31.01.

2025

EEE222 Circuit Theory II

Lecture Note 3

Variable Frequency Network

Performance

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mahmut Emin ÇELİK

Asst. Prof. Dr. Hıdır DÜZKAYA
1

VARIABLE-FREQUENCY NETWORK
PERFORMANCE
LEARNING GOALS

Variable-Frequency Response Analysis

Network performance as function of frequency.
Transfer function

Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis

Bode plots to display frequency response data

Resonant Circuits
The resonance phenomenon and its characterization

Scaling
Impedance and frequency scaling

Filter Networks
Networks with frequency selective characteristics:
low-pass, high-pass, band-pass
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VARIABLE FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS

In AC steady state analysis the frequency is assumed constant (e.g., 60Hz).

Here we consider the frequency as a variable and examine how the performance
varies with the frequency.

Variation in impedance of basic components

Resistor Z R  R  R0

Inductor
Z L  jL  L90

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1 1
Capacitor Zc     90
jC C

Frequency dependent behavior of series RLC network

( j )2 LC  jRC  1  j RC  j ( LC  1)
2
1
Z eq  R  jL    
jC jC j C

" Simplification in notation" j  s

s 2 LC  sRC  1
Z eq ( s ) 
sC
  2 LC  1 
(RC )2  (1   2 LC )2 Z eq  tan 1  
| Zeq |  RC 
C

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Simplified notation for basic components

1
Z R ( s)  R, Z L ( s)  sL, ZC 
sC
For all cases seen, and all cases to be studied, the impedance is of the form

am s m  am 1s m 1  ...  a1s  a0

Z ( s) 
bn s n  bn1s n1  ...  b1s  b0

Moreover, if the circuit elements (L,R,C, dependent sources) are real then the
expression for any voltage or current will also be a rational function in s

EXAMPLE 1

R sRC
Vo ( s)  VS  2 VS
1 sL R  sL  1/ sC s LC  sRC  1
sC s  j
R
jRC
Vo  VS
( j ) 2 LC  jRC  1
j (15  2.53  10 3 )
Vo  100
( j ) (0.1 2.53  10 3 )  j (15  2.53  10 3 )  1
2

MATLAB can be effectively used to compute frequency response characteristics

7

USING MATLAB TO COMPUTE MAGNITUDE AND PHASE INFORMATION

am s m  am 1s m 1  ...  a1s  a0

Vo ( s ) 
bn s n  bn1s n1  ...  b1s  b0

 num  [am , am 1 ,..., a1 , a0 ]; MATLAB commands required to display magnitude

 den  [bn , bn1 ,..., b1 , b0 ]; and phase as function of frequency

 freqs(num , den) NOTE: Instead of comma (,) one can use space to
separate numbers in the array

EXAMPLE 2
a1

j (15  2.53  10 3 )
Vo 
( j ) 2 (0.1 2.53  10 3 )  j (15  2.53  10 3 )  1
b0
b1
b2 Missing coefficients must
» num=[15*2.53*1e-3,0]; be entered as zeros
» den=[0.1*2.53*1e-3,15*2.53*1e-3,1];
» freqs(num,den)

This sequence will also

» num=[15*2.53*1e-3 0];
work. Must be careful not
» den=[0.1*2.53*1e-3 15*2.53*1e-3 1];
to insert blanks elsewhere
» freqs(num,den) 8

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EXAMPLE 2 GRAPHIC OUTPUT PRODUCED BY MATLAB

Log-log
plot

Semi-log
plot

EXAMPLE 3 A possible stereo amplifier

Desired frequency characteristic

(flat between 50Hz and 15KHz)

Log frequency scale

Postulated amplifier

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Frequency Analysis of Amplifier

EXAMPLE 3
Rin
Vin ( s )  VS ( s )
Rin  1 / sC in

Vo ( s ) Vin ( s ) Vo ( s )
G ( s)  
VS ( s ) VS ( s ) Vin ( s )
1 / sCo
Vo ( s )  [1000Vin ] Voltage Gain
1 / sCo  Ro
Frequency domain equivalent circuit
 sC in Rin   1   s   40,000 
G ( s)   [1000 ]1  sC R    s  100 [1000 ] s  40,000  required
1  sC in Rin   o o  
C in Rin 1  3.18 10 9 106 
1
 100 (50 Hz )
Co Ro  1

 79.58  10 9  100 
1
 40,000 ( 20 kHz )

s 40,000
100 | s | 40,000  G ( s)  [1000 ] actual
s 40,000

Frequency dependent behavior is

caused by reactive elements

11

NETWORK FUNCTIONS Some nomenclature

When voltages and currents are defined at different terminal pairs we
define the ratios as Transfer Functions

If voltage and current are defined at the same terminals we define

Driving Point Impedance/Admittance
EXAMPLE 4

To compute the transfer functions one must solve

the circuit. Any valid technique is acceptable
I 2 ( s)  Transadmittance
YT ( s)  
V1 ( s)  Transfer admittance
V ( s)
Gv ( s )  2 Voltage gain 12
V1 ( s )

