches, and computers, whereas network architecture refers to
the design and physical structure of a computer network.

CLOUD NETWORKS
The CLOUD refers to servers that are accessed over the internet, and the software and
databases that run on those servers. Cloud servers are located in data centres all over
the world. In a cloud network, the network is on-premises, but some or all resources
used to manage it are in the cloud and these resources are rented from a third-party
cloud provider/ cloud vendor. Cloud networking is the infrastructure that supports
cloud computing, which is the delivery of various services through the Internet. It
involves a network of remote servers hosted on the internet to store, manage, and
process data, rather than a local server or a personal computer.
A cloud network can employ a client-server architecture. In this model, the cloud acts
as the server that provides resources and services, and the clients (which can be end-
user devices like computers, smartphones, etc.) request and consume these services.
The cloud-based delivery of services ensures that clients can access resources on-
demand via the Internet.
The client-server architecture in a cloud environment is designed to be easily scalable
and efficient, allowing for a robust network that can handle varying workloads and
provide services to a large number of clients simultaneously.
With cloud networking, an organisation can shift its network management, control,
and data connectivity from on-premises to a cloud infrastructure. Cloud networking
allows organisations to create complex networks using only the internet.

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Figure 3.23: Cloud networking

OSI MODEL - What is it?

Networking is a vast and often complex topic. The OSI model helps us better understand
it. The OSI model describes how a network functions and gives a reference framework
(a set of rules) that explains the process of transmitting data between network devices.
It is essentially a blueprint for a network architecture that standardises the way the
nodes send data to each other.
This model makes use of what is called in networking, a layered architecture. In the
OSI model, the process of communication between two devices on a network can be
divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or layers, with each layer having
a specific job.

Figure 3.24: OSI Model Layers

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From highest level to lowest level the seven levels of the OSI model are:
Layer 7: The Application Layer
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
Layer 5: The Session Layer
Layer 4: The Transport Layer
Layer 3: The Network Layer
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
Layer 1: The Physical Layer
The Physical Layer (Layer 1) is responsible for the transmission and reception of
raw data bits over a physical medium, such as wires, optical fibres, or wireless signals.
The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) manages node-to-node data transfer and handles error
detection and correction during the transmission between two physically connected
devices.
The Network Layer (Layer 3) is responsible for routing data packets between different
networks, this layer determines the best physical path for data to travel from source to
destination.
The Transport Layer (Layer 4) ensures complete data transfer by providing end-
to-end communication, error recovery, and flow control between devices, often using
protocols like TCP or UDP.
The Session Layer (Layer 5) manages and controls the connections between devices,
establishing, maintaining, and terminating communication sessions.
The Presentation Layer (Layer 6) converts data between the application layer and
the lower layers, ensuring that data is in a usable format, and handling encryption and
compression.
The Application Layer (Layer 7) provides network services directly to the user or
application software, such as email, file transfer, and web browsing, facilitating end-
user interaction with the network.
A possible mnemonic for remembering the names of the layers (highest to lowest) is:
A Penguin Said That Nobody Drinks Pepsi

Why the OSI model is used?

Before the OSI model, each company had its own packet structure or data structure,
which meant that peripherals of different companies were not compatible. For example,
if you have a computer made by company A, then you need to buy peripherals such
as a printer from company A. So, the International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) decided that data had to go in a particular manner from one place to another
place to overcome this issue. This is where the reference model (OSI model) came into
being. ISO decided that when data goes from one place to another place it has to go
through the layers of the OSI model so that others can also understand it.

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Activity 3.8

1. In small groups perform the following activities in class

a. Research using the internet the differences between client/server and P2P
networks in a school environment using agreed-upon criteria discussed in
class.
Hint: Use the table below as a guide for (i).
Table 3.3: The differences between client/server and P2P networks

Criterion CLIENT/SERVER P2P NETWORKS

Typical uses

Security

Data
Management

Scalability

Reliability

Maintenance

Cost

b. State the network model which would be more suitable for managing
student and teacher data securely
c. Give the reason for your response in (ii) above.
2. In groups, Create an engaging presentation of each focal area:
a. Network architecture models
b. client-server
c. P2P
d. Cloud networks
e. The OSI Model
3. As a group, you will role-play the seven layers of the OSI model to
demonstrate how data is sent from one computer to another.
a. Form a group of seven.
b. Assign each of the seven students one layer of the OSI model.
c. Each group should prepare a brief explanation of their layer’s functions,
including how it interacts with the layer above and below.
d. Consider using diagrams, or cards to help illustrate the data flow and
transformation at each level.

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WIRELESS DATA CONNECTIONS

Instead of connecting computers to peripheral devices or to another computers through
ports and connectors, wireless communications technologies are used. Wireless media
offer mobility and flexibility but they can be affected by environmental factors and
have limited range and security concerns. This type of connection uses radio waves or
other wireless technologies to communicate between devices.
There are many types of wireless technologies. They differ in various ways including
frequency and modulation.

Figure 3.25: Wireless Technologies

Let us look at some of these technologies.

1. Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology uses short-range radio signals to transmit data between two
Bluetooth-enabled computers or devices. In addition to computers, mobiles devices
and many peripherals’ devices, such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, or headset, and
many vehicles and consumer digital devices are Bluetooth enabled. The range of
a Bluetooth connection is approximately 10 meters (30 feet). However, maximum
communication range will vary depending on obstacles (such as person, metal,
storm, or wall) or the electromagnetic environment. The range may be able to be
extended with additional equipment. If you have a computer that is not Bluetooth
enabled, you can purchase a Bluetooth adapter that will give a computer the
ability to connect to Bluetooth devices either via an internal card (for a desktop
computer), or a USB adapter.

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Figure 3.26: Bluetooth Pairing Device

2. Near Field Communication (NFC)

NFC uses close-range radio signals to transmit data between two NFC-enabled
devices. Examples of NFC-enabled devices include many smartwatches, most
smartphones, and some digital cameras, computers, point of sales devices, ATMs,
and smart televisions. Other objects, such as contactless debit and credit cards, and
contactless travel cards, also use NFC technology. For successful communications,
the devices either touch or are within a distance of 4 centimetres (1.6 inches) of
each other.

Figure 3.27: Payment via credit card using NFC

3. Infrared (IR)
Infrared connectivity is a wireless technology that uses a beam of infrared light to
transmit information. It is used for short-range or medium-range communications
between two devices. IR communication is among the simplest wireless
communication methods and serves as a cost-effective way of transmitting a few
bits of data wirelessly. It requires direct line of sight and operates only at close

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range. This is not particularly common nowadays for data transfer due to the very
slow speeds, and the requirement for short distance line of sight.

