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Physics: Imagine, invent and inspire G.U

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Physics: Imagine, invent and inspire G.U

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EXAMINATION FORMAT

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MECHANICS

DIMENSIONS
Fundamental quantities are those physical quantities which cannot be expressed in
terms of any other quantities using any mathematical equation e.g. mass (M), length (L)
and time (T).

Quantity S.I Unit Symbol of S.I Unit

Mass Kilograms Kg
Time seconds S
Length metres M
Temperature Kelvin K
Current Ampere A

Derived quantities
These are quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities e.g.

Area – (length) 2
Volume = (length) 3
mass
Density =
(length)3
length
Velocity = = ms −1
time
length
Acceleration =
(time) 2
Exercise 1:

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Express the following derived quantities in terms of the fundamental quantities;

(a) Force (b) Pressure (c) work (d) momentum

Dimensions of a physical quantity

Is the way the fundamental quantities of a derived quantity are related or are the
powers to which the fundamental quantities are raised in derived quantity.
Symbol of dimension [ ]
e.g. [Mass] -This means that the dimensions of mass.
[Mass]= M
[Time] = T
[Length] = L
[Area] = L2 -This means that the dimension of area is 2-in length.
[Volume] = L3 [Force] = MLT-2
[Density] = ML-3 [Pressure] = MT-2L-1
[Velocity] =LT-1 [Work] = ML2T-2
[Acceleration] =LT-2 [Power] = ML2T-3
Exercise 2:
Find the dimensions of the following derived quantities in terms of M, L, and T;
(a) Density (b) pressure (c) power (d) momentum

Quantities without units are called dimensionless quantities e.g.

(i) Relative density (iv) Mechanical advantage
(ii) Refractive index (v) Natural numbers
(iii) Geometrical ratios
Exercise 3:
Which of the following quantities are dimensionless quantities?
Weight, velocity ratio, logarithmic numbers, energy, efficiency, coefficient of friction,

Application of dimensions
(i) Checking for the correctness of the equation.

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An equation is correct when it is dimensionally consistent i.e. when dimension on the

left hand side (L.H.S) are equal to dimensions on the right hand side (R.H.S.)

Example:
Prove that the following equations are dimensionally consistent

mv 2
(i) F = Where F = force, m =mass, V = velocity, r = radius
r
[L.H.S] = [F] = MLT-2

[R.H.S] = =
(
[ M ].[V ] 2 M LT −1 )2

=
ML2T − 2
= MLT −2
[r ] L L
Since [L.H.S] = [R.H.S], then the equation is dimensionally consistent!

(ii) S=ut+½at 2
[L.H.S] = [S] = L
[R.H.S] = [ut+½at2] = [U] [t] +½ [a] [t2]
L L
xT + ½x 2 xT 2
T T
L L
+
1 2
=3 L
2
Since [L.H.S] = [R.H.S], then the equation is dimensionally consistent!
In the above example 3/2 is just a number so it is not a dimension. You have to consider
the power on L.
Note. All current equations are dimensionally consistent but not all dimensionally
consistent equations are correct.
e.g.
V=u+2at.
[v] =LT-1
L L
[U+2at] =  2. 2  T
T T

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L 2L
+
T T
= 3LT −1
Dimensionally consistent, but it is a wrong equation.

2. Derive the equation

Example 1: Given that the pressure exerted by the liquid in a container depends on:
(i) Depth (h) of the liquid
(ii) Density of the liquid (ρ)
(iii) Acceleration due to gravity(g).

Use the method of dimension to determine the expression fro pressure

Where K is a dimensionless constant.

p = kh x p y g z
[ p ] = [ h] x [ p ] y [ g ] z
ML−1T − 2 = LX .(ML−3 ) Y .( LT − 2 ) Z
ML−1T − 2 = LX −3Y + X .M Y .T − 2 Z
Comparing powers
For M:

M1 =M y

y =1
For T:

T −2 = T −2 Z
− 2 = −2Z
Z =1
For L:

L−1 = L X −3Y + Z
−1= x − 3 +1
x =1
Since x =1, y = 1, z = 1, then

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P= khpg

Example 2: Given the period of oscillation (Ψ) of a pendulum bob is according to the
equation
Ψ = kl x .g y .m z . Where l is the length of a pendulum, m is the mass of bob and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Find the values of x, y and z

Ψ = klx.gy.mz
[Ψ] = k [L]x [g]y [m]z
T = k Lx (LT – 2)y Mz.
T = k Lx+y T –2y Mz
Comparing powers
For T:
T = T–2y , y= –½
For M:
M0 = Mz , Z = 0
For M:
L0 = Lx+y , x + y = 0
But y= –½
Hence x = ½

Ψ = K L½g –½M0
Note: The method of dimensions does not provide the method for finding the constant
k in the above two examples!

Exercise 4:
1. Find the values of x, y and z in the equation below:
F = ρxVyaz. Where F is the force, ρ is density, V is Volume and a is acceleration due to
gravity.

2. Find the values of x, y and z in the equation below:

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F = kηxνyaz. Where F is the force, η is coefficient of viscosity, ν is velocity and a is radius.

[η] = ML-1T-1

3. Assuming the frequency (F) of a uniform stretched wire depends only on the mass per
unit length (µ), the length of wire vibrating (L), the tension (T) of the stretching wire,
Find the relationship between these quantities.

VECTOR & SCALAR QUANTITIES

Vector quantities are those with both magnitude and direction, e.g. acceleration,
velocity, displacement, pressure, weight.
Scalar quantities are physical quantities with only magnitude, e.g. speed, distance, time,
mass.
Example
1. Find the resultant force

1N
2N

300
400

3N
4N R
Fr
Fx = 2cos300 + 3cos400 - 4cos600.

3 1
2 + 3 cos 40 − 4 x
Fx = 2 2 = 2.03N

Fy = 2sin300 – 3sin400 – 4sin600 +1

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1 13
2. − 3 sin 40 − 4. + 1
Fy = 2 2 = - 3.39N

Resultant = Fx + Fy
2 2
= 2.03 2 + 3.39 2
= 3.95 N

2. 2.83N

450

600 300

6N
4N

Forces of 2.83N, 4N and 6N act on a particle at Q as shown above. Find the resultant
force on the particle

 x   2.38 cos 45   6 cos 30   − 4 cos 60 

0 0
  =   +    
 − 6 sin 30 0  +  − 4 sin 60 0 
  
y 2.83 sin 45     

 2 + 5.2 − 2   5.2 
=   =  
 2 − 3 − 3.46   − 4.46 
resul tan t = (5.2) 2 + (4.46) 2
= 6.85 N

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Exercise 5
8N
1.

10N 450
300

12N

Find magnitude and direction of the resultant.

2) Three forces as shown below act on a body of man 5.0kg.

find the acceleration of the body
60N

50N 600
300

100N

Uniform motion in a straight line / kinematics

Displacement – distance covered in a specified direction
Speed – the rate of change of distance
Velocity – the rate of change of displacement
Acceleration – the acceleration of a moving object at an instant is the rate of change of
velocity at that instant.

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Velocity and acceleration are vector quantities where as speed and distance are scalar
quantities

Uniform velocity motion

Consider a body moving in a straight line with uniform speed.
During this motion, the body undergoes equal displacement in equal successive time
intervals.
The graph of speed against time has the form;

Speed

Time

The corresponding graph of distance against time is:

Distance

Time
In drawing the graph, it is assumed that the body was at the origin at time t=0,

Uniformly accelerated motion

If the velocity changes by equal amounts in equal times, no matter how small the time
intervals may be, the acceleration is said to be uniform.

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(i) Speed time graph (ii) Distance time graph.

(ms −1 ) Dis tan ce / m

Time/ s Time/ s

Suppose a body’s speed varies with time. the speed Vs time are might have the form:-
Speed

v+Dv

v
t ttDt Time

v
The ratio is the average acceleration during the time interval
t
t it is equal to the slope chord PQ
The instantaneous acceleration at time t is

dv v
a= = lin = t → 0
at t
Slope of the tangent at the speed-time curve at point P.
The motion of the body is said to be uniformly acceleration if a is constant.
Thus the speed against time graph for uniformly accelerated motion has the form
shown

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Thus, the speed against time graph for uniformly accelerated motion has the form
shown below

Speed u is the speed of the body at time t=0

V

0 t time

v−u
The average acceleration, a = . In this case, the average acceleration is also the
t
instantaneous acceleration.
v−u
=a
t
v = u + at

Equations of uniformly accelerated motion

The graph of speed against time for uniformly accelerated motion has the form shown:-
speed
v −u
v slope of graph, a =
t
u
0

time

Thus v=u +at…………………(i)

The distance travelled, S, in time t is got by finding the area under the speed against
time graph.