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EXAMPLE 4 sL
VOC ( s )  V1 ( s )
sL  R1
The textbook uses mesh analysis. We will
use Thevenin’s theorem
1 1 sLR1
ZTH ( s)   R1 || sL  
sC sC sL  R1
I 2 ( s)  Transadmittance s 2 LCR1  sL  R1
YT ( s)   ZTH ( s ) 
V1 ( s)  Transfer admittance sC ( sL  R1 )
V ( s)
Gv ( s )  2 Voltage gain
V1 ( s )
sL
V1 ( s )
VOC ( s ) sL  R1 sC ( sL  R1 )
I 2 ( s)   
R2  ZTH ( s ) s LCR1  sL  R1 sC ( sL  R1 )
2
ZTH (s) R2 
sC ( sL  R1 )
 YT ( s ) 
s 2 LC
 I 2 ( s) s ( R1  R2 ) LC  s ( L  R1 R2C )  R1
2

 R2 V2 ( s )
VOC (s)  Vs ( s ) R2 I 2 ( s )
Gv ( s )    R2YT ( s )
V1 ( s ) V1 ( s )

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POLES AND ZEROS (More nomenclature)

am s m  am 1s m 1  ...  a1s  a0 Arbitrary network function

H ( s) 
bn s n  bn1s n1  ...  b1s  b0
Using the roots, every (monic) polynomial can be expressed as a
product of first order terms

( s  z1 )( s  z2 )...( s  zm )
H ( s)  K 0
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )

z1, z2 ,..., zm  zeros of the network function

p1, p2 ,..., pn  poles of the network function

The network function is uniquely determined by its poles and zeros

and its value at some other value of s (to compute the gain)

EXAMPLE 5 ( s  1) s 1
H ( s)  K 0  K0 2
zeros : z1  1, ( s  2  j 2)( s  2  j 2) s  4s  8
poles : p1  2  j 2, p2  2  j 2 1 s 1
H (0)  K 0  1  H ( s)  8
H ( 0)  1 8 s  4s  8
2

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EXAMPLE 6 Find the driving point impedance at VS (s )

I (s )

VS ( s )
Z ( s) 
I ( s)

1
KVL : VS ( s )  Rin I ( s )  I ( s)
sC in

100 
 1 
1
Z ( s )  Rin  M
sC in  s 

Replace numerical values

15

Find the pole and zero locations and the value of K o

EXAMPLE 7
Vo ( s )
for the voltage gain G ( s ) 
VS ( s )

( s  z1 )( s  z2 )...( s  zm ) Zeros = roots of numerator

H ( s)  K 0
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn ) Poles = roots of denominator

For this case the gain was shown to be

 sC in Rin   1   s   40,000 
G ( s)   [1000 ]1  sC R    s  100 [1000 ] s  40,000 
1  sC in Rin   o o  

zero : z1  0 Variable
poles : p1  50 Hz , p2  20,000 Hz Frequency
Response
K 0  (4  10 7 ) 16

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SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

A0e j ( t  )   A0 H ( j )e j ( t  )
 H (s ) 
B0 cos( t   )  B0 | H ( j ) | cos t    H ( j ) 
Circuit represented by
network function

To study the behavior of a network as a function of the frequency we analyze

the network function H ( j ) as a function of .
Notation
M ( ) | H ( j ) |
 ( )  H ( j )
H ( j )  M ( )e j ( )
Plots of M ( ),  ( ), as function of  are generally called
magnitude and phase characteri stics.

20 log10 (M ( ))
BODE PLOTS vs log10 ( )
  ( )
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HISTORY OF THE DECIBEL

Originated as a measure of relative (radio) power

P2
P2 |dB (over P1 )  10 log
P1

V2 V2 I2
P  I 2R   P2 |dB (over P1 )  10 log 22  10 log 22
R V1 I1

V |dB  20 log10 | V |
By extension I |dB  20 log10 | I |
G |dB  20 log10 | G |

Using log scales the frequency characteristics of network functions

have simple asymptotic behavior.
The asymptotes can be used as reasonable and efficient approximations

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General form of a network function showing basic terms

Poles/zeros at the origin

Frequency independent

K 0 ( j )  N (1  j1 )[1  2 3 ( j 3 )  ( j 3 ) 2 ]...

H ( j ) 
(1  j a )[1  2 b ( j b )  ( j b ) 2 ]...

log( AB)  log A  log B First order terms Quadratic terms for
N complex conjugate poles/zeros
log( )  log N  log D
D
| H ( j ) |dB  20 log10 | H ( j ) |  20 log10 K 0  N 20 log10 | j |
 20 log10 | 1  j1 | 20 log10 | 1  2 3 ( j 3 )  ( j 3 ) 2 | ...
 20 log10 | 1  j a | 20 log10 | 1  2 b ( j b )  ( j b ) 2 | ..
z1z2  z1  z2 H ( j )  0  N 90
z Display each basic term
 1  z1  z2 1 1 2 3 3 separately and add the
z2  tan   tan  ...
1  ( 3 ) 2 results to obtain final
1

answer
2 b b
 tan 1  a  tan 1  ...
1  ( b ) 2
Let’s examine each basic term
19

Constant Term

the x - axis is log10

this is a straight line
N
Poles/Zeros at the origin | ( j ) |dB   N  20 log10 ( )
( j )  N  
 ( j )  N   N 90

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
| 1  j |dB  20 log10 1  ( ) 2
Simple pole or zero 1  j 

 (1  j )  tan 1 
  1  | 1  j |dB  0 low frequency asymptote (1  j )  0

  1  | 1  j |dB  20 log10  high frequency asymptote (20dB/dec) (1  j )  90
The two asymptotes meet when   1 (corner/break frequency)
Behavior in the neighborhood of the corner
distance to
FrequencyAsymptoteCurve asymptote Argument
corner   1 0dB 3dB 3 45
octave above   2 6dB 7db 1 63.4
octave below   0 .5 0dB 1dB 1 26.6

Asymptote for phase

High freq. asymptote

Low freq. Asym.