Figure 3.28: Infrared devices

NOTE: Wireless Technologies used by Wireless Personal Area Networks (wPANs)
include Bluetooth, NFC, IR

4. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)

Wi-Fi uses radio signals that conform to certain standards. Computers and devices
that have the appropriate Wi-Fi capability can communicate via radio waves with
other Wi-Fi computers or devices. Most computers and mobile devices are Wi-Fi
enabled, or can have this added, along with routers and other communications
devices. The reach of your signal will be impacted by the manufacturer of the
equipment that you are using, the location where your router is installed, and the
obstructions that might block the signal in your home or business.
Routers set to a 2.4Ghz frequency that are correctly placed should offer you
coverage for about 45 metres (150 feet) indoors and about 91 metres (300 feet)
outdoors. Routers set to a 5GHz frequency that are correctly placed should offer
you coverage for about 15–30 metres (50–100 feet) indoors and about 45 metres
(150 feet) outdoors, while routers on a 6GHz frequency typically offer similar or
slightly reduced coverage indoors, with about 9–15 metres (30–50 feet) outdoors.

26
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Figure 3.29: WiFi enabled devices

5. Cellular Communication
A cellular wireless network, often referred to as a mobile network, is a
communication system that enables wireless communication via radio and
microwave signals over a wide geographic area using cell towers. They enable
smartphones, tablets and other digital devices to connect to the internet through
the nearest cell tower. This setup (referred to as cellular or mobile data) allows
for mobility and convenience, as users can get online without being bound to a
physical location (for Wi-Fi you need to be located near a router to get an internet
connection). You just need to be within the coverage area of the cellular network
to connect to the internet. It is particularly useful for those who travel or work
remotely. The first commercial cellular network, the 1G generation, was launched
in Japan in 1979. 5G or the fifth-generation technology standard for cellular
networks, began deployment worldwide in 2019. 5G has several advantages over
4G, including wider bandwidth resulting in faster speeds and greater capacity .

Figure 3.30: Cellular Communication

27
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

6. Satellite Communication
Satellite communication involves transmitting data signals to and from satellites
in space. It is commonly used for long-distance communication in remote areas
and for global connectivity. This is now becoming more and more common as
mobile phones adapt the technology for emergency use when phone signal is not
available. In recent years satellite-based internet has become mainstream under
the name Starlink, providing fast internet to areas that previously would not have
had access to it.

Figure 3.31: Satellite Communication

Figure 3.32: Picture showing how satellite communication is established

Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (wMANs) use various wireless technologies, the
most common being WiMAX and LTE.
Wireless Wide Area Networks (wMANs) use various wireless technologies, including
cellular network and satellite.

28
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Figure 3.33: Picture showing how wireless network ranges

Activity 3.9

1. Perform the following task in group

a. Each group is assigned one of the following wireless transmission
medium: Bluetooth, NFC, Infrared, WiFi, Cellular Communication and
Satellite Communication.
b. Use the internet to get information to show how the assigned wireless
transmission medium works, using videos, models or diagrams.
c. Your report should show their characteristics, advantages, disadvantages,
and common use cases.
d. Make a power point presentation on the report to the class
2. Your mum has come to you to teach her how to send an audio from her
phone to your auntie’s phone.
a. Which wireless transmission media will you use and why?
b. Describe the steps which you will take to share the audio

WIRED DATA CONNECTIONS

Let’s talk about wired connections. Wired connections use physical cables to transfer
data between devices. This type of connection is known for being fast, reliable, and
secure. These connections are often used in places where stable and high-speed internet
is crucial, like offices and homes. Now, let’s take a closer look at the different types of
wired connections, their applications, each with its advantages and limitations.
There are also a number of different wired computing technologies, one of the most
common being Ethernet. Ethernet can be considered a network protocol that controls
how data is transmitted over cables. An Ethernet cable (layer 1 Physical layer of the

29
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

OSI model) plugs into a network interface card (NIC) which handles the Layer 2 Data
Link functionality. Effectively, Layer 2 is responsible for putting 1’s and 0’s on the cable
and pulling 1’s and 0’s from the cable.
Ethernet cables are commonly used in LANs, MANs and WANs. The original 10 base
5 Ethernet used a thick coaxial cable. More modern Ethernet variants use twisted pair,
but more recently fibre optic has become more common for high speed over longer
distances.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable is a widely used cable for transmitting data and information
over certain distances. A twisted pair cable consists of two separate insulated
copper wires that are twisted together within a wrapping shield and run parallel
with each other. This helps to reduce the crosstalk or electromagnetic induction
between the pair of wires. They come in categories like Cat5e, Cat6, Cat7 and
Cat8. Cat6 cables are commonly used for high-speed Ethernet data transmissions
in modern networks with a data rate of 10Gbps. Cat7 cables with a data rate of up
to 100Gbps are more suited to data centres than residential applications.
There are two types twisted pair cables

a. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Commonly used in LANs, UTP cables have twisted pairs of copper wires and
come in categories like Cat5e and Cat6. UTP cables are small in diameter but
unprotected against electrical interference.

Figure 3.34: Unshielded twisted pair cable

b. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

This is a type of twisted pair cable that contains an extra wrapping foil or copper
braid jacket to protect the cable from defects like cuts, losing bandwidth, noise,
and signal to the interference. It is a cable that is usually used underground and
is more costly than UTP. It supports higher data transmission rates across a long
distance.

30
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Figure 3.35: Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

2. Coaxial Cable
This is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield and other
components engineered to block signal interference. It consists of a copper
conductor surrounded by insulation, a braided metallic shield, and an outer jacket.
These cables were commonly used for older Ethernet networks (e.g. 10Base2 and
10Base5). Coaxial cables have good bandwidth and resistance to interference but
are bulky and less flexible compared to twisted pair cables.

Figure 3.36: Coaxial Cable

Figure 3.37: Coaxial cable with labels

31
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

A common use of coaxial cable in networking today is for connecting a cable

modem to an Internet Service Provider (ISP), and for cable broadband internet.
They are also used in automobiles, aircraft, military and medical equipment, as
well as connecting satellite dishes, radio and television antennas to their respective
receivers.

3. Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic cables use strands of glass or plastic to transmit data as pulses of light.
They offer high bandwidth, long-distance transmission capabilities, and immunity
to electromagnetic interference. Fibre optic cables are commonly used in high-
speed networks, telecommunications, and data centres.

Figure 3.38: Fibre Optic Cable

4. Power Line Communication (PLC)

Power Line Communication uses a building’s existing electrical system as the
transmission medium and regular wall outlets as connecting points. It is commonly
used to extend a wired Ethernet network into another room. You can form a
Powerline network wherever there are power outlets, eliminating the need for
expensive and complicated Ethernet cables. They depend entirely on the quality
of the wiring within a building and are not guaranteed to work.