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S = area of the trapezium

v+u
 t................(A)
 2 
Replacing v by equation (i) we get

 u + at + u 
S =  2 t
 
 S = ut + 1 at 2 .....................(2)
2

Note that this result can be got easily from the relation distance travelled
= average speed x time

v+u
= t
 2 
v −u
Suppose we put t= in equation (A)
a
 v + u  v − u  v − u
2 2
  =
 2  a  2a
S = v − u = 2as
2 2

V 2 = u 2 + 2as............................(3)
Note that this result can be got easily from the relation distance travelled,
S = average speed x time

v+u
S=  t
 2 
v −u
Suppose we put t = in equation (A)
a
 v + u  v − u  v − u
2 2
S=   =
 2  a  2a

v 2 − u 2 = 2as
 v 2 = u 2 + 2as...............................(3)

Equations 1, 2, & 3 are the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.

Vertical motion under gravity: Free fall

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Consider a body falling in a vacuum. Such a body is acted on by the gravitational force
alone. The fall is referred to as free fall. In practice, when bodies fall in air, they are
acted on by air resistance which will have significant effects on the body’s motion if the
body’s mass is small while the surface area is large, as is the case when a piece of paper
is allowed to fall in air.

The acceleration of a freely falling body is constant, and is called the acceleration due to
gravity, and is denoted by g. It has a value of 9.81ms −2 near the poles 9.78ms −2 at the
equator.
Exercise 6
1. Write down the equations of motion for a freely falling body.
2. Suppose a body is projected upwards with initial velocity u. Find the expressions for
the time taken to reach the maximum height and also the maximum height attained.

Example:-
1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with initial speed 20ms-1. After reaching the
maximum height and on the way down it strikes a bird 10m above the ground.
a) How high does the ball rise:-

V 2 = U 2 + 2as. U = 20ms -1 a = -9.8ms -2 V = 0

0 = (20) 2 + 2(−9.8) s
400
s= = 20.4m
19.6
b) How fast is the ball moving when it strikes the bird
S = (20.4 − 10) = 10.4m
V 2 = U 2 + 2as
V 2 = (0) 2 + 2(−9.8)(−10.4)
V = + 14.28ms -1

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2. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 10ms-1 from a building. If it

takes 2.5 seconds to reach the ground, find the height of the building.

B
Between AB, u = 10ms-1, a = -9.81ms-2 v = 0
H

v = u + at
v = 10 − 9.81t
A 0 = 10 − 9.81t
t = 10
9.81
= 1.02 s

Distance AB, H = ut + ½at2

= 10x1.02 - ½x9.81x (1.02)2 = 5.1m

Time taken to travel distance BC = 2.5 – 1.03 = 1.48s

Distance BC = ubxt + ½at2
But ub = 0, a = 9.81, t = 1.48s
BC = 0x1.48 + ½x9.81x (1.48)2 = 10.7m
There the height of the building is 10.7 – 5.1 = 5.6m

Exercise 7
1. A ball is thrown straight upwards with a speed ams-1 from a point hm above the
ground. Show that time taken to reach the ground is

u   2 gh  
1
2
t = 1 + 1 + 2  
9  u  


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2. A motorist travelling at a constant speed of 50 kmh1 passes a motorcyclist just

starting off in the same direction. If the motorcyclists maintains a constant acceleration
of 2.8ms-2 calculate; (i) Time taken by motorcyclist to catch up with the motorist. (9.9s)
(ii) The speed at which the motorcyclist overtakes the motorist. (27.72ms-1)
(iii) The distance travelled by the motorcyclists before overtaking. (137.2m)

PROJECTILE

Consider the motion of an object which is projected with a velocity u at an angle Q to

the horizontal
u

Ө
A B

Ө - angle of projection.
ACB followed by the object is called its trajectory.

Horizontal motion
Horizontal component of velocity is got by
Vx = Ux + axt . Where Vx, Ux and ax are the velocity of a body at any time t, initial
component of velocity and horizontal acceleration respectively.
But Ux = UcosӨ, ax =0
Hence Vx = UcosӨ -------------(1)
From the above equation the horizontal velocity is constant throughout motion.
The horizontal distance travelled after time t is

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X = u x t + 1 ax t 2
2
Where X is the horizontal distance covered by the object
But ax =0
 x = Ut cos ..............(2)

Vertical motion

V y = U y + a y t where Vy, U y and a y are the vertical velocity of a body at any time, t,

initial velocity component of velocity and vertical acceleration respectively.

U y = U sin  , a y = − g
V y = U sin  − gt..................(3)

The vertical displacement, y, is obtained below

y= Uyt + ½ayt2
But Uy = UsinӨ, ay = -g
Hence
y = (UsinӨ) xt - ½gt2………………………………………(4)

Speed, V, at any time t is given by

(Vx + V y2 ) ……………………………………….(5)
2
V=

The angle, α, the body makes with the horizontal after t is given by
Vy U sin  − gt
Tan α= = ……………………………………….(6)
Vx U cos

Maximum height, H
At maximum height, Vy =0

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Vy 2 = U y2 + 2aH
0 = (U sin  ) 2 − 2 ghH
U 2 sin 2 
H= ................................................(7)
2g

Time to reach the maximum heights

Using V = u + at
0 = Uy + a y t
0 = U sin  − gt
sin 
t =U .............................................(8)
g
Time of flight, T
The time taken by the projectile to move from the point of projection to a point on the
plane through the point of projection where the projection lies i.e. time taken to move
from A to B.

atB, y = 0
gt 2
y = utsin  -
2
0 = 2at sin  − gt 2
0 = t (2u sin  − gt)
2u sin
either t = 0 or t=
g
2u sin
Hence T = ………………………………………(9)
g
Note: Time of flight is twice the time taken to reach height.
Ranges, R:

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It is the distance between the point of projection and a point on the plane through the
point of projection where the projectile lands i.e. horizontal distance AB.
X= Ut cosӨ
When X=R, t = T= 2usin 
g
2usin 
 R = u. . cos
g
2u 2 sin  cos
R=
g ………… (10)
u 2 sin 2
R=
g

Equation of trajectory

x
t= ......................(1)
u cos
gt 2
y = ut sin  − ..................(2)
2
Substitute equation (1) into equation 2.

x g x2
y = U. . sin  −
U cos 2 U 2 cos2 
sin x gx 2
y= −
cos 2U 2 cos2 
 g  2
y = (tan  ) x −  2 2 
x
 2u Cos  
sec 2 
y = xtan  - 1 gx 2
2 u2

The above equation is in the form y= Ax – Bx2, where A and B are constants which is an
equation of a parabola. Therefore, the trajectory is a parabola.

Note: For any given initial speed, the range is maximum when sinӨ =1 or Ө = 450

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U2
Rmax = (Prove it !!!!)
g

Example
1. Prove that the time of flight T and the horizontal range R, of a projectile are
connected by the equation. gT 2 = 2 R tan 
Where  is the angle of projection
From equations (9) and (10)
T g = 2Usin  ….(a) ,
R g = 2 U2 sin  cos  …….(b)
Eqn (a)2 ٪ eqn (b)
(Tg)2 = 4U2sin2 
Rg 2U2sin  cos 

T2 g = 2sin 
R cos 
Hence T2 g = 2Rtan 

2. Two footballers, 120m apart, stand facing each other. One of them kicks a ball from
the ground such that the ball takes off at a velocity of 30ms-1 at 380 to the horizontal.
Find the speed at which the second footballer must run towards the first footballer in
order to trap the ball as it touches the ground, if he starts running at the instant the ball
is kicked.