21

Simple zero

Simple pole

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Quadratic pole or zero t 2  [1  2 ( j )  ( j ) ]  [1  2 ( j )  ( ) ]

2 2

2
 
| t2 |dB  20 log10 1  ( )2  2 2
2
t 2  tan 1
1  ( ) 2
  1 | t 2 |dB  0 low frequency asymptote t 2  0
  1 | t2 |dB  20 log10 ( )2 high freq. asymptote 40dB/dec t 2  180 
  1 | t 2 |dB  20 log10 (2 ) Corner/break frequency t 2  90
  1  2 | t2 |dB  20 log10 2 1  
2 2
Resonance frequency 1  2 2 2
t 2  tan 1 
 2
These graphs are inverted for a zero

23
Magnitude for quadratic pole Phase for quadratic pole

EXAMPLE 1 Generate magnitude and phase plots

10(0.1 j  1)
Draw asymptotes Gv ( j )  Breaks/corners : 1,10,50
for each term ( j  1)(0.02 j  1)
Draw composites

dB
40
20 10 |dB
20dB / dec
0
 20dB / dec
 20
90
45 / dec

 45 / dec
90
0.1 1 10 100 1000

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EXAMPLE 1

asymptotes

25

EXAMPLE 2 Generate magnitude and phase plots

25( j  1)
Draw asymptotes for each Gv ( j )  Breaks (corners) : 1, 10
( j ) 2 (0.1 j  1)
Form composites

dB
40
28dB
20
0
 40dB / dec
 20

45 / dec
90

 45
90
180 

 270
0.1 1 10 100
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Final results . . . And an extra hint on poles at the origin

EXAMPLE 2

dB
 40 dB
dec  20
dec
dB
 40
K0 1 dec
 0   
K0 2
( j ) 2 dB

27

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the magnitude characteristic

10 4 ( j  2) breaks : 2, 10, 100
G ( j ) 
( j  10)( j  100 ) But the function is NOT in standard form
Put in standard form G ( j ) 
20( j / 2  1) We need to show about
( j / 10  1)( j / 100  1) 4 decades

dB
40
25 |dB
20
0
 20
90

90
1 10 100 1000 28

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EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the magnitude characteristic

100 (0.02 j  1 It is in standard form
G ( j ) 
( j ) 2 break at 50
Double pole at the origin
dB
40
20
0
 20
90

90

 270
1 10 100 1000
Once each term is drawn we form the composites

29

EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the magnitude characteristic

Put in standard form 10 j not in standard form
G ( j ) 
j ( j  1)( j  10) zero at the origin
G ( j ) 
( j  1)( j / 10  1) breaks : 1, 10
dB
40
20
0
 20dB / dec
 20 20dB / dec

90

90

 270
0.1 1 100
10
Once each term is drawn we form the composites

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EXAMPLE 6 A function with complex conjugate poles

25 j
t 2  [1  2 ( j )  ( j )2 ] G ( j ) 

( j  0.5) ( j ) 2  4 j  100  2  1 / 25
    0.2
Put in standard form 0.5 j   0.1 
G ( j ) 

( j / 0.5  1) ( j / 10) 2  j / 25  1
Draw composite asymptote
dB
40
20
  1 | t 2 |dB  20 log10 (2 )
0
8dB
 20
90

90
Behavior close to corner of conjugate pole/zero
is too dependent on damping ratio.
Computer evaluation is better
 270
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
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Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB Using default options

EXAMPLE 6 25 j
G ( j ) 

( j  0.5) ( j ) 2  4 j  100 
» num=[25,0]; %define numerator polynomial
» den=conv([1,0.5],[1,4,100]) %use CONV for polynomial multiplication
den =
1.0000 4.5000 102.0000 50.0000
» freqs(num,den)

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Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled

25 j EXAMPLE 6
G ( j ) 

( j  0.5) ( j ) 2  4 j  100 
>> clear all; close all %clear workspace and close any open figure
>> figure(1) %open one figure window (not STRICTLY necessary)
>> w=logspace(-1,3,200);%define x-axis, [10^{-1} - 10^3], 200pts total
>> G=25*j*w./((j*w+0.5).*((j*w).^2+4*j*w+100)); %compute transfer function
>> subplot(211) %divide figure in two. This is top part
>> semilogx(w,20*log10(abs(G))); %put magnitude here

>> grid %put a grid and give proper title and labels
>> ylabel('|G(j\omega)|(dB)'), title('Bode Plot: Magnitude response')

33

Evaluation of frequency response using MATLAB User controlled EXAMPLE 6

Repeat for phase USE TO ZOOM IN A SPECIFIC REGION OF INTEREST

>> semilogx(w,unwrap(angle(G)*180/pi)) %unwrap avoids jumps from +180 to -180

>> grid, ylabel('Angle H(j\omega)(\circ)'), xlabel('\omega (rad/s)')
>> title('Bode Plot: Phase Response')

No xlabel here to avoid clutter

Compare with default!