32
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Figure 3.39: Power Line Communication

Advantages of PLC
1. Easy to set up: no cabling required, just plug and go
2. Large Reach: PLC can enable communication with hard-to-reach nodes by cable
or where Wi-Fi signals might be weak or compromised

Disadvantages of PLC
1. Lower speed – the maximum speed is generally lower than Ethernet.
2. Can be impacted by electrical interference, for example such as from tumble
dryers or microwaves
3. Powerline adaptors must be plugged into a wall and, usually do not work when
plugged into extension cords. This means that users will have fewer electrical
outlets available for other uses.

33
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Activity 3.10

1. Perform the following task in the group

a. Each group is assigned one of the following wired transmission
medium: twisted pair cables coaxial cable, fibre optic cable, power line
communication
b. Using videos, models or diagrams, use the internet to get information to
show how the assigned wired transmission medium works.
c. Your report should show their characteristics, advantages, disadvantages,
and common use cases.
d. Make a PowerPoint presentation on the report to the class
2. In your group,
a. use the internet and find out two network transmission media from STP,
UDP, Fibre optic, and coaxial.
b. create a comparison table between the two media in your exercise book or
the Word processing application.
c. Show the answer to your teacher.

Comparing Different Network Cabling

Table 3.4: Comparing Different Network Cabling

Characteristics Twisted pair cable Co-axial cable Optical fibre cable

Signal Takes place in the Takes place in Takes place in an

transmission electrical form over the the electrical optical form over glass
metallic conducting form over the fibre
wires. inner conductor
of the cable.
Installation and Simple and easy Relatively Difficult
Implementation difficult
Cost Very low Moderate Expensive
Diameter Larger than optical fibre Larger than Small diameter
cable. optical fibre
cable.
Bandwidth Low bandwidth. Moderately high A very high
bandwidth. bandwidth.
Electromagnetic UTP susceptible to EMI is reduced EMI is not present.
interference external interference due to shielding.
(EMI)
Attenuation1 Very high Low Very low
Noise immunity2 Low noise immunity. Higher noise The highest noise
immunity. immunity.

34
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Characteristics Twisted pair cable Co-axial cable Optical fibre cable

Repeater3 Repeater spacing is 2-10 Repeater spacing Repeater spacing is 10-

Spacing km. is 1-10 km. 100 km.

Attenuation is the reduction in the strength of a signal.

1

2
Noise immunity is the ability to perform its functions when interference (noise)
is present.
3
A repeater on a network is a node that amplifies incoming signals and rebroadcasts
them.

Conclusion
Each type of cable has its own unique features and is used for different purposes.
Twisted-pair cable is the most common and cheapest option, Co-axial cable has a higher
bandwidth and is used for high-speed connections, and optical fibre cable is immune to
electromagnetic interference and has a very high bandwidth over long distances. The
choice of cable depends on factors such as data transfer speed requirements, distance,
cost, environment, and the type of network being deployed.

Wired Networks versus Wireless Networks

Table 3.5: Wired Networks versus Wireless Networks

Wired networks Wireless networks

Cost Installation costs can be Cheaper to set up, devices can

expensive connect if in the range of a
wireless access point

Installation Installation requires technical Installation is quick and simple

knowledge and space to install as most wireless devices will
cables connect automatically
A solution for outdoor locations
that are impossible for cabling.

Maximum Up to 10 Gbps for Ethernet Up to 50 megabits per second

transmission (Cat6)
speed

Maximum Up to 100 metres for Ethernet. Up to 50 metres

distance
for reliable 40 to 100 kilometres for fibre
communication optic (single mode)

Security of More secure as a physical Less secure as wireless signal

connection connection is required to cannot be contained within
intercept data a building and no physical
connection is needed to
intercept data

35
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Activity 3.11

1. In your groups Complete the Table 3.6 below

Table 3.6: Terms and their descriptions

TERM DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Bluetooth A short-range wireless technology
standard for exchanging data between
fixed and mobile devices over short
distances.

NFC
INFRARED
Wi-Fi
Bluetooth
Unshielded twisted pair
cable
Shielded twisted pair cable
Fibre optic cable
Coxial cable
Cellular communication
Satellite communication
Power line communication

2. Complete the concept map on the content of this section with the title
‘Computer networks.
Instructions:
a. Name the first node as the header or starting point of the map titled
“Computer Networks”
b. Name the nodes in orange respectively “Wireless Data Connection” and
“Wired Data Connection”
c. From each node created above in (b), add the name of the data
connections respectively in grey colour as children’s nodes from (b)

Figure 3.40

36
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

EXTENDED READING 3.1

1. Will ChatGPT replace network engineers? Discuss.
2. Investigate the impact of implementing AI in computer networks.

EXTENDED READING 3.2

1. Another type of area network is a Storage Area Network (SAN). Go online and
find out this type of network and complete a report summarising your findings.
2. Use the link attached, find out and write a short analysis on how the internet of
things (IoT) is impacting networking.
3. Read more on types of Network Topology from InterviewBit through the link
https://www.interviewbit.com/blog/types-of-network-topology/
4. Assess the impact on network activity when adding or removing a node in a ring
topology.

EXTENDED READING 3.3

1. Click on the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDf7mteQu3Q&pp=
ygUac2tpbGxzIGJ1aWxkIHRoZSBPU0kgTW9kZWw%3D
for Video-Assisted Learning (VAL) to know more about the OSI model.
2. Go online, learn about file server, print server, email server, web server, database
server, proxy server, DNS server, cloud server, and application server and create a
short summary of the function of each server. Present the summary to your fellow
students and teacher in class.
3. Design a secure network for the school’s computer lab. Choose between client-
server and peer-to-peer architectures.
4. Do some research on three main types of cloud computing services: Infrastructure-
as-a-Service (IaaS), Platforms-as-a-Service (PaaS), and Software-as-a-Service
(SaaS). Create a short report summarising your research findings.
5. Microsoft Azure and Amazon Web Services (AWS) are the two main cloud service
providers. Investigate these two vendors and summarise the services that they
provide and what they charge.

EXTENDED READING 3.4

1. Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of a given data transmission
medium in terms of its suitability for specific network architectures, such as LANs,
WANs, and MANs.
2. Investigate edge computing and how it reduces latency and bandwidth usage in
data communications.
3. Watch the video below and state where they can be used and its advantages.