For the first footballer, the time the ball takes to touch the ground is
c) T= 2u sin 
g
2 x30  sin 38
=
9.8
= 3.78 s

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u 2 sin 2
R=
g
30 2  sin 76
R=
9.8
R = 89.1
The time taken by the second footballer to reach the ball is 3.78s.
The distance travelled by the second footballer is s = 120 – 89.1 = 30.9m
Therefore, the speed of the second footballer distance / time = 30.9/3.78 = 8.2ms -1
3. A projectile is fired from ground level with a velocity of 500ms-1, 300 to the
horizontal. Find the horizontal range, the greatest height to which it rises and time
taken to reach the greatest height. What is the least speed with which it could be
projected in order to achieve the same horizontal range?
u = 500 ms −1  = 30 0
u 2 sin 2
(i) Range =
g

500 5
= sin (2 x30 )
9.81
= 22069 .96m

u 2 sin 2 
(ii) H =
2g

500 2 (sin 30 )
2
=
2  9.81
= 3185.5m

(iii) Time taken to reach the greatest height.

u sin 
T=
g

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T = (500sin30)/9.81 = 25.5s

U min = (Rg )
1
(b) 2

1
(22069 .96  9.81) 2

465 .3ms −1

Exercise 8:
(1) A body is thrown from the top of a tower 30.4m high with a velocity of 24ms -1 at
an elevation of 3 00 above the horizontal. Find the horizontal distance from the roof of
the tower of the point where it hits the ground.

(2) A body is projected at such an angle that the horizontal range is three times the
greatest height. Given that the range of projection is 400m, find the necessary velocity
of projection and angle of projection.

(3) A projectile fired at an angle of 600 above the horizontal strikes a building 30m
away at a point 15m above the point of projection. (i) Find the speed of projection.
(ii) Find the velocity of the projectile when it strikes the building.

4. An object P is projected upwards from a height of 60m above the ground with a
velocity of 20ms −1 at 30 0 to the horizontal. At the same time, an object Q is projected
from the ground upwards towards P at 300 to the horizontal. P and Q collide at a height
60m above the ground while they are both moving downwards. Find,
(i) The speed of projection of Q.
(ii) The horizontal distance between the points of projection.
(iii) The kinetic energy of P just before the collision with Q if the as of P is 0.5 kg.

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NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Law 1. A body stays at rest or if moving, it continues to move with a uniform velocity
unless it is acted on by an external force.
The 1st law is sometimes called the law of inertia
Inertia is the reluctance of a body to start moving if it is at rest, or to stop if it is already
moving.
Inertia of the body increaser with mass. The effect of inertia can be observed by
passengers in a bus. There is a forward jerk when the vehicle stops and a backward jerk
when the car starts.

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Linear momentum of the body is the product of its mass and its velocity

 P = mv units of P = kgms -1
[ p] = [m].[v]
= MLT −1

Law 2: The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force
and it is in the direction of the force
dp
 F.
dt
F= dp
k , where K is a constant. But P = mv
dt
kd
F = (mv)
dt
If m is constant : -
dv
F = km
dt
dv
But =a
dt
 F = kma

A force of 1N acting as a mass of 1kg gives the mass an acceleration of 1ms-2

If F= IN, m= 1kg, a=1ms-2
1 = k  1  1
butk = 1
dv
 F = ma = m
dt

Law 3
Action and reaction are equal and opposite e.g. when two objects interact with each
other the force exerted by the 1st body on the second body is equal and opposite to the
force exerted by the 2nnd body on the 1t body.
Example

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1. A block of mass 2kg is pushed along a table with constant velocity by force of 5N.
when the push is increased to 9N, what is the resultant force and acceleration?
Resultant force F = 9 - 5 = 4N
But F = ma
4 = 2a
a = 2ms -2

2. A body of 3kg slides down a plane which is inclined at 30 0 to the horizontal. Find the
acceleration of the body if
(a) The plane is smooth
(b) There is a frictional resistance of 9N.

3gsin30° 3gcos30°

30° 3g

R is the normal reaction

a)
F = ma
3 g sin 30 0 = 3a.
a = 4.9 sm −1

b)

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F = ma
F = 3g sin 30 0 − 9 = 3a
a = 1.9ms −1
Note friction force acts in the opposite direction of motion.

3. Two blocks, A of mass 1kg and B of mass 3kg, are side by side and with contact with
each other. They are pushed along the smooth flow under the action of a constant force
50N applied to A. Find
i) The acceleration of the blocks
ii) The force exerted on B by A.

R2

50N
R1

B
50N A
P P

g
3g
F = ma
50 = (1 + 3)a
a = 12.5ms −1

Using A
50 − p = (1  12.5)
p = 50 − 12.5
p = 37.5 N

4. A light cord connects 2 objects of masses 10kg and 6kg respectively over a light
frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration and tension in the cord

T T

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A
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B
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ams-2 ams-2

10g 6g
Body A Body B
10g- T = 10a ………… (i) T - 6g = 6a………….(ii)
Eqn(i) – eqn (ii)
4g = 16a
a = (1/4)g = 2.45ms-2
Acceleration, a = 2.45ms-2
From eqn (ii) T=6x2.45 +6x9.81 = 73.6N

Exercise 8
1. The car of mass 1000kg tows a caravan of mass 600kg up a road which uses
1 metre vertically for every 20 metres of its length. There constant frictional resistance
of 200N and 100N to the motion of the car and caravan respectively. The combination
has an acceleration of 1.2ms-2 with the engine on constant driving force.
Find
(i) The driving force.
(b) The tension in the tow bar.

2. A rectangular block of mass 10 kg is pulled from rest along a smooth inclined

plane by a light inelastic string which passes over a light frictionless pulley and carries a
mass of 20kg. The inclined plane makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal.

Determine
(i) The acceleration of the block
(ii) The tension in the string

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 28

(iii) The K.E of the block when it has moved 2m along the inclined plane.

Impulse
The product of the net force and the time interval during which the force acts is called
the impulse
If a steady force F acting on a body of mass in increases the velocity of the body from u
to v in the time t , the average acceleration
→ →
→ v− u
a=
t
From Newton’s second law:
→ →
F = ma
 → →

→ 
F = m  −u 

 t 
 

→ → →
F t =→→= m( v − u )
t2
In general, impulse =  F dt
t1

→ →
Where v 1 and v 2 the velocities at are times t1 and t2
Impulse is the area under the force time curve.

t2
Impulse =  F dt
t1

Force

t1 t2 Time

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 29

Impulse is a vector quantity.

Units of impulse: NS
[Impulse] = MLT-2xT
= MLT-1
Example:
A tennis ball has a mass of 0.07kg. It approaches a racket with a speed of 5ms-1 and
bounces off and returns the way it came from with a speed of 4ms-1. The ball is in
contact with the racket for 0.2 seconds. Calculate:
i) The impulse given to the ball.
ii) The average force exerted on the ball by the racket

i) Impulse = Ft
Ft = m(v − u )
= 0.07 (−4 − 5)
= 0.07 x − 9
= −0.63 Nm
v −u
F = m 
 t 
0.63
=
0 .2
= 3.15 N

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 30

COLLISIONS
Principle of conservation of linear momentum.
When two or more bodies collide, the total momentum of the system is conserved
provided there is no external force acting on the system.
Proof
Consider a body of mass m1 moving with a velocity u1 to the right. Suppose the body
makes a head on collision with another body of mass m2 moving with velocity u2 in the
same direction.
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the 2 bodies respectively after collision

Before collision After collision

m1 m2 m1 v1 m1 v2
u1 u2

Let F1 be the force exerted on m2 by m1 and F2 the force exerted on m1 by m2. using
Newton’s 2nd law.

 v − u1  v u 
F1 = M 1  1 , F2 = m 2  2 2  t is the time of collision
 t   t 

Using Newton’s third law

F1 = − F2
 v − u1   v − u2 
m1  1  = −m2  2 
 t   t 
m1v1 − m1u1 = −m2 v2 + m2u 2
m1v1 + m2 v2 = m1u1 + m2u2

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 31

Hence: total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision.