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EXAMPLE 7 Sketch the magnitude characteristic

  1 / 12
t 2  [1  2 ( j )  ( j ) ]
2 0.2( j  1)
G ( j )  2  1 / 36    1 / 6
j [( j / 12) 2  j / 36  1]
  1 | t 2 |dB  20 log10 (2 )
 9.5dB
dB
40
20
 20dB / dec
0
 20 0dB / dec
90
 40dB / dec

90

12  270
0.1 1 100
10

35

EXAMPLE 7 0.2( j  1)
G ( j ) 
j [( j / 12) 2  j / 36  1]
» num=0.2*[1,1];
» den=conv([1,0],[1/144,1/36,1]);
» freqs(num,den)

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DETERMINING THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE BODE PLOT

This is the inverse problem of determining frequency characteristics.

We will use only the composite asymptotes plot of the magnitude to postulate
a transfer function. The slopes will provide information on the order
A. different from 0dB.
There is a constant Ko
A K 0 |dB
B K 0 |dB  20  K 0  10 20
C D
E B. Simple pole at 0.1
( j / 0.1  1) 1
C. Simple zero at 0.5
( j / 0.5  1)
D. Simple pole at 3
( j / 3  1) 1
E. Simple pole at 20
( j / 20  1) 1
10( j / 0.5  1)
G ( j ) 
( j / 0.1  1)( j / 3  1)( j / 20  1)
If the slope is -40dB we assume double real pole. Unless we are given more data
37

EXAMPLE 1 Determine a transfer function from the composite

magnitude asymptotes plot

A. Pole at the origin.

C Crosses 0dB line at 5
E
5
j
A
B. Zero at 5
D
B
C. Pole at 20

D. Zero at 50
E. Pole at 100

5( j / 5  1)( j / 50  1)
G ( j ) 
j ( j / 20  1)( j / 100  1)

Sinusoidal
38

19
 31.01.2025

RESONANT CIRCUITS
These are circuits with very special frequency characteristics…
And resonance is a very important physical phenomenon

Parallel RLC circuit

Series RLC circuit 1
Y ( j )  G  jC 
1 j L
Z ( j  )  R  j L 
j C The reactance of each circuit is zero when
1 1
L   0 
C LC
The frequency at which the circuit becomes purely resistive is called
the resonance frequency
39

RESONANT CIRCUITS - SERIES RESONANCE

 Im{ Z }  0


RESONANT FREQUENCY QUALITY FACTOR

PHASOR DIAGRAM

40

20
 31.01.2025

Properties of resonant circuits

At resonance the impedance/admittance is minimal

1 1
Z ( j )  R  j L  Y ( j )  G   j C
jC j L
1 1
| Z |2  R 2  (L  )2 | Y |2  G 2  (C  )2
C L

Current through the serial circuit/

voltage across the parallel circuit can
become very large (if resistance is small)
0 L 1
Quality Factor : Q  
R  0CR
Given the similarities between series and parallel resonant circuits,
we will focus on serial circuits
41

Properties of resonant circuits

At resonance the power factor is unity
V1
j
 L
VR


I
VC   j GV1 jCV1
 C

jL

CIRCUIT BELOW RESONANCE ABOVE RESONANCE
SERIES CAPACITIVE INDUCTIVE
PARALLEL INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE

Phasor diagram for series circuit Phasor diagram for parallel circuit

42

21
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 1 Determine the resonant frequency, the voltage across each

element at resonance and the value of the quality factor

1
  0 L  50
I  0C
1
VC  I   j 50  5  250   90
j 0 C

0 L 50
Q   25
R 2

1 1
0    2000 rad / sec At resonance
LC (25  10 3 H )(10  10 6 F )
At resonance Z  2 | VL |  0 L
VS
 Q | VS |
V 100 R
I S   5A
Z 2 | VC | Q | VS |
0 L  (2 103 )(25 10 3 )  50
VL  j 0 LI  j 50  5  250 90 (V )

43

EXAMPLE 2 Given L = 0.02H with a Q factor of 200, determine the capacitor

necessary to form a circuit resonant at 1000Hz

1 1
0   2  1000   C  1.27  F
LC 0.02C

What is the rating for the capacitor if the

circuit is tested with a 10V supply?

At resonance
VS
| VL |  0 L  Q | VS |
R
| VC | Q | VS | | VC | 2000V

0 L 2 1000  0.02
L with Q  200  200  R  1.59
R 200
10
I  6.28 A
1.59

The reactive power on the capacitor

exceeds 12kVA

44

22
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 3 Find the value of C that will place the circuit in resonance
at 1800rad/sec

