Automatic Generation and Voltage

Control

Load Frequency Control

1
 Load Frequency Control
Necessisity of frequency control:
 Active & reactive power demands are never steady and they continually change
with either in rising or falling trend.
 In AC generator (alternator) power can be changed by changing the prime mover
input and the generated voltage(also reactive power) can be controlled by
changing its excitation.
 The beauty of the AC generator is that if we maintain constant speed, the power
demand will be automatically taken care.
 Maintaining constant speed is nothing but maintaining the constant frequency.
 When load varies, the frequency should be regulated failing which results in
undesirable situations in the different loads connected in the system.

2
 Cont…
1. When Induction motor speed and synchronous motor speed change. It changes
the quality of the product in production industry. Ex: Printing mill, textile, floor
mill etc..
2. All our electrical equipment is designed for fixed frequency, slight variation of
frequency will result large variation in performance of the devices.
3. when frequency increases or decreases, the reactance of the inductor and
capacitor will change, the operation of all electronic circuits will change. It
changes filter requirement in many circuits
4. variation of line reactance will result in voltage fluctuations at the receiving end
as the line voltage drop changing.

3
 Cont…
 Considering all these drawbacks with change in frequency, maximum permissible
change in frequency is restricted to ± 0.5 𝐻𝑧. When the load increases, the speed
will decreases and when load decreases, the speed will increases. By controlling
the speed governor system, the speed (frequency) can be controlled and it take
care of active power demand also.
 Also the excitation of generators must be continuously regulated to match the
reactive power demand and to maintain the required voltage at the bus bars.
Otherwise the voltages at various system buses may go beyond prescribed limits.
 Figure 3.1 shows the schematic diagram of load frequency and excitation voltage
control of a turbo generator.
 The controllers are set for particular operating condition and they take care of
small changes in the load demand without frequency and voltage exceeding the
prescribed limits.
 With the passage of time, as the change in load demand becomes large, the
controllers must be reset either manually or auto magically. It is to be remember
that the generator active power can be changed by changing the load angle and the
reactive power can be changed by changing the excitation. 4
 Cont…

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of load frequency and excitation voltage control of turbo generator
5
 Cont…

Figure 3.2 Fundamentals of speed governing system

6
 Cont…
 Change in load demand can be identified as:
i. slow varying changes in mean demand, and
ii. fast random variations around the mean.
 The regulators must be designed to be insensitive to the fast random
changes. Otherwise the system will be prone to hunting resulting in
excessive wear and tear of rotating machines and control equipment

7
 Cont…
Control Area:
 Let us consider the problem of controlling the power output of the
generators of a closely knit (bounded) electric area so as to maintain the
scheduled frequency.
 All the generators in such area constitute a coherent group so that all
generators speed up and slow down together maintaining their relative
power angles. Such an area is defined as a control area.
 In this control area, the frequency is assumed to be the same throughout in
static as well as dynamic conditions.
Single area control:
 Consider a single turbo generator system supplying an isolated load. To
model this system, it is required to model the speed governing system,
turbine and generator load. All these are modelled as follows.
Turbine speed governing system: Schematic diagram for speed governing of
steam turbine is shown below 8
 Cont…

Figure 3.3 Single area control turbine speed governing system9

 Cont…
Various components of the system are explained as under
a. Fly ball speed governor: This is the heart of the system which senses the
change in speed (frequency). It is purely mechanical speed-sensitive device
coupled to the rotating system. As the speed increases the fly balls move
outwards and the point B on the linkage mechanism moves downwards. The
reverse happens when the speed decreases.
b. Hydraulic amplifier: It consists a pilot valve and main piston arrangement.
Low power level pilot valve and main piston arrangement. Low power level
pilot valve movement is converted into high power level pilot valve movement.
This is required to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.
c. Linkage mechanism: ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid
link pivoted at D. This link mechanism provides a movement to the control
valve in proportion to change in speed. It also provides feedback from the steam
valve movement (link 4).
10
 Cont…
d. Speed changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine.
Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is
admitted to the turbine under steady state conditions. The reverse happens for
upward movement of the speed changer. Mostly this is controlled manually.
Model of speed governing system: Speed governing system figure is shown above.
To find its model, assume that initially the system is in steady state operation.
 Let the point A moved downward by ∆𝑦𝐴 . This is a command which causes the
turbine power output to change and can therefore be written as ∆𝑦𝐴 = 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 .
 Where ∆𝑃𝐶 is the commanded increase in power it changes the steam valve by
∆𝑦𝐸 .
 In this, the sequence of events are – the pilot valve moves upwards, high pressure
oil flows on to the top of the main piston moving it downwards, the steam valve
opening consequently increases, the turbine speed increases, the frequency goes
up. As the frequency goes up, fly balls move outwards, so that B moves
downwards. Let us model this mathematically, 11
 Cont…
 As A move downwards, C will move upwards (-ve movement) and when B move
downwards, C will move downwards. So movement of C is influenced by A and
B.
∆𝑦𝐶 = − 𝑘1 ∆𝑦𝐴 + 𝑘2 ∆𝑓
∆𝑦𝐶 = − 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 + 𝑘2 ∆𝑓
 The movement of D is contributed by C and E,
∆𝑦𝐷 = 𝑘3 ∆𝑦𝐶 + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸
 The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is proportional to the time integral of
∆𝑦𝐷 and positive movement of ∆𝑦𝐷 causes negative movement of ∆𝑦𝐸 .
𝑡
∆𝑦𝐸 = 𝑘5 (−∆𝑦𝐷 )𝑑𝑡
0
 Taking the laplace transform of above three equaitons
∆𝑦𝐶 𝑆 = − 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘2 ∆𝐹(𝑆)