Types of collision
There are three types of collision
- Elastic collision
- Inelastic collision
- Perfectly inelastic collision
Elastic Inelastic Perfectly inelastic
Momentum conserved Momentum conserved Momentum conserved
Kinetic energy is conserved Kinetic energy not Kinetic energy not
conserved conserved
After collision the particles
move together

Elastic collision
Momentum is conserved
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2
m1 (u1-v1) = m2 (v2-u2)…………………(i)

Kinetic energy is conserved

1 1 1 1
m1u12 + m 2 u 22 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 22
2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
m1 u12 − v12 = m 2 v 22 − u 22 ......................(ii )

Equation (i) :- (ii)

m1 (u1 − v1 ) m2 (v 2 − u 2 )
=
(
m1 u12 − v12 )
m2 v 22 − u 22 ( )

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 32

u1 − v1 v2 − u 2
=
(u1 + v1 )(u1 − v1 ) (v 2 + u 2 )(v 2 − u 2 )
1 1
=
u1 + v1 v2 + u 2
u1 + v1 = v 2 + u 2
(u1 − u 2 ) = (v 2 − v 2 )
OR (u 2 − u1 ) = (v 2 − v1 )

Example
1. A 200g block moves to the right at a speed of 100cms-1 and meets a 400g block
moving to the left with a speed of 80cms-1. Find the final velocity of each block if the
collision is elastic.

0.2kg 1ms-1 o.4kg

0.8ms-1 0.2kg v1 o.4kg
v2

(v2 − v1 ) = −(− 0.8 − 1)

v 2 − v1 = 1.8...............(i )

using conservation of momentum.

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 33

v 2 − 1.8 + v1
- 0.6 = v1 + 1.8 + v1
v1 = −1.2ms −1
v2 = 0.6ms −1

2. A neutron of mass m makes a head on elastic collision with a stationary atomic

nucleus of mass 12m with a velocity u.
Calculate:
i. the fractional decrease in the kinetic energy of the neutron
ii. The velocity of the nucleus after the collision
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2
u2 = 0
m1u1 = m1v1+12m2v2
m1 = m, m2 = 12m
u1 = v1+12v2…………….(i)
From conservation of kinetic energy
v2-v1 = u1-u2
v2 –v1 = u1…………………(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
v2-v1 = v1+12v2
v2-12v2 = v1+v1
-11v2 = 2 v1
2
v2 = v1 ..................(iii )
− 11

put (iii) in (ii)

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 34

− 2 v1
v1 = u1
11 1
− 2v1 − 11v1
= u1
11
− 13v1
= u1
11
− 13v1 = 11u.
11u
v1 =
− 13
v1 = −0.85u.

fractional decrease =

Kinetic energy after collision

1 2
= mv
2
2
1  11v 
= .m. 
2  13 
m 121v 2
= .
2 169
mv 2 121
338

mu 2 mv 2 121
−
 2 2
338
mu
2
169 − 121
=
169
= 0.28
=7
25
3. A bullet of mass 300g travelling horizontally at a speed of 8ms-1 hits a body of
mass 450g moving in the same direction as the bullet at 1.5ms-1. The bullet and the body
move together after collision. Find the loss in kinetic energy.

8ms-1
0.3kg 0.45kg 1.5ms-1
0.3kg 0.45k
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 35

1 1  1
 m1 u 12 + m 2 u 22  − (m1 + m 2 )v 2
loss in kinetic energy :  2 2  2

1  1
  0.3  64 +  0.45  2.25  − (0.75)16.81
1
2 2  2
10.12 − 6.30
3.82 joules
Exercise
1. An object A of mass m moving with a velocity of 10ms-1 collides with a stationery
object B at equal mass m. After collision A moves with a velocity U at an angle of 30 0 to
its initial direction and B moves with a velocity V at an angle of 90 0 to the direction U.
i) Calculate the velocities U and V (U = 5 3 ms-1, V = 5ms-1)
ii) Determine whether the collision was elastic or not. (Kinetic energy before
collision = kinetic energy after collision = 50m, hence collision is elastic)
2. A body of mass 5.0kg is moving with a velocity 2.0ms-1 to the right. It collides
with a body of mass 3.0 kg moving with a velocity of 2.0ms-1 to the left. If the collision is
head-on and elastic, determine the velocities of the two bodies after collision. (-1.0 ms-1,
3.0ms-1)
3. A car of mass 1000kg travelling at uniform velocity of 20ms-1, collides perfectly
inelastically with a stationary car mass 1500kg. Calculate the loss in kinetic energy of the
cars as a result of the collision. (1.2x105J)

SOLID FRICTION
There are 2 types of friction i.e.

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 36

(i) Static friction

(ii) Kinetic friction / sliding friction
Static friction opposes the tendency of one body sliding over the other.
Kinetic friction opposes the sliding of one body over the other.
Limiting friction is the maximum friction between on two surfaces.

Laws of solid friction

(i) Frictional force between 2 surfaces always oppose their relative motion or
attempted motion.
(ii) For given pair of surfaces in contact, the limiting frictional force is
proportional to the normal reaction.
(iii) For two surfaces in contact, the sliding frictional force is proportional to the
normal reaction and independent of the relative velocity of these surfaces.
(iv) The frictional force is independent of the area of contact of the given surface
provided the normal reaction is constant.

Molecular Theory and the laws of solid friction.

On a microscopic level, even a highly polished surface has bumps and hollow. It follows
that when 2 surfaces are put together, the actual area of contact is less than the
apparent area of contact

T
ac b c

At points of contact like a, b, c, small cold-welded joints are formed by the strong
adhesive forces between the molecules in the two surfaces.
These joints have to be broken before one surface can move over the other.
This accounts for law 1.
The actual area of contact is proportional with the normal force (reaction). The frictional
force which is determined by the actual area of contact at the joints is expected to be
proportional to the normal force.

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 37

This accounts for law 1 and 3

If the apparent area of contact of the body is decreased by turning the body so that it
rests on one of the smaller side, the number of contact points is reduced. Since the
weight of the body has not altered, there is increased pressure at the contact points and
this flattens the bumps so that total contact area and the pressure return to their
original values.
Therefore, although the apparent area of contact has been changed, the actual area of
contact has not.
This accounts for law 4

Coefficient of static friction

Consider a block resting on a horizontal surface
R

W
The block is in equilibrium under the action of its weight W and normal reaction R.
Suppose a string is fixed to the block and the tension (T) in the string increased
gradually, the static frictional force Fs; which oposses the tendency of the block to move
over the surface comes in play. In equilibrium Fs=T.
R

Fs
w
The value Fl of Fs at which the block starts moving is called the limiting frictional force
(0<Fs  Fl)
The ration of the limiting frictional force to the normal reaction is called the co-efficient
of static friction µs

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 38

Fl
s =
R
Fs  Fl =  s R
Fs   s R
0  s  1

Measurement of coefficient of static friction, µs

Method 1: Using a tilting plane.
A block is placed on a plane and the plane is tilted until when the block begins to slide.
The angle of θ of inclination of the plane surface to the horizontal is measured.
The co-efficient of friction is given by µs = tan θ
proof

R Fs

Wsinθ Wcosθ
W
θ

When the block is at the point of sliding

Fs = Wsinθ ………….(i)
R = Wcosθ…………..(ii)
(i)  (ii)

Fr W sin 
=
R W cos
Fr
but = s
R
s = tan 

Method 2: To determine the co-effienct of static friction.

R

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 39

T
Fs

Mg

Masses are added to the scale pan until the block just slides. The total mass m of the
scale pan and masses added is noted. The prodecures is repeated for different values of
R obtained by adding known weights to the block.
A graph of mg against R(Mg) is plotted.

Fl = mg

slope

Mg (R)
The slope of the graph is µs

Co-efficient of kinetic (dynamic friction)

R

T
F

Mg
S

Weights are added to a scale pan S and each time, the body is given a slight push.
At one stage, body continues to move with a constant velocity and kinetic frictional
force F is then equal to the weight of the scale pam together with the pan’s weight.

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 40

On dividing F by the weight of body, the co-efficient of dynamic friction can be

calculated.
Example 1
A car of mass 200kg moving along a straight road at a speed of 96kmh-1 is brough to rest
by steady application of the brakes in a distance of 80m. find the co-efiecient of kinetic
friction between the tires and the road.
a
R
µR

Mg

ma = − R
ma = − mg
a = − g
−a
=
g

5
u = 96 kmh −1 → 96  ms −1 = 26.7 ms −1
18
v=0
s = 80 m
a=?

v 2 = u 2 + 2as
0 = (26.7 ) + (2  a  80 )
2

26.7 2
a=−
160
a = −4.5ms − 2
4.45
 =
9.8
= 0.45

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 41

2). A car of mass 1.5 x 103kg and tractive pull 3.5x103N climbs a truck which is inclined
at an angle of 300 to the horizontaa. The speed of the car at the bottom of the incline is
20ms-1 and the coffient of sliding friction is 0.25, calculate
(i) The distance travelled along the incline before the car comes to a halt.
(ii) The time taken ttravelling along the incline before the car comes to a halt.