1 1 1
0  1800  C 
LC 0.1( H )  C 0.1 1800 2
C  3.86  F

Find the Q for the network and the magnitude of the voltage across the
capacitor

0 L 1800  0.1
Q Q  60
R 3

At resonance
VS
| VL |  0 L  Q | VS | | V | 600V
R C

| VC | Q | VS |
45

1
Resonance for the series circuit M ( )  1/ 2
 2  0 2 
Z ( j )  R  j L 
1 1  Q (   ) 
jC  0 
1 2 0
| Z |  R  (L 
2 2
) BW 
C Q
Claim : The voltage gain is
V 1
Gv  R 
V1 1  jQ (    0 )
0 
R R
Gv   Half power frequencies
R  jL 
1 Z ( j )
jC  0
At resonance :  ( )   tan 1 Q (  )
0 
1
 0 L  QR,  0C 
QR
 
Z ( j )  R  j QR  j 0 QR
0 
R    
Gv   R 1  jQ (  0 )
Z   
 0  1  1 
2 
M ( ) | Gv |,  ( ) | Gv  LO   0      146
 2Q  2Q  

23
 31.01.2025

The Q factor 0 L
1
Q 
R  0CR
For series circuit : High Q  Low R
dissipates
For parallel circuit : High Q  High R (low G)

High Q  Small BW Stores as E

M field

Stores as M
field

Capacitor and inductor exchange stored

energy. When one is at maximum the
other is at zero
WS maximum energy stored
Q  2  2
WD energy dissipated by cycle
Q can also be interpreted from an 0 1 2 0
WD  RI eff
2
  RI mx 
energy point of view 2 2 2
1 2 1
W S  LI mx  CVmx
2
2 2
Ws L 0 Q
 
W D 2  R 2 47

ENERGY TRANSFER IN RESONANT CIRCUITS

V
i (t )  m
cos  t[ A]
O
R

Normalization
factor

48

24
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 1 Determine the resonant frequency, quality factor and

bandwidth when R=2 and when R=0.2
1 0 L 1 0
0  Q  BW 
2 LC R  0CR Q
1
0  3 6
 10 4 rad / sec
5 F (2  10 )(5  10 )

R Q R Q BW(rad/sec)
2mH 2 10 2 10 1000
0.2 100 0.2 100 100
10000  0.002
Q BW  10000 / Q
R
Evaluated with EXCEL

49

EXAMPLE 2 A series RLC circuit as the following properties:

R  4, 0  4000 rad / sec, BW  100 rad / sec
Determine the values of L,C.

1 0 L 1 0
0  Q  BW 
LC R  0CR Q

1. Given resonant frequency and bandwidth determine Q.

2. Given R, resonant frequency and Q determine L, C.
0 4000
Q   40
BW 100
QR 40  4
L   0.040 H
0 4000
1 1 1
C    1.56 10 6 F
L02 0 RQ 4 10 2 16 106

50

25
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 3 Find R, L, C so that the circuit operates as a band-pass filter

with center frequency of 1000rad/s and bandwidth of 100rad/s
R R
Gv  
R  jL 
1 Z ( j )
jC

1 0 L 1 0
0  Q  BW 
LC R  0CR Q
dependent
Strategy:
1. Determine Q
2. Use value of resonant frequency and Q to set up two equations in the three
unknowns
3. Assign a value to one of the unknowns

0 1000 For example C  1 F  10 6 F

Q   10
BW 100 L  1H
1 1
0   (103 ) 2 
LC LC R  100 
0 L 1000 L
Q  10 
R R
51

PROPERTIES OF RESONANT CIRCUITS: VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITOR

At resonance
| V0 | Q | VR |
But this is NOT the maximum value for the
voltage across the capacitor

1
V0 j C 1
 
VS R  jL 
1 1   2
LC  jCR
jC

1 0 L 1 
2
0  Q  V0
LC R  0CR u   ; g  V
0 S
1 2(1  u 2 )( 2u)  2(u / Q )(1 / Q )
g ( u)  dg
0 1
 2
  2(1  u 2 )  2
 
2 2 u
 1 u    
du 
 
2 2 u
 1 u    
2 2
 Q
  Q  
   
Q
 max 1 1 Q2
umax   1 2 gmax   Q | VS |
0 2Q 1  1 1  1  1 | V0 |
   1
4Q 4  Q 2 2Q 4  4Q 2 1
4Q 2
52

26
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 1 Determine 0 , max when R  50 and R  1

Natural frequency depends only on L, C.

50 mH Resonant frequency depends on Q.

1 0 L 1
0  Q 
5 F LC R  0CR
 max 1
umax   1 2
0 2Q
1 1
0    2000 rad / s
LC (5  10 2 )(5  10 6 )
2000  0.050  max  2000  1  1
Q 2Q 2
R

R Q Wmax
50 2 1871
1 100 2000
Evaluated with EXCEL and rounded to zero decimals

Using MATLAB one can display the frequency response

53

R=50
Low Q
Poor selectivity

R=1
High Q
Good selectivity

54

27
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 2 The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Opened: July 1, 1940

Collapsed: Nov 7, 1940

Likely cause: wind

varying at frequency
similar to bridge
natural frequency
 0  2  0.2

55

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Simulator Assume a low Q=2.39 EXAMPLE 2

31.66  F
20 H
9.5
(1V  1 ft )
Vinmx  42 1
At failure a 42mph wind caused 4' deflection.
For the model at resonance
v0 RB 4
 
vin RA  RB 42

3.77 '

0.44’

1.07’