12
 Cont…
∆𝑦𝐷 (𝑆) = 𝑘3 ∆𝑦𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆)

1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = −𝑘5 ∆𝑦𝐷 (𝑆)
𝑆

Eliminating ∆𝑦𝐷 (𝑆) in the above equation,

1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = −𝑘5 (𝑘3 ∆𝑦𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))
𝑆
Eliminating ∆𝑦𝐶 (𝑆) in the above equation
1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = −𝑘5 (𝑘3 (− 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘2 ∆𝐹(𝑆)) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))
𝑆
On simplification,
1 1 1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘3 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 𝑘5 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘5 ∆𝐹(𝑆) − 𝑘4 𝑘5 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
Multiplying both side with 𝑆/𝑘5 13
 Cont…
𝑆
( ) ∗ ∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘3 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − 𝑘2 𝑘3 ∆𝐹(𝑆) − 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))
𝑘5
𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − 𝑘2 𝑘3 ∆𝐹 𝑆
∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆) =
𝑆
𝑘4 +
𝑘5
𝑘2 𝑘5
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆
𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 𝑘4 𝑘5 + 𝑆
𝑘2 1 𝑘4
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆
𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 1+𝑆 𝑘 𝑘
4 5
𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 𝑘4
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆
𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 1+𝑆 𝑘 𝑘
4 5

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 Cont…
1 𝐾𝑠𝑔
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆 ∗
𝑅 1 + 𝑇𝑠𝑔 𝑆
Where R = K1Kc/k2 = Speed regulation of the governor
Ksg=k1k3kc/k4 = Gain of speed governor
Tsg =1/k4k5 = Time constant of the governor
The above equation is represented in block diagram form as follows

Figure 3.4

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 Cont…
Speed Droop or speed regulation
 if two or more generating units are operating to govern a system, it is
impossible for them to maintain exactly the same speed.
 The governor with the higher speed will try to bring the system up to its
speed, and take on load until it either achieves this or the turbine reaches full-
gate position. If it is able to raise the system frequency, the other governor will
sense too high a speed and begin to drop load.
 The governors will therefore oppose each other. To avoid this situation,
governor are built with a feature called speed droop.
 Speed droop reduces the governor sensing speed as the gate opening or load
increases. It is defined as the difference in speed in percent permitted when
the units are operating between zero gate opening and 100% gate opening.

16
 Cont…
• The value of speed regulation parameter R determines the steady state frequency
versus load characteristic of the generating unit as shown below. the ratio of
frequency deviation (∆𝑓) to change in valve /gate position (∆𝐸) or power
output(∆𝑃𝑔 ) is equal to R. the parameter R is referred to as speed regulation or
droop. It can be expressed as:
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Percent R= 𝑥 100 … … . (3.1)
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
For example . A 4% droop or regulation means that 4% frequency deviation causes
100% change in valve position or power output.

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 Cont…

Figure 3.8 steady state characteristics of a governor with speed droop.

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 Cont…
Turbine model:
 In the above ∆𝑦𝐸 is the steam valve opening which change the output power, it
influence the turbine speed. Figure below shows the two stage steam turbine with
reheat unit.
 The dynamic response is largely influenced by two factors.
1. The steam pressure difference between the inlet steam and first stage of the
turbine.
2. The storage action in the re-heater which causes the output of the low
pressure stage to lag behind that of the high pressure stage.
 Thus the turbine transfer function is characterized by two time constants.
 For simplicity, the turbine can be modelled to have single equivalent time
constant. The transfer function model of the steam turbine is shown below.

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 Cont…

Figure 3. 5 turbine model

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 Cont…
Generator load model:
 To develop the mathematical model of an isolated generator, which is only
supplying local load and is not supplying power to another area.
 Let the load change is ∆𝑃𝐷 . Due to the action of turbine controllers, the generator
generates a power which is greater than the required (required is ∆𝑃𝐷 ) and is ∆𝑃𝐺 .
 The surplus power (∆𝑃𝐺 − ∆𝑃𝐷 )will be absorbed by the system in two ways.
1. Rate of increase of stored kinetic energy in the generator rotor.
 The stored energy at rated frequency or scheduled frequency(𝑓0 ) is given by
Wke0 = H * Pr KW-sec
Where Pr is the KW rating of the turbo generator
And H is inertia constant, KW-sec/KVA

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 Cont…
 As KE is proportional to square of the speed ( speed is proportional to frequency)
 The KE at new frequency as the frequency is changed by ∆𝑓 is given by
2
0 𝑓0 + ∆𝑓 2∆𝑓
𝑊𝑘𝑒 = 𝑊𝑘𝑒 = 𝐻𝑃𝑟 1 +
𝑓0 𝑓0
Rate of change of kinetic energy is
𝑑 2𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑
𝑊𝑘𝑒 = (∆𝑓)
𝑑𝑡 𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
2. As the load changes, it result in oscillations in transient state. And these are
proportional to change in frequency (change in speed) and the proportional
coefficient is D.
 Writing the power balance equation considering above two factors during load
changing,
2𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺 − ∆𝑃𝐷 = ∆𝑓 + 𝐷 ∗ ∆𝑓
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡 22
 Cont…
𝜕𝑃𝐷
Where D= and D is determined empirically.
𝜕𝑓
Dividing the above equation by Pr
2𝐻 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑝𝑢) − ∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑝𝑢) = ∆𝑓 + 𝐷(𝑝𝑢) ∗ ∆𝑓
𝑓0 𝑑𝑡
Taking the Laplace transform for the above and finding the expressing for ∆𝐹 𝑆 ,
1
∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑆) − ∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑆) 𝐷
∆𝐹 𝑆 = = [∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 − ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑆 ]
2𝐻 2𝐻
𝐷+ 𝑆 1+ 𝑆
𝑓0 𝐷𝑓0
𝐾𝑝𝑠
∆𝐹 𝑆 = [∆𝑃𝐺 𝑆 − ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑆 ] 𝑠
1 + 𝑇𝑝𝑠
2𝐻
Where 𝑇𝑝𝑠 = =power system time constant
𝐷𝑓0
𝐾𝑝𝑠 = 1/D = power system gain
The above generator model equation in block diagram form is shown in figure below
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 Cont…

 Complete Block diagram model representation of load frequency control of an

isolated power system:
 The complete block diagram representation of an isolated power system can be
obtained by combining individual models of turbine speed governing system,
turbine model and generator load model which are derived is earlier sections. It is
shown below.