R
FD= 3.5x103

1.5x103gsin30 1.5x103gcos300
cos300
µR
1.5x103g

F = ma
(3.5  10 ) − (1.5  10 g sin 30 + 0.25  1.5  10
3 3 3
)
g cos30 0 = 1.5  10 3 a
(3.5  10 ) − (750 + 324.8) = 1.5  10 a
3 3

a = −4.69ms −2
u = 20ms −1 V 2 = u 2 + 2as
a = −4.69ms − 2 ( )
0 = 20 2 + (2  −4.69  s ).
v=0 400 = 9.38 s.
s=? s = 42.6m

S = 42.6
v = u + at
a = −4.96
0 = 20 − 4.96t
ii) u = 20
20 = 4.96t.
v=0
t = 4s
t =?

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 42

3). An old car of mass 1500kg and tractive pull 4000N climbs a tract which is incllined at
an angle of 300 to the horizontal. The velocity of the car at the bottom of the incline is
108kmh-1 and the co-efiecient of sliding friction is 0.35.
(i) Calculate the distance travelled along the incline before the car comes to a
halt.(86.53m)
(ii) The time taken to travel along the incline before the car comes to a
halt.(5.77s)

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

work done by a constant force
Work is defined as the product of the distance moved by the point of aplication of the
force and the component of the force in the direction of motion.
Consider a body by mass in resting on a smooth surface.

x
If a force F moves the object through a distance X, then work done w = F.  x If the force
puls the block at angle Ө to the horizontal through a horizontal distance x
F

x

Work done, w = (FcosӨ) x

Work is a scalar quantity.
S.I unit J.
Work done by a variable force
Consider a force F = f(x) which varies in magnitude

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 43

A graph of F Vs x
F

x1 x2 x

If it is required to find the work done by the force when its point of application moves
from x = x1 and x = x2 then the interval x1 x2 is subdivided into small displacements,
x1, x 2 ...........xn

The work done by the force during the displacement

x1isF1x2 (since x1 is too small, the F1 can be considered constant)
For another short interval
x2 work done = F2 x2 . therefore, work done during the displacement

n
F1xi
x 1 → x2 W = F1x1 + F2 x2 + F3 x3 + ..................Fn xn = i =1

For n → 

n
lim
WR = 
xi → 0 i →1
Fixi

x2

=  F .dx
x1
= area under the force -distance grgaph

in vector form, work done by a variable force is given by

r2
→ →
w= 
r1
f . dr

where r is the displacement.

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 44

Work – energy theorem

Variable force
Consider an external force F= F(x) which acts as a mass m giving it an acceleration a, by

Newton’s second law F = ma = mdv . The work , x ,done in displacing mass m,

at
throguh a small distance x , under action of a force F.

w = Fx
x2

total work done =

 Fdx.
x1

x2
dv
 m dt dx
x1

dx
but =v
dt
v2

w =  mv dv
v1

where v1 and v2 are the velocities of the body when at dispacement x1 and x2
respectively.
v2
 mv 2 
W = 
 2  v1
1 2 1
= mv2 −
2 2mv12

The above is the expression for the work –energy theorem

It states that, the work done by the resultant external force is equal to the change in the
kinetic energy of the body.

Constant force
Consider a mass in initially moving of a speed u which is subjected to a constant
retarding force F. suppose the speed is reduced to v in a distance S

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 45

v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Using v2 − u2
as =
2
Work done by the retarding force
= -FS
= -mas

v2 − u 2
but as =
2
 v − v2
2

W = −m 
 2 
mu 2 mv 2
W= −
2 2
Again, work done = change in kinetic energy.

Gravitational potential energy

Suppose a body of mass m is raised from a height y1 to a height y2 above the surface of
the earth, the work done by the gravitational force when the body is raised through a
small height y; w = Fy
Where F= gravitational force = -mg
w = −mgy
Work done to raise the body from height y1 to height y2 is
y2

 − mg
y1
dy

y2

= − mg  dy
y1

= mg y y12
y

W = −(mgy2 − mgy1 ).
from work -energy theorem

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 46

1 2 1 2
mv2 − mv1
2 2
1 1
w = mv22 − mv12 = −mgy2 + mgy1
2 2
1 2 1
mv2 + mgy2 = mgy1 + mv12
2 2
The term mgy = gravitational potential energy.
1 2
mv + mgy = cons tan t.........
2
Hence, Potentialenergy + Kineticenergy = mechanical energy
Equation  implies that merchanica l energy is conserved.

Principal of conservation of mechanical energy

In a given system where the only force acting are conservative forces, the sum of Kinetic
energy and Potential energy is constant.
Question
Show that the following obey the law of mechanical energy.
(i) A swinging pendulum
(ii) A falling stone.

Conservative forces.
B

(1)

(2)

A
W (1)
AB =W ( 2)
AB , then the force being used is a conservative force.
For a conservative force, the work done is independent on the path taken.
(1)
Work done when a body moves round a closed path is zero i.e. W AB + W AB
( 2)
=0

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 47

(1) ( 2)
Let W AB be the work done to move the mass from A to B via path 1 and W AB be the
work done to move the mass from A to B via path (2).
(1)
If W AB = W AB
( 2)
then the work done is independent of the path taken in the field of force.
Examples of conservative forces;
❖ Gravitational force,
❖ Elastic force,
❖ Electrostatic force.
For a conservation force, the work done in moving the body round a close path in the
field of force is zero.
In a conservative force field, mechanical energy is conserved
Non- conservative forces: In a conservative force, the work done by a non conservative
force round a closed path is not zero and is dependent on the path taken.
Example of non- conservative forces:
❖ Friction,
❖ Air resistance,
❖ Viscosity drag.
Elastic potential energy
Consider a mass m resting on a smooth horizontal surface and attached to a spring
whose other end is fixed.

Felastic
Fext
m

Suppose an external force Fext is applied to the mass, so that the spring becomes
stretched by a distance x. An equal and opposite force, Felastic i.e elastic force appears in
the spring.
Felastic = kx (Hooke’s law)

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 48

Force is directly proportional to extension provide the elastic limit is not exceeded.
k= force constant, F ext = kx
When a spring is stretched from x = x1 to x = x2,
x2

W =  Felastic . dx
x1
x2

−  kx dx
x1

 kx 22 kx12 
w = − − 
 2 2 

from work – energy theorem

1 2 1 2  kx 2 kx 2 
mv2 − mv1 = − 2 − 1 
2 2  2 2 
1 2 kx 22 1 2 kx12
mv2 + = mv1 +
2 2 2 2
1 2
The term V(x) = kx is the elastic potential energy.
2
Examples

1). A 3.0kg block is held in contact with a compressed spring of a force constant
120Nm-1. The block rests on the smooth portion of a horizontal surface which is partly
smooth and partly rough as shown.