56

28
 31.01.2025

PARALLEL RLC RESONANT CIRCUITS

Impedance of series RLC Admittance of parallel RLC

1 1
Z ( j )  R  j L  Y ( j )  G   j C
jC Notice equivalenc es j L
1 2 R  G, L  C , C  L 1 2
| Z |2  R 2  (L  ) | Y |2  G 2  (C  )
C Z  Y ,V  I L
Series RLC
I S  YVS 1 0 L 1
0  Q 
LC R  0CR
Parallel RLC

At resonance 1  0C 1
0  Q 
1 LC G  0 LG
 0C  Y G
IG  GVS 
G
IS 0 L 0
Y Series RLC BW 
IG  I S Q
j C 
I C  jCVS  IS I  I Parallel RLC BW  0
Y C L
Q
1  0C 
1 jL | I C | | I S | Q | I S |
IL  VS  IS G
j L Y 1
| I L | |I |
 0 LG S 57

VARIATION OF IMPEDANCE AND PHASOR DIAGRAM – PARALLEL CIRCUIT

58

29
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 1 If the source operates at the resonant frequency of the

network, compute all the branch currents

IG  0.01  120 0  1.20( A)  I S

1 1
0    117 .85rad / s
LC 0.120  (6  10 4 )

VS  120 0, G  0.01S IC  (190)  (117 .85)  (600 10 6 ) 120 0  8.4990( A)

C  600  F , L  120 mH I L  8.49  90( A)

At resonance
I x  _______
1
G  0C  Y G
IG  GVS  I S 0 L
Y
IG  I S
j C
I C  jCVS  IS I  I
Y C L

1  0C
1 jL | I C | G | I S |  Q | I S |
IL  VS  IS
j L Y 1
| I L | |I |
 0 LG S

59

EXAMPLE 2 Derive expressions for the resonant frequency, half power

frequencies, bandwidth and quality factor for the transfer
characteristic Vout
H
I in
2
G G  1
h      
2C  2C  LC
G
1 BW   HI   LO 
I in V 1 YT  G  jC  C
Vout   H  out  jL
YT I in YT 0 1 C C
Q  R
BW G L L
1 1 Replace and show
| H | 
1 2
G  jC   1   0C 1
jL G   C 2
 Q 
 L  G  0 LG
Resonant frequency :  0 
1 1
| H max |  R  1  1 
2 
LC G  LO   0      1
 2Q  2Q  
Half power frequencies | H ( j h ) |2  0.5 | H |2max
2
 1  1
G 2    hC    2G 2   hC   G
  h 
L  hL 60

30
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 3 Increasing selectivity by cascading low Q circuits

Single stage tuned amplifier

1 1
0    6.275 108 rad / s  99.9 MHz
LC 10 6

H 2.54 10 12 F 
 1 C C
Q 0  R
BW G L L
12
2.54 10
 250   0.398
10 6

61

EXAMPLE 4 Determine the resonant frequency, Q factor and bandwidth

R  2k, L  20mH , C  150  F

Parallel RLC
1  0C 1 
0  Q  BW  0
LC G  0 LG Q
1
0   577 rad / s
(20  10 3 )(150  10 6 )
577 150 10 6
Q  173
1/ 2000 
577
BW   3.33rad / s
173

62

31
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 5 Determine L, C, 0

R  6k, BW  1000 rad / s, Q  120

Parallel RLC
1  0C 1 0
0  Q  BW 
LC G  0 LG Q

0  Q  BW  120 1000  1.2 105 rad / s

Q 120
C   0.167  F
R 0 6000  1.2  10 5
R 6000
L   417  H
Q 0 120  1.2  105

Can be used to verify computations

63

PRACTICAL RESONANT CIRCUIT The resistance of the inductor coils cannot be

neglected
I
V  ZI  . At resonance the voltage and impedance are maxima
Y
R 2   R L2    L 2     2   L 2 
Z MAX   R1   R    R1   R   0  
R   R     0   R  
   
Z MAX  RQ0 2

1 R  jL
Y ( j )  jC   How do you define a quality factor for
R  jL R  jL this circuit?
R  jL
Y ( j  )  j C 
R 2  (L) 2
R  L 
Y ( j )  2  j  C  2 
2
R  (L) 2
 R  (L) 

L
2
1  R
Y real  C   0  R   
R  (L)
2 2
LC  L 
1  L 1
0  , Q0  0   R   0 1  2
LC R Q0 64

32
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 1 Determine both 0 ,  R for R  50, 5

1  L 1
0  , Q0  0   R   0 1  2
LC R Q 0

1
0   2000 rad / s
(50  10 H )(5 10 6 F )
3

2000  0.050 1
Q0  ,  R  2000 1  2
R Q0

R Q0 Wr(rad/s) f(Hz)
50 2 1732 275.7
5 20 1997 317.8 65

RESONANCE IN A MORE GENERAL VIEW

1 1
Z ( j )  R  j L  Y ( j )  G   j C
jC j L
1 1 2
| Z |2  R 2  (L  )2 | Y |2  G 2  (C  )
C L
For series connection the impedance reaches maximum at resonance. For parallel
connection the impedance reaches maximum
jC jL
Ys  Zp 
( j ) LC  jCR  1
2
( j ) LC  jLG  1
2

In Bode plots the quadratic term was written as

( j ) 2  2 j  1
1
  LC 
0
series parallel
1 1
2  CR  2   0CR  2  LG  2   0 LG 
Q Q Resonance
A high Q circuit is highly
1
Q
under damped 2
66