24
Cont…

25
 Cont…
Steady State Analysis:
 From the block diagram above it is clear that frequency is controlled by speed
changer setting(∆𝑃𝐶 ) and change in load demand (∆𝑃𝐷 ).
 To analyses the frequency response because of change in load demand can be
obtained by taking ∆𝑃𝐶 = 0, which is called free governor operation.
 The change in system frequency for sudden change in load demand by an amount
∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃𝐷 ( 𝑖. 𝑒 ∆𝑃𝐷 𝑠 = ) is obtained as follows.
𝑆

26
 Cont…
 In the above equation, Kt is fixed for the turbine and Kps is fixed for the power
system. Ksg , the speed governor gain which is easily adjustable by changing
lengths of various links.
 Let it be assumed for simplicity that Ksg is adjusted such that KsgKt is
approximately equal to unity.
 From empirical formula of D, it is also recognized that Kps = 1/D and from earlier
equations
𝜕PD
D= /Pr (in pu MW/unit change in frequency)
𝜕f
1
Now ∆𝑓 = − 1 ∆𝑃𝐷
𝐷+(𝑅)

 That above equation gives steady state changes in frequency caused by changes in
load demand. Speed regulation R is naturally adjusted that changes in frequency
are small (of order of 5% from no load to full load).
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 Cont…
• The following figure shows the relationship between frequency and load for free
1
governor operation. Its slope is − 1 . Usually the parameter D is much
𝐷+(𝑅)
smaller compared 1/R (typical value of D=0.01 pu MW/Hz and 1/R = 1/3) and D
can be neglected. Then it simplifies to,
∆𝑓 = −𝑅 (∆𝑃𝐷 )
• It shows that the load frequency curve mainly determined by the speed governor
regulation R

28
 Cont…
 Now study the effect of changing speed changer setting (∆𝑃𝐶 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝐶 /𝑆) with
load demand remaining fixed (i.e. ∆𝑃𝐷 = 0). The steady state change in frequency
is obtained as follows.

29
 Cont…
 If the load speed changer setting is changed by ∆𝑃𝐶 and the load demand is
changed by ∆𝑃𝐷 , the steady state response is obtained by superposition, i.e.
1
∆𝑓 = (∆𝑃𝐶 − ∆𝑃𝐷 )
1
𝐵+
𝑅
 Above equation shows that the frequency change caused by load demand can be
compensated by changing the setting of the speed changer, i.e.
∆𝑃𝐶 = ∆𝑃𝐷 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑓 = 0
 In the above figure two load frequency plots are shown, one is to give scheduled
frequency at 100% rated load and the other to give same frequency at 60% rated
load.
Dynamic Response: To obtain the dynamic response laplace transform of is to be
find.

30
 Cont…
 The characteristic being of third order, however the characteristic equation can be
approximated as first order by examining the relative magnitudes of the time
constants involved. Typical values of the time constants are as follows
𝑇𝑠𝑔 ≪ 𝑇𝑡 ≪ 𝑇𝑝𝑠
𝑇𝑠𝑔 = 0.4 𝑆𝑒𝑐. 𝑇𝑡 = 0.5 𝑆𝑒𝑐 and 𝑇𝑝𝑠 = 20 𝑆𝑒𝑐.
 From the above, taking Tsg = Tt = 0 and taking Ksg Kt = 1 the block diagram of
load frequency control is reduced as follows

31
 Cont…

 As an example, taking R = 3, Kps = 1/D = 100, Tps = 20, ∆𝑃𝐷 = 0.01 𝑝𝑢

∆𝑓 𝑡 = −0.029(1 − 𝑒 −1.717𝑡 )
∆𝑓 𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −0.029
 The plot for change in frequency versus time for a typical problem for first order
approximation is given below. First order approximation is obviously a poor
approximation.
32
Cont…

33
Example 1 : a system consists of 4 identical 400 MVA generating units feeding
a total load of 1016MW.the inertia constant H of each unit is 5.0 on 400MVA
base. The load changes by 1.5% for a 1% change in frequency. When there is a
sudden drop in load by 16 MW.
a. Obtain the system block diagram with constants H and D expressed on
1600 MVA base.
b. Determine the frequency deviation, assuming that there is no speed
governing action.

34
Example 2: a single area consists of two generating units with the following
characteristics. Unit Rating Speed Regulation R ( pu on unit MVA base)
1 600 MVA 6%
2 500 MVA 4%
The units are operating in parallel , sharing 900MW at the nominal
frequency. Unit 1 supplies 500MW and unit 2 supplies 400 MW at 60 Hz.
The load is increased by 90 MW.
a. Assume there is no frequency –dependent load, D=0, find the steady
state frequency deviation and the new generation on each unit.
b. The load varies 1.5 percent for every 1 percent change in frequency, i.e
D=1.5. find the steady state frequency deviation and the new generation
on each unit.

35
 Cont…
Steady state analysis :From the figure below the steady state error of frequency
deviation can be easily be obtained with u=0 and we can write assume (∆𝑓 = ∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 )
−∆𝑓𝑠𝑠
− ∆𝑃𝐿 × 𝐾𝑝 = ∆𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝑅
−∆𝑓𝑠𝑠
− ∆𝑃𝐿 = 𝐷. ∆𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝑅
∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 −∆𝑃𝐿
D . ∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 + = −∆𝑃𝐿 which is ∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 1
𝑅 𝐵+𝑅

36
 Cont…
Proportional Plus Integral Control: It is seen from the dynamic response, there
exists a steady state error in the frequency response.
 For a good system, the change in frequency in steady state must be zero and there
should not be any steady state error. It is seen from the example, the drop in
frequency is 2.9 Hz which cannot be tolerated.
 One method of bringing back the frequency to scheduled frequency is by using
speed changer setting. In this case, the speed changer setting should be adjusted
automatically by monitoring the frequency changes. For this purpose, a signal
from ∆𝑓 is fed through an integrator to the speed changer setting ( which is called
as integral control).
 The resulting block diagram is shown below and now it modifies to proportional
plus integral controller, which gives steady state error zero.