Smooth Rough

120Nm

3kg

When the block is released, it slides without friction until it leaves the spring and then
continues to move along the rough portion for 8.0m before it comes to rest. The
coefficient of sliding friction between the block and the rough surface is 0.20. Calculate
the: (i) maximum kinetic energy the block.
(iii) Compression of the spring before the block was released.
Solution

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 49

Kinetic energy = work done against frictional force

1 2
mv = mg  distance
2
1 2
v = g  8
2
v 2 = (2  0.20  9.8  8)
v = 5.6ms −1
Kinetic energy = ½mv2 = ½x3x (5.6)2 = 47.04J
(ii) elastic energy = ½kx2
But Kinetic energy = elastic energy
1
47.07 =  120  x 2
2
47.07  2
x2 =
120
x = 0.89m
2. A bullet of mass 10g is fired at short range into a block of wood of mass 990g resting
on a smooth horizontal surface and attached to a spring of force constant 100Nm-1. The
bullet remains embedded in the block while the spring is compressed by a distance of
5.0cm. Find the elastic energy of the compressed spring, and the speed of the bullet just
before collision with the block.
Elastic energy = ½kx2 = ½ x 100 x (0.05)2 = 0.125J

Kinetic energy = elastic energy

1 2
mv = 0.125
2
(0.01 + 0.99 )v 2 = 0.25
v = 0.5ms −1
Using conservation of momentum
m1u1 + m2 u 2 = m1v1 + m2 v 2
(0.01  u ) + (0.99  0) = 0.5(0.01 + 0.99 )
u = 50 ms −1
Exercise

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 50

1. A mass of 500g is released from rest so that if falls vertically through a

distance of 20cm onto a scale pan, of negligible mass, hung from a spring of
force constant 100Nm-1. Find the position of the scale pan when it first
comes to rest. (0.14m)

POWER
It is the rate of doing work.
dw d
power = = ( F .S ) where w is work done, F is force, S is distance travelled.
dt dt
For constant force

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 51

ds ds
p = F. But =v
dt dt
 p = FV

Unit of power is watts

A watt is the

Example
1. A particle of mass 1000kg moves with uniform velocity of 10ms-1 up a straight
truck inclined at an angle of 20° to the horizontal. The total frictional resistance to
motion of the car is 248N. Calculate the power developed in the engine.

R
F

1000gsin20 1000gcos200
cos300
248
20° 1000g

F = 1000 g sin 20 + 248

3599 .8 N
P = Fv
(3599 .8  10 )
= 35997 .9W
= 36 kw

2. Sand is deposited at a uniform rate of 20kgs-1 and of negligible kinetic energy

onto an empty conveyor belt moving horizontally at a constant speed of 10m / minute.
Find
(i) A force required to maintain a constant velocity.
(ii) The power required to maintain a constant velocity

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 52

(iii) The rate of change of K.E of the moving sand

(iv) Why are the latter 2 quantities unequal?

10 1 -1
v= = ms
60 6
dp
F= , p = mv
dt
d(mu) dm
F= v=
dt dt
dm
= 20 kgs −1
dt
1
F =  20
6
= 3.33 N
(ii)
P = FV
20 1
= 
6 6
20
= W
36
W = 0.56w

Rate of Kinetic Energy

1  dm  2
=  v
2  dt 
2
1 1
=  20   
2 6
= 0.28 J

The two quantities are not equal because there is a frictional force that has to be
overcome.

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MOMENTS AND COUPLES

Moment of a force
The moment of a force about an axis is the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance from the axis to the line of action of the force.

R
a
Ө
P

F1

Moment of F1 about P
= F 1a
Moment of R about P = 0
Moment of T about P = T. a sin Ө
Principal of moments
If a body is in equilibrium, under the action of a number of force, the algebraic sum of
the moment of the forces about any axis is zero i.e. total clockwise moments = total
anticlockwise moments about the same axis.
Conditions for equilibrium
(i) Translational equilibrium.
The resultant force must be zero i.e. sum of forces in one direction should be equal to
sum of forces in the opposite direction.
(ii) Rotational equilibrium
The algebraic sum of moments about any axis must be zero.

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Example
A uniform rod of mass 10kg is smoothly hinged at A and rests in a vertical plane on the
end B against a smooth vertical wall. If the rod makes an angle of 40 0 with the wall, find
the thrust of the wall and the direction of the reaction at A

B
R
40°

10g
A X

Let X and Y represent the components of the reaction in the horizontal and vertical
directions respectively.
Resolving forces in the horizontal direction
R=X
Resolving forces in the vertical direction
Y = 10g = 98N
Taking moments about A:
10gx(ABsin40)/2 = R xABcos40
Therefore R = 41.1N
Hence X = 41.1N

Reaction at A = (41.12
+ 98 2 ) = 106.3N

Direction Ө = tan-1(98/41.1) = 67.24°

Direction = tcm-1 98 ( 41.1

)
= 67.24 0

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CURCULAR MOTION
Consider a body moving in a circle of radius r with uniform speed v
v

B
0 Ө s
r
v
A
Ssuppose the body moves from point A to point B in time‘t’ through an angle Ө.
The angle Ө is called the angular displacement.
Arc length, s = r Ө
Angular velocity, , is the rate of change of angular displacement.
 = Ө/t
Speed,
s r 
v= = , but = 
t t t
v = r
period (T), time taken to go through one circle.
At Ө =2, t = T
Ө/t = 2/T
v = r
2
Therefore v = r
T
Acceleration of a body moving in a circle
Consider a body moving with constant speed v in a circle of radius r

vB
B
r
Ө
r
Ө
A vA
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 56

If it travels from A to B in a short time,t,

t , then arc AB = vt
AB
v=
t
also arc AB = rӨ
hence
r = vt.
vt ……………………(1)
 =
r

Change of velocity between A and B

VB − V A
VB +( − V A )
=
xZ = VB + −V A ( )
But VA = VB = V

z -VA y
Ө

VB

X
Arc XZ = vӨ
t
From equation (1) Ө= v
r
t t
Hence arc XZ = v. v = v2
r r
The magnitude of the acceleration, a, between A and B is

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 57

change in velocit y xz
a= =
time interval t
v t v
2 2
a= =
rt r
But v = r
a = 2r

The acceleration of the body moving in a circle is towards the centre of the circle.
The force on a body moving in a circle towards the centre of the circular path is called
the centripetal force

v2
Centripetal force = ma = m
r
Or Centripetal force = m 2 r
Example of circular motion
Conical pendulum
Consider a body of mass m attached to a string of weight l, describing horizontal circle of
radius r at a uniform speed v

h T

mg

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()T cos = mg........(i)

2
(→)T sin  = mv ...................(2)
r
(2)  (1)
v2
tan  =
rg
r = l sin 
V 2 = rg tan 
2r
but v = , T = period
T
4 2 r 2
= rg tan
T2
4 2 r
T2 =
g tan 
4 2 l sin  4 2 l cos
T2 = =
g tan  g

but lcosӨ = h

4 2 h
T2= g

Example
A steel ball of 0.5kg is suspended from a light inelastic string of length 1m. The ball
describes a horizontal circle of radius 0.5m
Find
(i) The centripetal speed of the ball
(ii) The angular speed of the ball
(iii) The angle between the string and the radius of the circle if the angular speed
is increased to such a value that the tension in the string is 10N

Ө
1m

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0.5m

0.5g

0.5
sin  = = 30
1
2
(→) mv = T sin 30..................(i)
r
()T cos30 0
= 0.5 g
T = 5.67 N
From (i)

0.5v 2
 = 5.67 sin 30 0
0.5
mv 2 0.5  1.68 2
 certripeta l force = =
r 0.5
= 2.83 N

(iii) Angular speed 

v = wr
1.68
w=
0.5
= 3.36 rads −1

(iii)

()T cos = 0.5g

cos = 0.5 g
10
 = 60.66 0

Exercise

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 60

1. An object of mass 0.5kg on the end of the string is whirled around in a

horizontal circle of radius 2m, with a constant speed of 10ms-1. Find its angular velocity
and the tension in the string. (  = 5rads-1, T = 25.5N)
2. A small ball of mass 0.1 kg is suspended by an inextensible string of length 0.5m
and is caused to rotate in a horizontal circle of radius 0.4m. Find
(i) The resultant of these forces. (1.3N)
(ii) The period of rotation. (1.1s)
3. A pendulum bob of mass 0.2kg is attached to one end of an inelastic string of
length 1.2m. The bob moves in a horizontal circle with the string inclined at 30° to the
vertical. Calculate: (i) the tension in the string
(ii) the period of the motion
4. The period of oscillation of a conical pendulum is 2.0s. If the string makes an angle
of 60° to the vertical at the point of suspension, calculate the:
(i) Vertical height of the point of suspension above the circle. (h = 0.994m)
(ii) Length of the string, (l = 1.99m)
(iii) Velocity of the mass attached to the string. (v = 5.41ms-1)

Vehicle on a curved track

Overturning / upsetting / toppling

R1 R2

centre G
h
F1 a a
F2
mg

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consider a vehicle with mass m moving with a speed v in a circle of radius r; let h be the
height of the centre of gravity above the truck and 2a the distance between the tyres.