37
SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

a. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gh2KRiSbGGE
4. Scan this QRcode for more information on connecting a phone to a Wi-Fi Network

38
Review Questions 3.1

1. Which of the following best describes a node?

a. An Ethernet cable
b. Any device connected to a network
c. A type of network switch
d. The internet
2. HTTP is an example of which of the following?
a. Hardware
b. Software
c. A protocol
d. Multimedia
3. Describe one similarity and one difference between a switch and a router.
4. Krachi Senior High School located at Krachi needs five computers for its five
departments to perform their day-to-day work which includes the processing and
printing of letters and share students’ records, scores and reports.
a. Give a reason why a network rather than five stand-alone computers would
save the school money.
b. Describe how using a network can save the school’s time.
5. Create a slideshow with descriptions of the main functions of each of the following
items of network hardware: NIC, modem, router, switch, hub, and WAP. Include
images and video links in your slideshow.
6. The library of your school needs five computers to perform its day-to-day work
which includes the processing and printing of documents, emailing memos, and
book keeping records.
a. Give three reasons to recommend networking these computers.
b. List the additional items of hardware that are required to set up a network in
the library.
7. A travel agency business called STC located at Kumasi in the Ashanti Region, has
several branches in the same city.
a. Design a strategy for their network that would mitigate against data loss
through malicious or accidental activity.
b. Describe a network scenario where a switch would not be required.

39
Review Questions 3.2

1. Look at the diagram below and answer the questions:

Figure 3.41

a. Name the topology type used in this diagram.

b. What happens to the network if any of the computers fail?
c. What happens to the network if the central device (hub) fails?
2. Daniel Ishmael and Ama Golo were arguing about the differences between MAN
and WAN but were not convinced of each other’s answers. As a computing student
who learnt types of computer network systems, settle the differences between
them by describing two differences between a MAN and a WAN to them.
3. Create a table in Word to show the difference between a PAN and a LAN in terms
of coverage area and purpose.
4. Dr. Yaw Afriyie is a Senior Lecturer and expert in Computer Networks at Simon
Diedong Dombo - University of Business and Integrated Development Studies
(SDD-UBIDS), Wa. As a student of computing, explain in your own words the
differences between bus and star topologies to him. Use diagrams to support your
explanation.
5. Is GCB (Ghana Commercial Bank), including its 185 branch offices and ATMs an
example of a MAN or a WAN? Justify your choice of area network.
6. A network engineering firm called DM Technologies is setting up a local area
network in their office block at Kete-Krachi, in the Oti Region of Ghana. It is
required that 50 workstations across three floors need to connect to the network.
There should also be the capacity to extend the number of workstations later. As
a computing student,
a. Write an evaluation of the star, bus, and ring topology as possible topologies to
use.
b. Recommend one of these topologies to DM Technologies with reasons for your
choice.

40
Review Questions 3.3

1.
a. What are the possible benefits and risks involved in migrating your school’s
network to a cloud environment?
b. How would you address issues such as cost, security, and performance
2. Define a client-server architecture and explain the roles of clients and servers in
this model.
3. Describe two advantages of a cloud network over a traditional network.
4. Evaluate the security implications of various network architecture designs,
identifying potential vulnerabilities and recommending mitigation strategies.
5. Evaluate the cost efficiencies for an organisation switching to cloud networking.

41
Review Questions 3.4

1. Describe two advantages and one disadvantage of coaxial cabling over twisted
wire cabling.
2. Why is coaxial cabling good for usage in situations where signals must be sent
over great distances, such as cable TV networks?
3. Identify the similarities and differences of the physical properties, transmission
characteristics, and applications of different types of data transmission media.
4. Analyse at least three factors that influence the choice of transmission medium
when setting up a network.

5. Identify the type of Ethernet cable shown in Figure 3.43. Justify your answer.

Figure 3.43

6. What activity and wireless technology are indicated in the image shown in Figure
3.44.

Figure 3.44

42
7. Study Figure 3.45

Figure 3.45

A cellular network uses these to enable mobile communication and provide

internet access on digital devices such as smart phones. What are they?

43
Answers to Review Questions 3.1

1. b. Any device connected to a network

2. c. A protocol
3. Similarity: Both switches and routers are devices used in computer networks
to manage and direct traffic. They are essential for ensuring data packets are
efficiently transmitted from one device to another within a network.
Difference:
Switch: Typically used to connect multiple devices within the same LAN, such as
computers, printers, and servers.
Router: Used to connect multiple networks together, allowing devices from
different LANs or WANs to communicate with each other.
With a network setup, resources such as printers, scanners, and internet
connections can be shared among all computers. This eliminates the need to
purchase separate devices for each computer, thereby reducing hardware costs
and this would help save money for the school.
4. Reason for saving money: A network allows the school to share resources like
printers, software, and internet, reducing the need to purchase separate equipment
for each computer.
Saving time: A network enables easy sharing of files and data between departments,
reducing the time spent manually transferring information between computers.
5. NIC: Connects a computer to a network.
Modem: Converts digital data for transmission over telephone or cable lines.
Router: Directs data packets between different networks.
Switch: Connects devices within a LAN and forwards data based on MAC
addresses.
Hub: Connects multiple devices within a LAN but does not manage traffic.
WAP: Provides wireless connectivity to devices within its range.
6. Three Reasons to Recommend Networking:
Resource Sharing: Networking allows the sharing of resources such as printers,
scanners, and internet connections among all computers. This reduces the need for
each computer to have its own separate devices, thereby saving costs on hardware
and maintenance.
Improved Collaboration and Efficiency: Networking facilitates easier
collaboration among employees. They can share documents and files seamlessly,
which enhances productivity and reduces the time spent on transferring files
manually or via external storage devices. Emailing customers becomes more
efficient with a shared internet connection.

44
 Centralised Data Management and Security: A network enables centralised
data storage on a file server. This simplifies data backup procedures and ensures
that important documents are securely stored and easily accessible to authorised
personnel. Additionally, centralised security measures such as firewalls and
antivirus software can be implemented to protect sensitive information from
cyber threats.
Additional Items of Hardware Required to Set Up the Network:
• Network Switch
• Router
• Ethernet Cables
• Wireless Access Point (WAP) (Optional)
• Server (Optional)
7.
a. To mitigate data loss, STC should implement regular automated backups,
both locally and in the cloud, along with strict access controls to limit data
modification. They should also use antivirus software, firewalls, and encryption
for secure data transmission. Employee training and network monitoring will
help prevent and detect malicious or accidental data loss.
b. Why a Switch may not be required:
In a scenario where there are only two computers and a printer, and they
can all connect directly to the Wi-Fi router, a separate switch is unnecessary.
The Wi-Fi router already has built-in switching capabilities to manage the
communication between the devices connected to it (computers and printer).
Devices communicate with each other through the router, which routes data
packets between the devices within the local network and manages the internet
connection.

45
Answers to Review Questions 3.2

1.
a. Star topology
b. One computer failure does not affect the whole network, only that computer is
affected and loose communication until it is repaired or replaced.
c. If the central device (Hub) fails, then the whole network will be breakdown
hence fail.
2. The differences between MAN and WAN include:

MAN WAN

A network that connects large areas The network covers a large area such as a
than LANs such as small towns or country or several countries.
cities.
Examples include university network Examples include Internet, ATM network

Topology that can be used are ring, Topology that can be used are Point-to-
Mesh, hybrid point, Mesh
Transmission speed is moderate Transmission speed is low

3. The differences between PAN and LAN in terms of coverage and purpose include:

Feature PAN (Personal Area Network) LAN (Local Area Network)

Coverage area It is within a range of a few meters It covers a larger area, from
(around 10 meters) a single building to a group
of buildings (up to several
kilometres).