37
 Cont…

 The signal ∆𝑃𝑐 is generated by the integral control. Now ∆𝑓(𝑠) is given by

38
 Cont…

 Obviously, the steady state value of ∆𝑓(𝑠)is zero and it can be find from final
value theorem.

 In this case, with the addition of PI controller the steady state error is reduced to
zero. Without PI controller, ∆𝑓 reaches to steady state value when ∆𝑃𝐶 = ∆𝑃𝐷 =
0. But with PI controller as ∆𝑓 is integrated continuously (using the integrator),
∆𝑓 reaches to steady state only when ∆𝑓 = 0. In this way ∆𝑓 is brought to zero for
changes in load demand immediately.
39
 Cont…
 The dynamics of the proportional plus integral controller can be studied
numerically only.
 With PI controller, the system being 4th order system (increased by one when
compared to system without integral control action).
 The dynamic response of the PI controller with Ki = 0.09 for step cange of 0.01
pu in ∆𝑃𝐷 is obtained through digital computer and is shown in figure below.

40
 Cont…
Load frequency control and economic load dispatch:
 Load frequency control with integral controller achieves zeros steady state
frequency error and fast dynamic response. But it do not have control over relative
loadings of various generating stations. That means, economic load dispatch is not
obtained.
 For example, if small increase in load occurs in the control area, the load
frequency control changes the speed changer settings of the governors of all
generating units of that area changes so that frequency come back to scheduled
value.
 The increased load is shared by all the generators. This process is independent of
economic load considerations. Some units in this process may be overloaded,
some units with low efficiency will also be used on par with efficient units, etc..
 A satisfactory solution is obtained by using independent controls for load
frequency and economic dispatch.

41
 Cont…
 The load frequency controller is fast a fast acting control(few seconds) and
regulate the system around an operating point. The economic load dispatch
controller is a slow acting control, which adjust the speed changer setting every
minute (or a half minute) in accordance with a command signal generated by the
central economic dispatch computer located at central dispatch center.
 Figure below shows schematic diagram of load frequency control (which is
controlled locally) and speed changer setting( which is controlled from CEDC).
The signal to change the speed changer setting is constructed in accordance with
economic dispatch error, [PG(desired) – PG(actual)], suitably modified by the
signal representing integral ACE at that time. The signal PG(desired) is computed
by the central economic dispatch computer(CEDC) and is transmitted to the local
economic dispatch controller (EDC) installed at each station. The system thus
operates with economic dispatch error only for very short periods of time before it
is readjusted.
42
Cont…

43
 Cont…
Assignment Problems
1. Use MATLAB program to find frequency error for the following parameters when step load
disturbance is (i) 1 % and (ii) 2 %.
Tps = 22 Sec R = 2.5 Kps = 100
2. Use MATLAB program to find frequency error for the following parameters when step load
disturbance is (i) 1 % and (ii) 2 %.
Tps = 22 Sec , R = 2.5 , Kps = 100 , Tt = 100 mSec Tsg= 0.5 Sec
Assume Ksg * Kt = 1
3. An isolated power station has the following parameters
Tt = 0.5 Sec Tsg = 0.2 Sec Kps = 1.6667 Tps = 16.6667 R = 0.05
The turbine rated output is 250 MW at nominal frequency of 50 Hz. A sudden load change of
50MW (0.02 pu) occurs.
(a) Construct the block diagram and obtain the frequency deviation response
(b) Set integral gain to 7 and obtain the frequency deviation response and compare both
the responses.
4. Use MATLAB program to find the time taken for the deviation of frequency to reach zero.
R = 2 Kps = 100 Tps = 25 Ki = 10
44
 Load frequency control II
Load frequency control of two-area:
 An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control
areas interconnected by means of tie lines.
 In small countries, there will be only single area where all generators are working
coherently. But in case of big countries, the electrical system in the country is
divided into different areas. These areas are controlled individually and there will
be sharing of power between the different areas. This amount of power shared
between two areas is called as tie line power.
 If any variation of load, it effects operation of generators in both areas. But tie line
power must be constant as per the power contract between the two areas.

45
 Cont…
 The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area and to
simultaneously regulate the tie line power as per inter-area power contracts.
 Here in two area control system also, each area is represented by an equivalent
turbine, generator and governor system. Symbols used with suffix1 refer to area 1
and those with suffix 2 refer to area 2.

46
 Cont…
• In isolated control area case the increment power ∆𝑃𝐺 − ∆𝑃𝐷 was accounted for
by the rate of increase of stored kinetic energy and increase in area load caused by
increase in frequency. Since a tie-line transports power in or out of an area, this
fact must be accounted for in the incremental power balance equation of each area.
Power transported out of area 1 is give by
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 = sin(𝛿10 − 𝛿20 )
𝑋12
Where 𝛿10 , 𝛿20 are power angles of equivalent machines of two areas.
For incremental changes in power angles,
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 = sin (𝛿10 +∆𝛿1 − (𝛿20 +∆𝛿2 ))
𝑋12

47
 Cont…
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 = sin (𝛿10 −𝛿20 + (∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 ))
𝑋12
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 = [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿10 − 𝛿20 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿10 − 𝛿20 )𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 ]
𝑋12
As 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 is almost equal to unity and considering for small values of x,
sin x =x, the incremental power can be expressed as
∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 (𝑝𝑢) = 𝑇12 (∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 )
𝑉1 𝑉2
Where 𝑇12 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿10 − 𝛿20 ) = 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑟1 𝑋12
Since the power angles are integrals of incremental frequencies (𝛿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝑓 𝑑𝑡), the above equation can be written as