Resolving vertically:
R1 + R2 = mg...................(1)

horizontally

mv 2
(F1 + F2 ) = ......................(2)
r
Taking moments about G:
R1 a + F1  h + F2  h = R2 .a

(F1 + F2 ) h = R2 − R1 ................................(3)
a

Substitute equation (2) in equation (3)

mv 2 h
. = R2 − R1 ................................(4)
r a

Add equation (1) + equation (4)

R1 + R2 = mg
mv 2 h
R2 − R1 =
ra
2R 2 m  v2h 
 =  g + 
 ra 
m v2h 
R2 =  g + 
2 ra 

R2>0 implying that the outer tire never lose contact.

Equation (1)– equation (4)

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mv 2 h
2 R1 = mg −
ra
m v2h 
R1 =  g − 
2 ra 

When R1 = 0, inner tire loses contact with the track.

m v2h 
  g − =0
2 ra 
v2h
g− =0
ra
rag
v2 =
h
rag
v=
h
vag
For speeds higher than , the car overturns.
h
The vehicle is likely to overturn if
❖ The bend is sharp (r is small)
❖ The centre of gravity is high (h is large)
❖ The distance between the tires is small (a is small)

Skidding
A vehicle will skid when the available centripetal force is not enough to balance the
centrifugal force (force away from the centre of the circle), the vehicle fails to negotiate
the curve and goes off truck outwards.

R1 R2

centre G

F1
F2

mg

For no skidding, the centripetal force must be greater or equal to the centrifugal force
i.e.

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 63

mv 2
F1 + F2 
r
But F1 = μR1 and F2 = μ R2

 (R1 + R2 )  mv r
2

mv2
mg 
r
2
v
g 
r
v  gr
2

Maximum safe speed, vm = rg

Skidding will occur if
❖ The vehicle is moving too fast
❖ The bend is too sharp (r is small)
❖ The road is slippery (μ is small)

BANKING OF A TRACK
Banking of a truck is the building of the track round a corner with the outer edge raised
above the inner one. This is done in order to increase the maximum safe speed for no
skidding.
❖ When a road is banked, some extra centripetal force is provided by the
horizontal component of the normal reaction
❖ When determining the angle of banking during the construction of the road,
friction is ignored.

R2

R1

centre

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 64

Resolving vertically

mv 2
R1sin (90- Ө) + R2sin (90-Ө) =
r

But sin (90- Ө) = cos Ө

(R1+R2) Cos Ө = mg …………..(i)

Horizontally

mv 2
R1 cos(90 −  ) + R2 cos(90 −  ) =
r
2
(R1 + R2 )sin  = mv ......................(2)
r
eqn 2  eqn 1
v2
tan =
rg

Hence Ө is the angle of banking

When there is friction

Suppose there is friction between the track and the vehicle moving round the bend.

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 65

R2

R1

centre
F2

F1
Ө

Resolving vertically:

(R1+R2) cosӨ = (F1+F2)sin Ө +mg

(R1+R2) cos Ө – (F1+F2) sinӨ = mg

but F1 = μR1, F2 = μR2.

(R1+R2)cosӨ – μ(R1+R2)sinӨ = mg

(R1+R2) (sin Ө – μ sinӨ) = mg ……………………..(1)

Horizontally

mv 2
(R1 + R2)sin  + (F1 + F2)cos =
r
mv 2
(R1 + R2)sin  +  (R1 + R2)cos =
r
2
(R 1 + R2 )(sin  + cos ) = mv ...............(2)
r

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 66

egn 2  eqn 1
sin  + cos  v2
=
cos  - sin rg
tan +  v 2
=
1 - tan rg
  + tan  
v 2 = rg  
 1 −  tan  
  + tan 
 maximum safe speed = rg 
 1 - tan 

Question

(a) Why a rider has to bend at a certain angle when moving round a bend.

(b) Derive the angle of inclination the rider makes with the horizontal when moving
round a bend.

2. A bend of 200m radius on a level road is banked at the correct angle for a speed of
15ms-1. If a vehicle rounds the bend at 30ms-1, what is the minimum co-efficient of
kinetic friction between the tyres and the road so that the vehicle will not skid.

Angle of banking

v2 15 2
tan  = =
= rg (200  9.8)
 = 6.55 0

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 67

  + tan  
v 2 = rg  
 1 −  tan  
  + tan 6.55 
30 2 = 200  9.8  
 1 - tan 6.55 
  + 0.1148 
900 = 1960  
 1 - 0.1148  
900 − 103 .32  = 1960  + 225 .008
2063 .32  = 674 .992
 = 0.327

2. A car travels round a bend in road which is a circular arc of radius 62.5m.

5
The road is banked at angle tan-1  12  to the horizontal the coefficient of friction
 

between the tyres of the car and the road surface is 0.4. Find

(i) the greatest speed at which the car can be driven round the bend without
slipping.

(ii) The least speed at which this can happen.

(i) Maximum speed

  + tan  
v 2 = rg  
 1 - tan 
 0.4 + 5 
v 2 = 62.5  9.8  12 

 1 - 0.4 x5
 12 
 49 
 
v 2 = 612 .5 60 
5 
 6
 
v = 600 .25
2

v 2 = 24.5ms −1

(ii) Least speed

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 68

v 2 = rg tan 
v 2 = 62.5  9.8  5
12
v = 255 .208
2

v = 15.98ms −1

Motion in a vertical circle

This is an example of motion in a circle with non- uniform speed. The body will have a
radial component of acceleration as well as a tangential component. Consider a particle
of mass is attached to an inextensible string at point O, and projected from the lowest
point P with a speed U so that it describes a vertical circle.

Consider a particle at point Q at subsequent time.

The tension T in the string is everywhere normal to the path of the particle and hence to
its velocity V. the tension therefore does no work on the particle.

Energy at P, EP is Ep = ½mu2 ……………………..(1)

P is the reference for zero potential. Energy at Q in Eq is:-

Eq = ½mv2 + mgh.

But h = r-rcosӨ

Eq = ½ mv2 + mgr (1-cosӨ) ………………….(2)

Centripetal force of the particle

mv 2
T- mgcosӨ =
r

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 69

Mv2 = r (T-mgcosӨ) ………………………(3)

Substitute equation (3) into (2)

Eq = ½ r (T- mgcosӨ) + mgr (1-cosӨ)

Using conservation of mechanical energy

Eq = Ep.

½r (T-mgcosӨ) + mgr (1-cosӨ) = ½mu2

½r(T-mgcosӨ) = ½mu2- mgr (1-cosӨ)

r(T-mgcosӨ) = mu2 – 2mgr(1-cosӨ)

mu 2
T-mgcosӨ) = − 2mg(1 − cos )
r

mu 2
T= − 2mg (1 − cos ) + mg cos
r

mu 2
T= + mg (2 cos + cos − 2).
r
mu 2
T= + mg (3 cos − 2).
r
mu 2
OR T = − mg (2 − 3 cos )
r

mu 2
T is greater than zero when + mg (cos − 2)  0
r

mu 2
 mg (2 − 3 cos )
r
u 2  rg (2 − 3 cos )

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When  = 90
u 2  rg (2 − 3 cos 90)
u 2  2rg

Hence particle overshoots point 0’ when u> 2rg

When Ө = 1800

u2 > rg (2-3cos 180)

u2 > 5rg

Hence particle reaches p’ when U> 5rg

Therefore, particle describes a circle when the initial speed with which you project from

P is u  5rg

Example

1. A cyclist rounds a curve of 30m radius on a road which is banked at an angle

of 200 to the horizontal. If the co-efficient of sliding friction between the tires and the
road is 0.5; find the greatest speed at which the cyclist can ride without skidding and
find into inclination to the horizontal at this speed.

  + tan  
v 2 = rg  
 1 −  tan  
 0.5 + tan 20 
v 2 = (30  9.8) 
 1 − 0.5 tan 20 
 0.1819 
v 2 = 294 
 0.818 
v = 17.6ms −1

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v2 17.6 2
tan  = =
rg 30 x9.8
 = 46.5

4(b) A car goes round unbanked curve at 15ms-1the radius of the curve is 60m. Find the
least co-efficient of kinetic friction that will allow the car to negotiate the curve without
skidding.

v2

r
v2

rg
15 2
 = 0.38
(60  9.8)

Exercise

1. A stone of mass 0.5kg is attached to a string of length 0.5m which will break if the
tension in it exceeds 20N. The stone is whirled in a vertical circle, the axis of rotation
being at a vertical height of 1.0m above the ground. The angular speed is gradually
increased until the string breaks.