Purpose Facilitates communication and Enables communication,

data sharing among personal resource sharing, and
devices collaboration among multiple
devices

4. Differences between bus topology and star topology

Feature Bus Topology Star Topology

Structure Single central cable (bus) Central hub or switch

Installation Easier and less expensive More complex and expensive

46
 Feature Bus Topology Star Topology

Cable Requires less cable Requires more cable

Requirement

Performance Degrades with more Better performance with

devices; prone to collisions dedicated connections

Fault Tolerance Difficult to isolate faults; Easier to isolate faults; central

entire network affected if hub failure affects entire
bus fails network

Expansion Difficult to expand Easy to add new devices

Image of bus topology and star topology

Figure 3.42

5. GCB (Ghana Commercial Bank), with its 185 branch offices and ATMs spread
across the country, is an example of a Wide Area Network (WAN).
Justification:
a) Geographic Distribution:
Wide Area Network (WAN): WANs cover a large geographic area, often across
cities, regions, or even countries. GCB’s network spans the entire nation of
Ghana, connecting branches and ATMs located in different cities and towns.
This extensive geographic spread is characteristic of a WAN.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MANs typically cover a smaller area,
such as a city or metropolitan region. While GCB might have a MAN within
a single city where multiple branches are interconnected, the overall network
encompassing all branches across Ghana exceeds the scope of a MAN.
b) Interconnectivity:

47
 WAN: WANs are designed to interconnect multiple local area networks (LANs)
and MANs over long distances. GCB’s branches and ATMs are interconnected
through a network that links diverse geographic locations, fitting the description
of a WAN.
MAN: A MAN might be used within a single city to connect branches within
that urban area, but it would not encompass the entire national network.
c) Infrastructure:
WAN: WANs typically utilise leased telecommunication lines, satellite links,
and other long-distance communication technologies to maintain connectivity
over vast distances. GCB likely relies on such infrastructure to link its
widespread branches and ATMs.
MAN: MANs often use high-speed fibre optics and other infrastructure suitable
for city-wide connections, but these wouldn’t be sufficient for a country-wide
network.
Given the national reach of GCB’s network, connecting branch offices and
ATMs across Ghana, it is accurately categorised as a WAN. The network’s need
to cover extensive distances and interconnect diverse regional locations clearly
fits the definition of a Wide Area Network.
6. Evaluation of the star, bus, and ring topologies, followed by a recommendation.
a. Star Topology
Advantages
i. Centralised Management: Easier to manage and troubleshoot due to the
centralised hub or switch.
ii. Fault Isolation: A failure in one cable or workstation does not affect the rest
of the network. Only the affected device is isolated.
iii. Scalability: Easy to add more workstations by connecting additional cables
to the central hub or switch.
iv. Performance: Each device has a dedicated connection to the hub, reducing
the chances of collisions and improving overall network performance.
Disadvantages
i. Cost: Requires more cabling and networking hardware (hubs or switches),
which can be more expensive.
ii. Single Point of Failure: If the central hub or switch fails, the entire network
goes down.
b. Bus Topology
Advantages
i. Cost-Effective: Requires less cabling compared to star topology, making it
cheaper to implement.
ii. Simple Design: Easy to implement and extend with a single backbone cable.

48
 Disadvantages
i. Performance Issues: As more workstations are added, the network can
become slower and more prone to collisions.
ii. Fault Detection: Difficult to troubleshoot and isolate faults since a problem
in the backbone cable can bring down the entire network.
iii. Limited Scalability: Adding too many devices can degrade performance and
reliability.
c. Ring Topology
Advantages
i. Equal Access: Each device has equal access to the network, which can
reduce the chances of collisions.
ii. Predictable Performance: Can perform better than bus topology under heavy
load as data travels in one direction, reducing the chances of collisions.
Disadvantages:
i. Complexity: More difficult to install and configure compared to star and
bus topologies.
ii. Fault Tolerance: A failure in any single cable or device can disrupt the
entire network. However, some modern implementations use dual rings for
redundancy.
iii. Scalability: Adding or removing devices can be more disruptive compared
to star topology.
Recommended Topology: Star Topology
Reasons:
1. Scalability: The star topology allows for easy expansion by simply adding more
cables to the central hub or switch. This is particularly important for a network
that needs to grow and accommodate more workstations in the future.
2. Fault Isolation: In a star topology, a failure in one workstation or cable does not
affect the entire network. This makes it easier to isolate and troubleshoot problems
without bringing down the entire network.
3. Performance: Each device in a star topology has a dedicated connection to the
hub or switch, which helps maintain good performance even as more workstations
are added. This reduces the likelihood of network collisions and congestion.
4. Management: Centralised management via the hub or switch simplifies network
administration, making it easier to monitor and manage network traffic.
5. Flexibility: Star topology provides the flexibility to implement different network
speeds and technologies for different floors or areas, which can be crucial in a
multi-floor setup.
While star topology might have higher initial costs due to more cabling and the need
for a central hub or switch, its benefits in terms of scalability, performance, and ease

49
of management make it the most suitable choice for connecting workstations across
three floors with the capacity to extend the network in the future.

50
Answers to Review Questions 3.3

1.
a. Migrating the School’s Network to a Cloud Environment
Benefits
• Scalability: Easily scale resources up or down based on demand.
• Cost Efficiency: Pay-as-you-go model reduces upfront costs and optimises
spending.
• Accessibility: Access resources from anywhere with an internet connection.
• Disaster Recovery: Enhanced data backup and recovery solutions.
• Collaboration: Improved collaboration tools for students and teachers.
Risks
• Security Concerns: Potential vulnerabilities in cloud infrastructure.
• Data Privacy: Compliance with data protection regulations.
• Downtime: Dependence on internet connectivity and cloud provider
uptime.
• Vendor Lock-in: Difficulty in switching providers or migrating data out of
the cloud.
b. Addressing Issues
Cost
• Perform a cost-benefit analysis to compare on-premises vs. cloud costs.
• Use budgeting tools and cost management features provided by cloud
services.
Security
• Choose a reputable cloud provider with strong security measures (e.g.,
Google Cloud, AWS, Microsoft Azure).
• Implement end-to-end encryption and strict access controls.
• Regularly audit cloud security policies and practices.
Performance
• Ensure adequate bandwidth and internet speed for cloud access.
• Use Content Delivery Networks (CDNs) to reduce latency.
• Monitor performance metrics and adjust resources as needed.
2. Client-server architecture is a network model where multiple clients (user devices)
request and receive services from a centralised server.
Clients: Devices like computers or smartphones that initiate requests for resources
or services, such as files, applications, or database access.