∆𝑃 𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 = 2𝜋𝑇12 ∆𝑓1 𝑑𝑡 − ∆𝑓2 𝑑𝑡

48
 Cont…
Where ∆𝑓1 and ∆𝑓2 are incremental frequency changes of areas 1 and 2 respectively
Similarly the incremental tie line power out of area 2 is given by

∆𝑃 𝑡𝑖𝑒, 2 = 2𝜋𝑇21 ∆𝑓2 𝑑𝑡 − ∆𝑓1 𝑑𝑡

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑃𝑟1
Where 𝑇21 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿20 − 𝛿10 ) = 𝑇12 = 𝑎12 𝑇12
𝑃𝑟2 𝑋21 𝑃𝑟2
Now the power balance equation can be written as
2𝐻1 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺1 − ∆𝑃𝐷1 = (∆𝑓1 )+𝐷1 ∆𝑓1 + ∆𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑒,1
𝑓𝑜 1 𝑑𝑡

Taking the Laplace transform and re organizing

49
 Cont…
 Where, as defined earlier Kps1 = 1/D1 and Tps1 = 2H1/D1f0
 Comparing the above equation with single area control, the only change is
incremental tie-line power ∆Ptie, 1. Its block diagram representation is shown
below.

 Taking the Laplace transform of incremental tie-line power

50
 Cont…
 Similarly, for control area 2 is,

 The above two equations are indicated in block diagram form as shown in figure

51
 Cont…
 In case of single area control we have frequency error (which is generally called as Area
Control Error, ACE). This frequency error in steady state is made zero by using integral
control loop.
 When comes to two area control, we are require to use one integral control loop for each
area and one for integrate incremental tie-lie power signal and feedback to the speed
changer setting. This is accomplished by a single integrating block by redefining ACE as
a linear combination of incremental frequency and tie-line power.
 Now for control area 1, 𝐴𝐶𝐸1 = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 + 𝑏1 ∆𝐹1
Where constant b1 is called area frequency bias
The above equation can be expressed in Laplace transform as
𝐴𝐶𝐸1 (𝑆) = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 1 (𝑆) + 𝑏1 ∆𝐹1 (𝑆)
Similarly for area 2, it can be expressed as
𝐴𝐶𝐸2 (𝑆) = ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒, 2 (𝑆) + 𝑏2 ∆𝐹2 (𝑆)
• Combining the above two block diagrams and incorporating the above two equations of
ACE, the resultant block diagram for two area control is given below. 52
 Cont…
• Block diagram of two area control system

53
 Cont…
 Let us analyze the above system for steady state error. Let the step changes
applied in both loads simultaneously in control areas 1 and 2 respectively.
 When steady state conditions are reached, the output signals of all integrating
blocks will become constant. This to be happen, the input signals to the integrators
must be zero. From the above block diagram, we should have

 From earlier equations

54
 Cont…
 Hence the above equations are satisfied only when

 Thus under steady state conditions change in the tie line power and frequency of
each area is zero. This has been achieved by integration of ACEs in the feedback
loops of each area.
 When coming to dynamic response, it is difficult through transfer function
approach as the system becomes multi input (∆𝑃𝐷1 , ∆𝑃𝐷2 ) and multi output
(∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 1 , ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 2 , ∆𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑓2 ) system. The dynamic analysis can carry out more
conveniently by using state space approach (time domain analysis).

55
 Cont…
Example 1 a two system connected by a tie line has the following parameters on
1000MVA common base.
Area 1 2
Speed regulation R1=0.05 R2=0.0625
Frequency sens.load coeff D1=0.6 D2=0.9
Inertia constant H1=5 H2=4
Base power 1000MVA 1000MVA
Governor time constant Tg1=0.2sec Tg2=0.3 sec
Turbine time constant Tt1=0.5 sec Tt2=0.6 sec
The units are operating in parallel at the nominal frequency of 60 Hz. The synchronizing
power co-efficient is computed from the initial operating condition and is given to be
Ps=2.0 per unit. A load change of 187.5 MW occurs in area 1.
a. Determine the new steady state frequency and the change in the tie line flow.
b. Construct the SIMULINK block diagram and obtain the frequency deviation response
for the condition in part (a). 56
 Assignment
Consider a two area power system interconnected by tie line. area 1 has
1000MW of total generation and R1=(350)−1 HZ/MW and area -2 has 2000MW
of total generation and R2= (700)−1 H Z/MW.initially each area was
generating half of its total generation. assume D=0 and system frequency
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
fo=50hz. Compute ∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 , ∆𝑃𝑔1 , ∆𝑃𝑔2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒,12 for step increase of 100MW
load in area 1

57
 Cont…
Spinning Reserve:
Spinning reserve is the total amount of generation available from the all units
connected to the grid (or system) minus the load demand and the losses being
supplied. 𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑃𝐺 − (𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 +𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 )
Spinning reserve is very essential in an interconnected system as loss of a large
unit in the system may result in under frequency problem. However, if sufficient
spinning reserve is available in the system, loss of one of the unit can be taken
care of by the spinning units in the system.
The allocation magnitude of spinning reserve is usually decided by reliability
considerations and also the economics associated with it. Some electric utilities
prefer to have spinning reserve a given percentage of forecasted peak demand.
Some prefer to have the spinning reserve equal to the largest rating of the unit in
the system. Cost of spinning reserve will be minimum in a large inter connected
system where there will be many inter connected units.
58
 Cont…