33
 31.01.2025

SCALING
Scaling techniques are used to change an idealized network into a more
realistic one or to adjust the values of the components
Magnitude or impedance scaling Frequency or time scaling
R'  K M R ω'  K F ω
L'  K M L Impedance of each component is unchanged
C 1 1
C '  ' L'  L, 
KM  ' C ' C
R'  R
1 1
LC  L' C '   0   L
LC L' C ' L' 
 0 L  0 L' KF
Q  C
R R' C' 
KF
Magnitude scaling does not change the
frequency characteristics nor the quality 0'  K F0
of the network.
0' L' Constant Q
Q'  Q networks
R'
0'
BW '   K F ( BW )
Q'
67

EXAMPLE 1 Determine the value of the elements and the characterisitcs

of the network if the circuit is magnitude scaled by 100 and
frequency scaled by 1,000,000

2
0  2rad / s, Q  , BW  2
2
 1H

R'  R
R' '  200 
1 L
F  2 L'  L' '  100 mH
2 KF
1
C C '' F
C'  200
Magnitude or impedance scaling KF
R'  K M R 0'  K F0 0''  1.414 106 rad / s
L'  K M L
0'
C '
C BW '   K F ( BW )
KM Q'
R'  200 
L'  100 H
1 Q, 0 are unchanged
C' F
200 68

34
 31.01.2025

EXAMPLE 2 An RLC network with R  10, L  1H, C  2F is magnitude

scaled by 100 and frequency scaled by 10,000. Determine
the resulting circuit elements
Magnitude or impedance scaling Frequency scaling
R'  K M R R'  R
R'  1000  R' '  1k
L'  K M L L
L'  100 H L'  L' '  0.01H
C KF
C ' C '  0.02 F C ' '  2 F
KM C
C' 
KF

Scaling
69

FILTER NETWORKS
Networks designed to have frequency selective behavior

COMMON FILTERS

High-pass filter
Low-pass filter

We focus first on
PASSIVE filters

Band-reject filter

Band-pass filter 70

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Simple low-pass filter

1
V0 jC 1
Gv   
V1 R  1 1  jRC
jC
1
Gv  ;   RC
1  j

1
M ( ) | Gv |
1   2
Gv   ( )   tan 1 
 1 1 1
M max  1, M      BW 
  2 
1
   half power frequency 71


Simple high-pass filter

V0 R jCR
Gv   
V1 R  1 1  jCR
jC
j
Gv  ;   RC
1  j

M ( ) | Gv |
1   2
 1
Gv   ( )   tan 1   LO 
2 
 1 1
M max  1, M     
  2
1
   half power frequency
 72

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Simple band-pass filter

Band-pass
 ( R / L)  R / L2  4 20
V R  LO 
Gv  0  2
V1  1 
R  j  L  
C 
( R / L)  R / L2  4 20
  HI 
RC 2
M ( ) 
RC 2   2 LC  1
2 R
BW   HI   LO 
 1  L
M     1 M (  0)  M (  )  0
 LC 
1
0 
LC
1
M ( LO )   M ( HI )
2 73

Simple band-reject filter

1  1 
0   j   0 L    0
LC   0C 

at   0 the capacitor acts as open circuit  V0  V1

at    the inductor acts as open circuit  V0  V1

 LO ,  HI are determined as in the

band - pass filter

74

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EXAMPLE 1 Depending on where the output is taken, this circuit

can produce low-pass, high-pass or band-pass or band-
reject filters

Band-reject filter

Band-pass

Bode plot for R  10, L  159 H , C  159  F

VL jL
 VL
  0  0, VL (  )  1 High-pass
VS  1 
R  j  L   VS VS
 C 
1
jC VC
VC
   0  1, VC (  )  0 Low-pass
VS  1  VS VS
R  j  L  
 C  75

EXAMPLE 2 A simple notch filter to eliminate 60Hz interference

vin (t )  sin 2  60 t   0.2 sin 2  1000 t 

L  70.3mH , C  100  F

1
jL L
jC C
ZR  
1 1
jL  j (L  )
jC C
Req
V0  Vin
Req  Z R

 1   1 
Z R      V0    0
 LC   LC 

76

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EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the magnitude characteri stic of the Bode plot for Gv ( j )

1
jC 1
Gv ( j )  
R
1 1  jRC
jC

Break/corner frequency : 5rad/s

low frequency asymptote of 0dB/dec
  RC  (10  103 )( 20  10 6 F )  0.2rad / s High frequency asymptote of - 20dB/dec

77

EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the magnitude characteri stic of the Bode plot for Gv ( j )

1
20dB/dec. Crosses 0dB at    2rad / s

R jRC
Gv ( j )  
R
1 1  jRC
jC
  RC  (25  103 )( 20  10 6 F )  0.5rad / s Break/corner frequency : 2rad/s
low frequency asymptote of 0dB/dec
High frequency asymptote of - 20dB/dec

78

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EXAMPLE 5 Sketch the magnitude characteri stic of the Bode plot for Gv ( j )
Band-pass 1
20dB/dec. Crosses 0dB at    1000 rad / s
RC
R jRC
0 
1
 1000 Gv ( j )  
LC R
1
 jL 1  jRC  ( j ) 2 LC
jC