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 Servers: Centralised machines or systems that store, process, and manage
resources, responding to client requests and delivering the required services.
3. Advantages of a Cloud Network Over a Traditional Network
Scalability:
Cloud Network: Cloud networks offer on-demand scalability, allowing businesses
to easily adjust resources like storage, computing power, and bandwidth to meet
changing needs. This is particularly beneficial for handling variable workloads
and growth without significant upfront investments.
Traditional Network: In traditional networks, scaling up often requires significant
investment in physical infrastructure, including hardware and software, which
can be time-consuming and costly. This makes it less flexible and harder to adapt
to changing business demands.
Cost Efficiency:
Cloud Network: Cloud services typically operate on a pay-as-you-go or
subscription model, meaning businesses only pay for the resources they actually
use. This reduces the need for large capital expenditures and ongoing maintenance
costs associated with physical hardware.
Traditional Network: Traditional networks require significant upfront
investment in physical infrastructure, including servers, storage devices, and
networking equipment. Additionally, ongoing maintenance, upgrades, and energy
costs can be substantial, making it less cost-efficient compared to cloud solutions.
These advantages make cloud networks a preferred choice for many modern
businesses, offering flexibility, efficiency, and cost savings that traditional networks
often struggle to match.
4. Security Implications of Various Network Architecture Designs
a. Client-Server Architecture
• Potential Vulnerabilities:
o Single Point of Failure: If the server is compromised or fails, the entire
network can be affected.
o DDoS Attacks: Servers are susceptible to Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attacks, which can overwhelm the system.
o Data Breaches: If the server is hacked, sensitive data stored on it can
be exposed.
• Mitigation Strategies:
o Redundancy: Implement failover servers and load balancers to
distribute the load and ensure availability.
o DDoS Protection: Use DDoS protection services and rate limiting to
mitigate attack impacts.
o Strong Authentication: Implement strong authentication and
encryption methods to protect data.

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b. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture
• Potential Vulnerabilities:
o Security Risks: Each peer can become a point of vulnerability, making
the network harder to secure.
o Data Integrity: Ensuring data integrity can be challenging since data
is distributed across multiple peers.
o Malware Spread: Malware can spread quickly across peers if one node
is compromised.
• Mitigation Strategies:
o Secure Protocols: Use secure communication protocols and encryption
to protect data transmission.
o Regular Updates: Ensure all peers have up-to-date security patches
and antivirus software.
o Monitoring: Implement monitoring tools to detect and respond to
suspicious activities.
c. Cloud Network Architecture
• Potential Vulnerabilities:
o Data Breaches: Sensitive data stored in the cloud can be targeted by
hackers.
o Account Hijacking: User accounts can be compromised if proper
security measures are not in place.
o Insider Threats: Employees with access to cloud resources can pose
internal security risks.
• Mitigation Strategies:
o Encryption: Use encryption for data at rest and in transit to protect
sensitive information.
o Access Controls: Implement strict access controls and multi-factor
authentication (MFA) to secure user accounts.
o Regular Audits: Conduct regular security audits and monitoring to
detect and respond to potential threats.
d. Hybrid Network Architecture
• Potential Vulnerabilities:
o Complexity: The integration of on-premises and cloud resources can
create complex security challenges.
o Data Sync Issues: Synchronising data between different environments
can lead to security gaps.
o Inconsistent Policies: Inconsistent security policies across
environments can create vulnerabilities.

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 • Mitigation Strategies:
o Unified Security Policies: Implement consistent security policies
across both on-premises and cloud environments.
o Data Encryption: Ensure data is encrypted during synchronisation
and storage.
o Integrated Security Tools: Use integrated security tools and platforms
to manage and monitor the hybrid environment.
By understanding these potential vulnerabilities and implementing appropriate
mitigation strategies, organisations can enhance the security of their network
architectures and protect against various cyber threats.
5. Evaluating Cost Efficiencies of Switching to Cloud Networking
Switching to cloud networking offers several cost efficiencies for organisations.
Below are the primary areas where organisations can realise savings:
i. Reduced Capital Expenditure
• Traditional Network:
o Significant upfront costs for purchasing hardware (servers, storage
devices, networking equipment).
o Expenses related to setting up data centres, including space, power, and
cooling.
• Cloud Network:
o No need for large capital expenditures on physical infrastructure.
o Costs are shifted to an operational expenditure model, paying only for
the resources used.
ii. Operational Savings
• Traditional Network:
o Ongoing maintenance and upgrades of hardware and software.
o Hiring and retaining IT staff for managing and maintaining the
infrastructure.
o Energy costs associated with running and cooling data centres.
• Cloud Network:
o Maintenance, upgrades, and infrastructure management are handled
by the cloud service provider.
o Potential reduction in IT staff costs or redeployment of IT staff to more
strategic roles.
o Lower energy costs as there is no need to run and cool local data centres.

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iii. Scalability and Flexibility
• Traditional Network:
o Scaling up requires significant investment in additional hardware and
software.
o Over-provisioning or under-utilisation of resources can lead to
inefficiencies and wasted costs.
• Cloud Network:
o On-demand scalability allows organisations to quickly adjust resources
based on demand, ensuring efficient use of resources.
o Pay-as-you-go pricing models ensure that organisations only pay for
what they use, avoiding over-provisioning costs.
iv. Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity
• Traditional Network:
o High costs associated with setting up and maintaining redundant
systems and disaster recovery sites.
o Complex and expensive to implement effective business continuity
plans.
• Cloud Network:
o Built-in disaster recovery and business continuity solutions provided by
cloud service providers.
o Reduced costs for backup and recovery infrastructure, with data often
automatically replicated across multiple locations.
v. Software Licensing and Updates
• Traditional Network:
o Upfront costs for purchasing software licenses.
o Ongoing costs for software updates, patches, and renewals.
• Cloud Network:
o Many cloud services include software licenses in their subscription fees.
o Automatic updates and patches are typically included, reducing the
need for manual updates and associated costs.
vi. Productivity and Collaboration
• Traditional Network:
o Additional investments in collaboration tools and infrastructure to
support remote work and collaboration.
• Cloud Network:
o Many cloud services offer built-in collaboration tools, enhancing
productivity without additional costs.
o Facilitates remote work with easy access to resources from anywhere,
reducing the need for physical office space.