For solution refer to Electrical Power Systems D.Das on page 333

59
 Cont…
Assignment 1.
Electrical Power Systems D.Das on page 336
Exercise 1-7

60
 Economic dispatch control
 Economic Dispatch is the process of determination of the output power generated
by the unit or units to supply the specified load in a manner that will minimize the
total cost of fuel.
 Each generating unit has a unique production cost defined by its fuel cost
coefficients (a, b, c of a+bx+c𝑥 2 ).
 Economic dispatch is also defined as the coordination of the production costs of
all the participating units in supplying the total load.
 The purpose of economic dispatch is to determine the optimal power generation of
the units participating in supplying the load.
 The sum of the total power generation should equal to the load demand at the
station.
 In a simplified case, the transmission losses are neglected. This makes the task of
solution procedure easier. 61
 Cont…
 In actual practice, the transmission losses are to be considered. The inclusion of
transmission losses makes the task of economic dispatch more complicated.
 A different solution procedure has to be employed to arrive at the solution.
Economic Dispatch models the electric power system (with one or more
control areas) and dispatches the available generation resources to supply a
given load for each control area in the most economic manner in real-time
operation.
The objective is to minimize the total generation cost (including fuel cost, plus
emission cost, plus operation/maintenance cost, plus network loss cost) by
meeting the following operational constraints:
System load demand
 Downward- and- upward regulating margin requirements of the system
62
 Cont…
Lower and upper economic limits of each generating unit
Maximum ramping rate of each generating unit
Unit's restricted operating zones (up to three restricted zones per unit)
Emission allowance of the system (SO2, CO2, NOx)
Network security constraints (maximum MW power flows of transmission
lines)
Supporting multiple I/O curves (incremental Heat Rate) and emission cost
curves for different fuels.

63
 Cont…
Economic dispatch is used to determine the least cost means of using existing
generating plants to meet electric demand.

64
 Cont…
To minimize total system generating costs which develop cost relationships
between cost of power output and operating costs, input

65
 Cont…
• Operators load the available generating units to maintain the equation:
Generation = Load + Losses
PG=PD+PLOSS
Generator Loading

66
 Cont…
 In practice and in power flow analysis, there are many choices for setting the
operating points of generators.
in the power flow analysis, generator buses are specified by P and |V|.
generation capacity is more than load demand which is generators can produce
more than the customers can consume, there are many solution combinations
for scheduling generation.
in practice, power plants are not located at the same distance from the load
centers.
power plants use different types of fuel, which vary in cost from time to time.
 For interconnected systems, the objective is to find the real and reactive power
scheduling so as to minimize some operating cost or cost function.

67
 Cont…
General cost function:

𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑐
• Unconstrained parameter optimization, from calculus:
the first derivative of f vanishes at a local maxima
𝑑𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
for f to be a local minimum, the second derivative must be positive at the
point of the local maxima
𝑑2 𝑓 𝑥 > 0
𝑑𝑥 2

68
 Cont…
• for a set of parameters, the gradient of f vanishes at a local maxima and to be a
local minimum, the Hessian must be a positive definite matrix (i.e. positive eigen
values)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 0 𝑖 = 0, … , 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝛻𝑓 = , ,…, =0
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛
Example
Find the minimum of

Solution by evaluating the first derivatives to zero results in

69
 Cont…
Assignment
1.

2.

70
 Cont…
Generation Models
 The electric power system representation for Economic Dispatch consists of
models for the generating units and can also include models for the transmission
system.
 The generation model represents the cost of producing electricity as a function of
power generated and the generation capability of each unit. We can specify it as:
1. Unit cost function:
𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝑖 3. 𝑛
where 𝐹𝑖 = production cost
F i(.) = energy to cost conversion curve
P i= production power

71
 Cont…
2. Unit capacity limits:
𝑃𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑖 ≥ 𝑃𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3.n
3. System constraints (demand
𝑛
– supply balance)
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝐷 3. 𝑛
𝑖

72
 Cont…
Formulation of the LaGrangian
We are now in a position to formulate our optimization problem. Stated in words,
we desire to minimize the total cost of generation subject to the inequality
constraints on individual units (f) and the power balance constraint (g). Stated
analytically, we have:
The problem
minimize the cost function

subject to the equality constraints

The Lagrangian function, then, is

73
Cont…

74
 Cont…
Operating Costs
 Factors influencing the minimum cost of power generations are
operating efficiency of prime mover and generator
fuel costs
transmission losses
 The most efficient generator in the system does not guarantee minimum costs
may be located in an area with high fuel costs
may be located far from the load centers and transmission losses are high
 The problem is to determine generation at different plants to minimize the total
operating costs

75
 Cont…
 Generator heat rate curves lead to the fuel cost curves

 The fuel cost is commonly express as a quadratic function

 The derivative is known as the incremental fuel cost

76
 Cont…
 The simplest problem in economic dispatch is when system losses and generator
limits are neglected
minimize the objective or cost function over all plants
a quadratic cost function is used for each plant

 the total demand is equal to the sum of the generators’ output; the equality
constraint

77
 Cont…
• A typical approach using the Lagrange multipliers

78
 Cont…
• the second condition for optimal dispatch is

• rearranging and combining the equations to solve for λ

79
 Cont…
Example Neglecting system losses and generator limits, find the economic dispatch
and the total cost in Mbt/hr for the three generators and for the given load demand
of 850MW

80
 Cont…
• Suppose the price of unit 1 is decreased to 0.9 Rs/Mwhr. Obtain the optimum
schedule

81
 Cont…
Example 2 : Neglecting system losses, find the optimal dispatch and the total cost
in $/hr for the three generators and the given load demand and generation limits

Answer λ=9.4 $/MWH, P1=450 MW ,P2=315MW, P3=210

82
 Cont…
Economic Dispatch including Losses
For large interconnected system where power is transmitted over long distances
with low load density areas
 transmission line losses are a major factor
 losses affect the optimum dispatch of generation
One common practice for including the effect of transmission losses is
to express the total transmission loss as a quadratic function of the
generator power outputs
simplest form:

Power loss formula:

83
 Cont…
 Bij are called the loss coefficients they are assumed to be constant reasonable
accuracy is expected when actual operating conditions are close to the base case
conditions used to compute the coefficients.
 The economic dispatch problem is to minimize the overall generation cost, C,
which is a function of plant output
 Constraints:
the generation equals the total load demand plus transmission losses.
each plant output is within the upper and lower generation limits -inequality
constraints.