Break/corner frequency : 1000 rad/s

 2  LC    10 6  10 3 ,
low frequency asymptote of 0dB/dec
10 3
2  RC  103  10 6     0.5 High frequency asymptote of - 40dB/dec
2  10 3
 ( R / L)  R / L2  4 20  618 rad / s
 LO 
2
( R / L)  R / L2  4 20  1618 rad / s
 HI 
2

 40dB / dec 79

ACTIVE FILTERS

Passive filters have several limitations

1. Cannot generate gains greater than one

2. Loading effect makes them difficult to interconnect

3. Use of inductance makes them difficult to handle

Using operational amplifiers one can design all basic filters, and more,
with only resistors and capacitors

The linear models developed for operational amplifiers circuits are valid, in a
more general framework, if one replaces the resistors by impedances

These currents are

zero

Ideal Op-Amp
80

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Basic Inverting Amplifier

V1
I1 
Z1
I  0
V  0
V  0

Infinite gain  V  V Linear circuit equivalent

Infinite input impedance  I -  I   0

V1 VO
 0
Z1 Z 2
Z2
VO   V1
Z1
Z2
G 81
Z1

EXAMPLE 1 USING INVERTING AMPLIFIER

LOW PASS FILTER

82

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Basic Non-inverting amplifier

I1  0 V1

I  0
V1

V0  V1 V1

Z2 Z1
Z 2  Z1
V0  V1
Z1

Z2
G 1
Z1

83

EXAMPLE 2 USING NON INVERTING CONFIGURATION

84

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EXAMPLE 3 SECOND ORDER FILTER

V V V V V V
2
   IN
0 2 2 2 O

R 1/ C s R
1
R 1 2 3

V V
  2
0 O

R 1/ C s
2 2
V ( s)
2

85

DESIGN EXAMPLE 1 Using a low-pass filter to reduce 60Hz ripple

Using a capacitor to create a low-

pass filter
1
VOF  VTH 1
1  jRTH C C 
| VTH | RTH C
| VOF |
1  RTH C 2
Design criterion: place the corner frequency
at least a decade lower
| VOF | 0.1 | VTH |
1
500C   C  53.05  F
Thevenin equivalent for AC/DC 2  6
converter
86

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Filtered output

87

DESIGN EXAMPLE 2 Single stage tuned transistor amplifier

Select the capacitor for maximum
gain at 91.1MHz

Antenna Transistor Parallel resonant circuit

Voltage
V0
V0

4 
R || jL || 1  Magnitude Bode plot for
jC  VA
VA 1000 
4 1 j / C
 
 j C j  / C
1000 1 1
R j L
V0 4 j / C

VA 1000 ( j ) 2  j  1
RC LC
Band - pass with center frequency 1 / LC
 
2 91.1 10 6 
1
 C  3.05 pF
10 6 C
V0  1  4
   R  100 88
VA  LC  1000

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DESIGN EXAMPLE 3 Anti-aliasing filter

Nyquist Criterion
When digitizing an analog signal, such as music, any frequency components
greater than half the sampling rate will be distorted
In fact they may appear as spurious components. The phenomenon is known as
aliasing.
SOLUTION: Filter the signal before digitizing, and remove all components higher
than half the sampling rate. Such a filter is an anti-aliasing filter

For CD recording the industry standard is to sample at 44.1kHz.

An anti-aliasing filter will be a low-pass with cutoff frequency of 22.05kHz

Single-pole low-pass filter

Resulting magnitude Bode plot

V01 1

Vin 1  jRC
Attenuation
in audio range
1
C   2  22,050
RC
C  1nF  R  72.18k
89

Improved anti-aliasing filter Two-stage buffered filter

 n - stage
V0 n 1
v 01 
Vin 1  jRC n


V01 1 V02 1 Four-stage

 
Vin 1  jRC V01 1  jRC

Two-stage

One-stage

90

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DESIGN EXAMPLE 4 Notch filter to eliminate 60Hz hum

Notch filter characteristic

Magnitude Bode plot

Vamp Ramp

Vtape Ramp  Rtape   sL || 1 / sC  C  10  F
  L  0.704 mH
 
Vamp Ramp  s 2
LC  1 

Vtape Ramp  Rtape  2  L  
 s LC  s  
  R  R   1
 amp tape  
1 To design, pick one, e.g., C and determine the other 91
notch frequency 
LC

ANTI ALIASING FILTER FOR MIXED MODE CIRCUITS

DESIGN EXAMPLE 5

Signals of different
frequency and the same
samples

Visualization of aliasing
Ideally one wants to eliminate frequency components
higher than twice the sampling frequency and make
sure that all useful frequencies as properly sampled
Design specification

Simplifying assumption

Infinite input resistance (no load on RC circuit)

Design equation

 R  15.9k 
92

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DESIGN EXAMPLE 6
DESIRED BODE PLOT
“BASS-BOOST” AMPLIFIER
(non-inverting op-amp)
500
f 
P
2

OPEN SWITCH

(6dB)

Switch closed?? 93

DESIGN EXAMPLE 7 TREBLE BOOST

Original player response Desired boost

Design equations

Proposed boost circuit

Non-inverting amplifier Filters

94

47