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 Answers to Review Questions 3.4

1. Advantages and Disadvantage of Coaxial Cabling over Twisted Wire Cabling

i. Advantages
- Higher Bandwidth: Coaxial cables can carry a higher bandwidth of data
compared to twisted pair cables. This makes them suitable for applications
requiring high-speed data transfer.
- Better Shielding: Coaxial cables have a central conductor surrounded
by an insulating layer and a shield, providing better protection against
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
This results in a more stable and reliable signal over longer distances.
ii. Disadvantages
- Cost and Complexity: Coaxial cables are generally more expensive and
bulkier than twisted pair cables. The installation and maintenance can be
more complex and costly, especially for large-scale deployments.
2. Coaxial cabling is effective for long-distance signal transmission due to its robust
shielding, which minimises signal loss and interference. The cable’s construction,
with a central conductor surrounded by an insulating layer and metallic shield,
ensures that signals maintain their integrity over extended distances. This makes it
ideal for applications like cable TV networks, where signals need to be transmitted
over vast areas without significant degradation.
3.
Aspect Twisted Pair Coaxial Cables Fibre Optic Cables Wireless
Cables Communication
Physical - Two insulated - Central copper - Core of glass or - Uses electromagnetic
Properties copper wires conductor. plastic fibres. waves.
twisted together.

- Shielded (STP) - Metallic shield - Cladding, buffer - No physical cables.

or Unshielded and outer coating, and outer
(UTP) options. insulation. jacket.
- Flexible and - Insulating layer. - Thin, lightweight, - Requires antennas
easy to install. and fragile. or transmitters and
receivers.
- Rigid and
thicker than
twisted pair.

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Aspect Twisted Pair Coaxial Cables Fibre Optic Cables Wireless
Cables Communication
Transmission - Moderate data - Higher data rates - Extremely high data - Variable data rates
Characteristics rates. than twisted rates. depending on
pair. technology (e.g., Wi-
- Susceptible to - Immune to EMI. Fi, cellular).
electromagnetic - Good resistance
interference to EMI due to - Can transmit data - Susceptible to
(EMI). shielding. over very long interference from
distances without obstacles and other
- Maximum - Can transmit significant loss. signals
distance of 100 over longer
meters without distances than - Range depends on
signal booster. twisted pair. power and frequency.
Applications - Local Area - Cable television - Backbone networks. - Mobile networks (3G,
Networks (CATV). 4G, 5G).
(LANs) - Long-distance
- Internet telecommunication. - Wi-Fi and wireless
- Telephone lines connections LANs.
(broadband). - High-speed
- Short-distance internet and data - Satellite
communication. - Long-distance connections. communication.
video and data
transmission.

Summary of Key Differences

• Twisted Pair Cables are easy to install and cost-effective but have limited
bandwidth and are susceptible to interference. They are ideal for short-distance,
lower-speed applications like LANs and telephone lines.
• Coaxial Cables offer higher bandwidth and better shielding against
interference, making them suitable for applications such as cable TV and
broadband internet that require longer distances and higher speeds.
• Fibre Optic Cables provide the highest data rates and are immune to
electromagnetic interference. They are the best choice for long-distance and
high-speed data transmission, such as in backbone networks and high-speed
internet connections.
• Wireless Communication eliminates the need for physical cables and allows
for mobile and flexible networking solutions. However, it can be affected by
environmental factors and interference, making it ideal for applications where
mobility and convenience are prioritised, like mobile networks and Wi-Fi.
4. When choosing a transmission medium for a networking scenario, several factors
need to be analysed to ensure optimal performance, cost-effectiveness, and
suitability for the specific requirements of the network. Here are three critical
factors:
i. Distance and Coverage Area
The distance over which data needs to be transmitted significantly influences
the choice of transmission medium:

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 • Twisted Pair Cables: Suitable for short distances (up to 100 meters)
without signal boosters. Commonly used in Local Area Networks (LANs)
within buildings.
• Coaxial Cables: Can transmit data over longer distances than twisted
pair cables. Often used in Cable TV networks and broadband internet
connections.
• Fibre Optic Cables: Ideal for long-distance transmission, capable of
spanning several kilometres without significant signal loss. Used in
backbone networks, long-distance telecommunications, and high-speed
internet connections.
• Wireless Communication: Coverage area depends on the technology
used (e.g., Wi-Fi, cellular networks). Suitable for both short-range (Wi-Fi)
and wide-area (cellular networks) applications.
ii. Bandwidth and Data Transmission Rates
The required data transmission rate and bandwidth determine the appropriate
medium to handle the expected network load:
• Twisted Pair Cables: Moderate data rates, suitable for typical LAN
environments and office networks.
• Coaxial Cables: Higher bandwidth capabilities compared to twisted pair
cables. Used for applications requiring higher data rates, such as video
streaming and broadband internet.
• Fibre Optic Cables: Provides extremely high data rates and bandwidth.
Ideal for applications demanding high-speed data transfer, such as data
centres and high-performance computing networks.
• Wireless Communication: Data rates vary based on technology (e.g., Wi-
Fi 6, 4G, 5G). Suitable for environments where mobility and flexibility are
important, such as wireless LANs and mobile networks.
iii. Environmental Factors and Interference
The environment in which the network operates can impact the choice of
transmission medium due to potential sources of interference and physical
obstacles:
• Twisted Pair Cables: Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI),
especially in unshielded variants (UTP). Best used in environments with
minimal EMI or where shielded cables (STP) can be employed.
• Coaxial Cables: Better protection against EMI due to shielding. Suitable
for environments with moderate levels of interference.
• Fibre Optic Cables: Immune to EMI and radio frequency interference
(RFI). Preferred in environments with high levels of electromagnetic noise,
such as industrial areas or where high electrical interference is present.

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 • Wireless Communication: Susceptible to interference from physical
obstacles (walls, buildings) and other electronic devices. Best suited for
open environments or where the flexibility of wireless access outweighs
potential interference issues.
iv. Additional Considerations
• Cost: The budget for the network infrastructure influences the choice, with
twisted pair cables being the most cost-effective, followed by coaxial cables,
and fibre optic cables being the most expensive. Wireless solutions can vary
in cost depending on the technology and scale of deployment.
• Scalability and Future-Proofing: Consideration for future network
expansion and technological advancements. Fibre optic cables offer the
highest scalability and future-proofing potential due to their high bandwidth
capacity.
• Installation and Maintenance: The ease of installation and ongoing
maintenance requirements. Twisted pair cables are easier to install and
maintain, while fibre optic cables require specialised skills and equipment.
5. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable is commonly chosen as a wired data
connection for several reasons, which make it a popular choice in many
networking environments, especially for Local Area Networks (LANs). Here are
the key reasons:
i. Cost-Effectiveness
• Lower Cost: UTP cables are generally less expensive than other types of
cables like shielded twisted pair (STP) and coaxial cables. This makes them
a cost-effective choice for large-scale network installations.
• Widely Available: The widespread use of UTP cables has driven down
costs further due to economies of scale.
ii. Ease of Installation
• Flexibility: UTP cables are lightweight and flexible, making them easy to
install and route through tight spaces, conduits, and around corners.
• Standard Connectors: They use standard connectors (RJ-45), which are
easy to work with and widely supported by networking equipment.
• Simple Termination: Terminating UTP cables is straightforward and
requires minimal specialised tools, unlike fibre optic cables that need
precise splicing.
iii. Sufficient Performance for Many Applications
• Adequate Bandwidth: UTP cables provide sufficient bandwidth for most
LAN applications. For instance, Category 5e (Cat 5e) and Category 6 (Cat
6) cables support speeds up to 1 Gbps and 10 Gbps, respectively, which is
adequate for typical office and home networks.
• Standardisation: UTP cables conform to industry standards (such as TIA/
EIA-568), ensuring compatibility and reliable performance.