84
 Cont…
• Economic Dispatch including Losses

The resulting optimization equation

85
 Cont…
When generator limits are not violated:

86
 Cont…
The Penalty Factor
The incremental transmission loss equation becomes the penalty factor

The effect of transmission losses introduces a penalty factor that depends on the
location of the plant.
The minimum cost is obtained when the incremental cost of each plant multiplied
by its penalty factor is the same for all plants.

87
 Cont…
Example
Find the optimal dispatch and the total cost in $/hr
fuel costs and plant output limits

real power loss and total load demand

88
 Cont…
Solution

89
 Interchange of Power and Energy
Economy interchange between interconnected utilities: Inter connected utilities
means two or more than two control areas are interconnected. It has the following
advantages.
i. More reliability.
ii. Less cost of generation.
iii. Better regulating characteristics.
iv. A change in load in any of the system (control area) is take care by all units in
the interconnected system in the transient period.
v. Requirement of spinning reserve is reduced.
The major advantage of inter connected system is, better economic operation. This
opportunity will occur if the units are operating at different incremental cost.
Usually, in a large interconnected system, the power units incremental cost is
different because of different factors. If A and B are two different utilities those are
interconnected, economic operation may takes place as below.
90
 Cont…
Utility A is generating at lower incremental cost than utility B
If utility B buys power from utility A at a price less than if it generated from its
own generation, utility B can save money.
Utility A would also benefit if utility B is willing to pay a price greater than utility
A’s cost of generation. In this way both utilities are benefited or save money.
The interchange of power may be either “long-term-firm-supply” basis or “when,
and if available basis”.
The purchaser would probably agree to pay more for long term firm supply than the
other basis.

91
 Cont…
Example1: Two utilities are shown in figure. Data giving the heat rates and fuel
costs for each unit are also given. Investigate, how the interchange power affects
production cost.

92
 Cont…
• dfghj

93
 Cont…
Area1:
P1 = 322.7 MW P2 = 277.9 MW P3 = 99.4 MW Total Generation = 700 MW
Incremental cost λ = 17.856 Birr/MWh. Operating cost of area 1 = 13,677.21 Birr/h
Area2:
P4 = 524.7 MW P5 = 287.7 MW P6 = 287.7 MW Total generation = 1100 MW
Incremental cost λ = 16.185 Birr/MWh Operating cost = 18,569.23 Birr/h
Total operating cost for both areas = 13,677.21 + 18,569.23 = 32,246.44 Birr/h
Now suppose the two areas are inter connected by several transmission circuits such that two areas can
be treated as one system. If we find the dispatch of the system, considering the loads same as earlier,
we get combined dispatch for the units.
P1 = 184 MW P2 = 166.2 MW P3 = 54.4 MW
P4 = 590 MW P5 = 402.7 MW P6 = 402.7 Mw MW
Total generation in area 1 = 404.6 MW
Total generation of area 2 = 1395.4
Total generation of entire system = 1800 MW
Incremental cost of the combined system = 16.99 Birr/MWh
94
 Cont…
Operating cost of area 1 = 8530.93 Birr/h
Operating cost of area 2 = 23,453.89 Birr/h
Total operating cost = 31,984.82 Birr/h
Interchange power = 295.4 MW from area 2 to area 1.
Now to calculate the interchange power cost, let us assume that the two systems
exchange power for I hour. The combine savings are calculated as follows,

95
 Cont…

• In these situations there is no fixed charging, it depends on the contract between

two systems. If we split the savings equally between two operating areas, area 1
261.62
should pay to area 2 5015.47 Birr (5146.28 − = 5015.47 𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑟). The
2
interchange of power is usually not carried out if the net savings are very small. In
such cases the error in measuring the interchange power transaction
uneconomic. The interchange of power is not possible if the utility want to use its
fuel resources to its own customers/country.
96
 Power Pools
 Interchange of power between systems can be economically advantageous.
However, when a system is interconnected with many neighbors, the process of
setting up one transaction at a time with each neighbor can become very time
consuming and will rarely result in the optimum production cost. To overcome this
burden, several utilities may form a power pool that incorporates a central
dispatch office.
 The power pool is administered from a central location that has responsibility for
setting up interchange between members, as well as other administrative tasks.
 The pool members give certain responsibilities to the pool operating office in
return for greater economies in operation.
 The agreement among the pool members is usually very complex. The complexity
arises because the members of the pool are attempting to gain greater benefits
from the pool operation and to allocate these benefits equitably among the
members.
97
 Cont…
 Pools provide increased reliability by allowing members to draw energy
from the pool transmission grid during emergencies as well as covering
each others’ reserves when units are down for maintenance or on forced
outage.
The advantages of power pools are as follows
1. Minimize operating costs (maximize operating efficiency).
2. Perform a system-wide unit commitment.
3. Minimize the reserves being carried throughout the system.
4. Coordinate maintenance scheduling to minimize costs and maximize
reliability by sharing reserves during maintenance periods.
5. Maximize the benefits of emergency procedures.