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 iv. Minimisation of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
• Twisted Pair Design: The twisting of the pairs in UTP cables helps to
cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources and
crosstalk between adjacent pairs, improving signal quality and reliability.
• Suitable for Low-Interference Environments: While UTP cables lack
the additional shielding found in STP cables, they perform adequately in
environments with minimal EMI.
v. Versatility and Compatibility
• Widely Supported: UTP cables are compatible with a wide range of
networking devices, including switches, routers, and network interface
cards.
• Multiple Categories: UTP cables come in various categories (Cat 5e, Cat
6, Cat 6a, etc.) that offer different performance levels, allowing network
designers to choose the appropriate type based on their specific needs.
vi. Maintenance and Troubleshooting
• Ease of Maintenance: UTP cables are relatively easy to maintain and
troubleshoot. They can be quickly replaced if damaged, and issues can often
be diagnosed with basic network testing tools.
• Less Susceptible to Physical Damage: While they lack shielding, UTP
cables are still robust enough for most indoor environments, and their
flexibility reduces the risk of damage from bending or handling.
6. Credit and debit cards use NFC (Near Field Communication) technology for
transactions at point of sale (POS) terminals due to several benefits that enhance
convenience, security, and efficiency. Here are some key reasons:
• Convenience: NFC technology allows for quick and easy transactions. Users
can simply tap or wave their card near the POS terminal without needing to
swipe or insert the card, speeding up the checkout process.
• Security: NFC transactions are typically more secure than traditional magnetic
stripe transactions. NFC uses encryption to protect the data exchanged between
the card and the terminal, reducing the risk of fraud. Many NFC transactions
also use tokenisation, where a unique token (instead of the actual card number)
is transmitted, adding an extra layer of security.
• Contactless Transactions: With the rise of contactless payments, especially
during the COVID-19 pandemic, NFC technology has become more popular.
It reduces physical contact between the card and the terminal, promoting
hygiene and reducing the spread of germs.
• Compatibility with Mobile Payments: NFC technology is compatible with
mobile payment solutions like Apple Pay, Google Pay, and Samsung Pay. This
allows users to make payments using their smartphones or smartwatches,
providing flexibility and convenience.

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 • Improved Customer Experience: Faster and more efficient transactions lead
to shorter wait times and a better overall shopping experience for customers.
This can increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
• Reduced Wear and Tear: NFC cards do not require physical contact with the
terminal, reducing wear and tear on the card. This can extend the life of the
card compared to traditional magnetic stripe or chip-and-PIN cards.
7. In a cellular network, cell towers (or cell sites or base stations) are used to
enable mobile communication and provide internet access on digital devices
such as smartphones. These cell towers contain antennas and other equipment
necessary to transmit and receive signals between mobile devices and the network’s
core infrastructure. Here’s how they work:
Key Components and Functions of Cell Towers:
• Antennas: Transmit and receive radio frequency (RF) signals to and from
mobile devices. Multiple antennas may be used to cover different frequency
bands and improve signal quality.
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The equipment that facilitates wireless
communication between the network and mobile devices. It handles the radio
communications with the mobile device.
• Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple BTS units. Coordinates
handoffs of mobile devices as they move between cell towers and handles
traffic load balancing.
• Backhaul Connection: Connects the cell tower to the core network. Can be
implemented using various technologies such as fibre optics, microwave links,
or satellite connections.
How Cell Towers Enable Mobile Communication:
• Coverage: Cell towers are strategically placed to provide coverage over a
geographic area. The area covered by each tower is known as a “cell.” As a
user moves, their mobile device connects to the nearest cell tower, allowing
seamless communication.
• Handoffs: When a user moves from the coverage area of one cell tower to
another, the network performs a handoff to maintain the connection without
interruption.
• Frequency Reuse: To efficiently use the available spectrum, frequencies
are reused in different cells. Proper planning ensures minimal interference
between cells using the same frequencies.

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Services Provided:
• Voice Calls: Allows users to make and receive voice calls.
• Text Messaging: Supports SMS (Short Message Service) for sending and
receiving text messages.
• Internet Access: Provides mobile internet access through technologies like
4G LTE and 5G.
• Data Services: Enables data-intensive applications such as video streaming,
online gaming, and mobile applications.

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SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

REFERENCES
1. Anshuman Singh (2024). Difference Between Bus and Star Topology retrieved
from https://www.shiksha.com/online-courses/articles/difference-between-bus-
and-star-topology-blogId-158377 on 25th June, 2024.
2. Computing – Teacher Manual (2023) for SHS, SHTS, STEM curriculum – pages
88 – 94
3. Computing – Teacher Manual (2023) for SHS, SHTS, STEM curriculum – pages
95 – 97
4. Computing – Teacher Manual (2023) for SHS, SHTS, STEM curriculum – pages
101 – 107
5. images of the components of a network: retrieved from: https://medium.com/@
hasonsnik/key-components-of-computer-network-7e3baaaeb749
6. Keary, T. (2024, January 10). Network security and administration expert.
Comparitech. https://www.comparitech.com/net-admin/network-topologies-
advantages-disadvantages/
7. NaCCA (2023) Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 - 3), pg.
41
8. NaCCA (2023) Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 - 3), pg.
41.
9. NaCCA (2023) Computing Curriculum for Secondary Education (SHS 1 - 3), pg.
40.
10. Types of Network Topology retrieved from InterviewBit https://www.interviewbit.
com/blog/types-of-network-topology/ on 25th June, 2024.
11. Types of networks and topologies https://docs.google.com/document/
d/1E5naR7y40yahbFw9TY0DJPmvjKbUrP4M/edit?usp=drive_
link&ouid=102519533476148787893&rtpof=true&sd=true

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SECTION 3 COMPUTER NETWORKING

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
Name Institution

Mark Kwadwo Ntoso Krachi SHS

Mahama Seidu Daboya Community SHS

Miheso Daniel Wa SHTS, Wa

Francis Bennet Kouadio Kouame Odorgonno SHS, Awoshie

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