98
 Cont…
The disadvantages of power pools
 The complexity of the pool agreement and the continuing costs of supporting the
inter utility structure required to manage and administer the pool.
 The operating and investment costs associated with the central dispatch office and
the needed communication and computation facilities.
 The relinquishing of the right to engage in independent transactions outside of the
pool by the individual companies to the pool office and the requirement that any
outside transactions be priced on a split-saving basis based on pool members’
costs.
 The additional complexity that may result in dealing with regulatory agencies if
the pool operates in more than one state/country.
 The feeling on the part of the management of some utilities that the pool structure
is displacing some of an individual system’s management responsibilities and
restricting some of the freedom of independent action possible to serve the needs
of its own customers. 99
 Automatic Voltage Control
Figure gives the schematic diagram of an automatic voltage regulator of
a generator. It basically consists of a main exciter which excites the alternator
field to control the output voltage. The exciter field is automatically controlled
through error e = 𝑉𝑟𝑓𝑟 − 𝑉𝑇 , suitably amplified through voltage and power
• amplifiers. It is a type-0 system which requires a constant error e for a specified
• voltage at generator terminals.
• The block diagram of the system is given in

100
 Cont…

Fig. Schematic diagram of alternator voltage regulator scheme 101

 Cont…
Amplifier model: the excitation system amplifier may be a magnetic
amplifier, rotating amplifier, or modern electronic amplifier. The
amplifier is represented by a gain 𝐾𝐴 and a time constant 𝜏𝐴 , and the transfer
function is
𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴
=
𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 1+𝜏𝐴 𝑠

102
Cont…

103
104
105
106
 Voltage Control
Introduction
Low Voltage :Heavy power transfers are a major cause of low voltage because of
associated Var losses.
High Voltage: It can be power frequency or transient over voltages. High voltages
can lead to breakdown of equipment insulation, cause transformer saturation, and
adversely affect customer equipment.
 Voltage Control is closely related to the availability of reactive power.

107
 Cont…
Review of Active, Reactive and Complex Power
 There are two types of power produced by the system generators, active (MW)
and reactive (MVAr).
 The active power is what does the work in the system. Active power lights the
lights, produces heat in the heaters, and turns the motors.
 Reactive power enables the active power to do its work.

108
Cont…

109
Cont…

110
Cont…

111
 Cont…
Causes of low voltage include:
• Heavy Power Transfers
• Transmission Line Outages
• Reactive Equipment Outages (Eg. Generator, Capacitor)
• Motor Starting

112
 Cont…
Causes of high voltage (Long term overvoltages) include:
 Overvoltage due to light loading
 Reactive Equipment Outages (Equipment that is used to absorb MVAr,
such as reactors or generators, may be lost leading to excessive MVAr
supply).
 Ferranti Rise: Ferranti rise effect is a long term overvoltage condition
that is associated with high voltage lines that have their receiving ends
open.

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Causes of high voltage (Short Term Over voltages) include:
 Generator Load Rejection and Self-Excitation: The sudden loss of a
major load could lead to short term excessive generator production of
active and reactive power. The generator could overs peed and induce
over voltages until its control systems can match the generator’s output
to the new system load.

114
 Cont…
Transient Over voltages include:
Lightning Over voltages
Switching Over voltages
Capacitive Switching
Voltage Control Equipment
Capacitors,
Reactors,
LTCs (Load Tapping Control), and
SVCs (Static Var Compensators)
supplement the system generators as means of controlling system
voltage.
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 Cont…
Use of Capacitors and Reactors
 Capacitors: Capacitors are viewed as sources of reactive power.
 Capacitors can be connected to the power system in either a shunt or
series connection.
 Shunt capacitors are used to supply reactive power to the system.
 Series capacitors are used to reduce the impedance of the path in which
they are inserted.

116
 Cont…
 Shunt Capacitors: are a source of MVArthat are installed in close
proximity to the point they are needed. When a shunt capacitor is
switched in the local voltage will rise. System voltages will typically
rise as the current drawn from other reactive sources is reduced.

117
 Cont…
Series capacitors : are installed in transmission lines to reduce the line’s natural
inductive reactance. The reactance of a series capacitor is out-of phase with a
transmission line’s inductive reactance. The series capacitor reactance subtracts
from the line’s inductive reactance, reducing the overall line reactance.

Reactors: Reactors can be viewed as absorbers or sinks of reactive power.

 Reactors can be connected to the power system in either a shunt or series
connection.
 Shunt reactors are used to absorb reactive power from the system. Series reactors
are used to increase the reactance of the path in which they are inserted. 118
 Cont…
Shunt Reactors: Shunt reactor banks are used to absorb excessive
reactive power from the power system and thereby reduce system
voltages.

119
 Cont…
Series Reactors: Series reactors add inductive reactance to a path
thereby increasing the overall path impedance. The primary use of series
reactors is to limit fault current.

120
 Cont…
Use of Transformers
Tap Changing Transformers: Transformers in which the number of turns in a
winding can be adjusted under load are a valuable tool for voltage control.
Off-Load Tap Changing (OLTC):Power transformers are often equipped with a
means to vary the size of the primary or secondary windings

121
 Cont…
Under Load Tap Changing (ULTC): Under load tap changing or ULTC
equipped transformers are designed to change tap positions while the
transformer is carrying load current.

The PT reads a voltage out of range or the CT reads a current out of

range. This combination of voltage and current monitoring allows the
ULTC to control the voltage at a remote secondary point. 122
 Cont…
Use of Generators
Generators are the backbone of voltage control.
Excitation Systems: The excitation system is used to control the terminal voltage
and MVAr production of the generator.

123
 Speed Governor Dead Band and its Effect on AGC
 Speed Governor Dead Band – The effect of the speed governor dead-band is that
for a given position of the governor control valves, an increase/decrease in speed
can occur before the position of the valve changes.
 The governor dead-band can materially affect the system response.
 In AGC studies, the dead-band effect indeed can be significant, since relatively
small signals are under considerations.
 The speed governor characteristic, though non-linear, has been approximated by
linear characteristics in earlier analysis. Further, there is another non-linearity
introduced by the dead-band in the governor operation.

124
 Cont…
 Mechanical friction and backlash and also valve overlaps in hydraulic relays cause
the governor dead-band. Due to this, though the input signal increases, the speed
governor may not immediately react until the input reaches a particular value.
Similar action takes place when the input signal decreases.
 Thus the governor dead-band is defined as the total magnitude of sustained
speed change within which there is no change in valve position.
 The limiting value of dead-band is specified as 0.06%. It was shown by Concordia
et.

125
 Cont…
 The effect of the dead-band may be included in the speed governor control loop
block diagram as shown in Fig. below.

126
Cont…

127