(i) in what position is the string most likely to break? (vertically below point of
suspension)

(ii) At what angular speed will the string break? (7.7rads-1)

(iii) Find the position where the stone hits the ground when the string breaks.1.22m
from point below point of suspension)

2. A car travels round a curved road bend banked at an angle of 22.6°. If the radius of
curvature of the bend is 62.5m and the coefficient of friction between the tyres of the
car and the road surface is 0.3. Calculate the maximum speed at which the car
negotiates the bend without skidding. (22.4ms-1)

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GRAVITATION
Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion
1. Planets revolve in elliptical orbits having the sun at one focus
2. Each planet revolve in such a way that the imaginary line joining it to the sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal times
3. The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes
of their mean distances from the sun
Newton’s Law of Gravitation

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Every particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force which is proportional
to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.

M1 M2
R

F  M1M2
R2
Hence F = G M1M2
R2
Where G is a universal constant known as the Gravitational constant.
Units of G: Nm2kg -2 or m3kg-1s-2
Numerical value of G= 6.67x10-11 Nm2kg -2
Question: Show that the dimensions of G are M-1 L3T-2
Proof of Kepler’s 3rd law
Consider a planet of mass m moves with speed v in a circle of radius r round the sun of
mass M.

sun v

r
m
M

Gravitational attraction of the sun for the planet, F = G M m

r2
If this is centripetal force keeping the planet in orbit then
GMm = mv2
r 2 r
If T is the time for the planet to make one orbit
v = 2r
T 2
GMm = mx 2r
T

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r2 r

GM = 42r3
T2
42
T2 = r3
GM

Since 42 is constant, then T2 r3 which verifies Kepler’s 3rd law.
GM
Parking Orbit
A satellite launched with a speed such that its period equals that of the earth’s rotation
about its axis and is in the same sense as that of rotation of the earth is called the
Synchronous or Geostationary satellite.
To an observer on the earth’s surface, such a satellite appears to be stationary. The orbit
of the synchronous satellite is called a Parking orbit. Geostationary satellite can be used
to relay TV signals and telephone messages from one point on the earth surface to other
points. In this case a set of 3 synchronous satellites in a triangular array is used.
from
42
T2 = GM r3

When the satellite is in a parking orbit, T = 24 hours = 24 x 3600s

G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2kg -2
M = 6x1024kg
Hence r = 4.23x107m
Height above the earth for a parking orbit, h = 4.23x107- Radius of earth
But radius of earth = 6.4x106m
Therefore, h = 4.23x107 – 6.4x106 = 3.59x107m
Variation of acceleration due to gravity
The acceleration due to gravity varies with both altitude and latitude
Variation of acceleration due to gravity with latitude
The acceleration due to gravity increases from 9.78ms-2 at the equator to 9.83ms-2 at
the poles. The observed variation of g over the earth’s surface is due to

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 75

(i) the effect of the earth’s rotation

(ii) the non- spheroid of their earth
The effect of the earth’s rotation: Because the earth rotates about its axis, its
gravitational pull on the body on the equator has to provide a centripetal acceleration.
Effect of non- spheroid of the earth: The earth is not a sphere but an oblate spheroid
whose equatorial radius exceeds polar radius by about 21.5km i.e. the body at the
equator is slightly further away than at the poles. Hence acceleration at the poles is
slightly exceeds the acceleration at the equator.
Variation of acceleration due to gravity with altitude
(i) At the earth’s surface
Mg = GMem
Re
g = GMe ………………………………………(i)
Re

(ii) Above the earth’s surface

earth

Me
r m
h

If a body is at a point a distance r from the centre of the earth where r > R e
Then mg’ = GMem
r2
g’ is the acceleration due to gravity at the point a distance r from the centre of earth
g’ = GMe
r2
Hence g’  1
r2
but from eqn (i) above, GMe = Re2g
g’ = Re2g

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 76

r2
Also, r = h + Re

g’ = Re2g = g (1 + h/Re)-2 = g (1 – 2h/Re + 3h2/Re2 +……………….)

(h + Re)2
If h is smaller than Re, then (h/Re)2 and higher powers can be ignored as they tend to 0.
Therefore g’ = g (1 – 2h/Re)
A graph of g’ against h appears as below:

g’

h
Re/2

(iii) Inside the earth’s surface

Consider an object with mass m at a point which is a distance b from the earth’s surface,
where b<Re. Let g’’ be the acceleration due to gravity at this point and M e’ the effective
mass of the earth at this point.

b Re

Assuming the earth to be a sphere of uniform density, e

Me = 4/3(Re3)e
Me’=4/3(b3)e
Me’/ Me = b3/Re3
Me’= (b3/Re3)Me

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 77

But mg’’ = G Me’m

b2
g’’ = G Me’ = G x (b3/Re3)Me
b2 b2
g’’ = GMeb
Re2
Hence g’’  b
Graph showing variation of acceleration due to gravity with distance from centre of the
earth.

Acceleration due gravity

g
Inside earth
Outside earth

Re Distance from centre of earth

Mechanical energy of a satellite

(i) Kinetic energy, Ek
Consider a satellite of mass m moving in a circular orbit of radius r. the centripetal force
on the satellite is
G Me m = mv2
r2 r
G Me m = mv2
r
The kinetic energy of the satellite, Ek = ½mv2 = G Me m
2r
(ii) Gravitational Potential energy, Ep
The force of attraction between the earth and satellite of mass m at a distance x from
the centre of the earth is
F = G Me m
x2

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 78

If the satellite is to move through x towards the earth, the work done by the
gravitational force is
w = Fx = = G Me mx
x2
If the satellite is moved from infinity to a point distance r from the centre of the earth,
the work done by the gravitational force is
r
 −1 
r
GM e m
W=  2
dx = GMem   = − GM e m

x  x  r

Hence gravitational potential energy is the work done to move a body from infinity to a
point in the gravitational field.
− GM e m
Therefore Ep =
r
− GM e m GM e m
Total mechanical energy ET = Ep + Ek = +
r 2r

GM e m
= −
2r
Note: The satellite has negative total energy hence it is a bound satellite.
Velocity of escape
Velocity of escape is the minimum vertical velocity with which the body must be
projected from the earth so that it will never return to the earth.
GM e m
The work done required for a body to escape = −
Re
If the body leaves the earth with speed ve ad just escapes from its gravitational field
GM e m
½mve2=
Re

2GM e
Hence ve2 =
Re

2GM e
ve =
Re

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Exercise: Show that velocity of escape can be expressed as

ve = 2 gRe

Effect of friction between a satellite and the atmosphere

Radius of orbit reduces, potential energy reduces, kinetic energy increases, velocity
increases and mechanical energy decreases.
Examples:
1. A satellite of mass 100kg is inn a circular orbit at a height of 3.59x107m above the
earth’s surface. Find the mechanical energy of the satellite. (Mass of earth = 6x1024kg,
radius of earth = 6.4x106m)
GM e m
Mechanical energy = −
2r
r = 3.59x107 + Re = 3.59x107 + 6.4x106m = 4.23x107m
Where Re = 6.4x106m, the radius of the earth.
Me = 6x1024kg
Mechanical energy = - 6.67x10-11x6x1024x100 = - 4.71x108 joules
2x4.23x107
2. A satellite of mass 250kg makes a circular equatorial orbit at a distance 500km
above the earth’s surface. Find
(i) the radius of the orbit
(ii) the period
(iii) the total energy of the satellite
(i) radius r = 500x103 + 6.4x106 = 6.9x106m

42
(ii) T2 = GM r3

Where G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2kg -2

M = 6x1024kg
T2 = 42x(6.9x106)3

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6.67x10-11x6x1024

Hence T = 5.69x103s

GM e m
(iii) Total energy = − = - 6.67x10-11x6x1024x250 = -7.25x109J
2r
2x6.9x106
Exercise
1. A mass is released from a point at a distance of 10R from the centre of the earth,
where R is the radius of the earth. Find the speed of the mass at a point a distance of 7R
from the centre of the earth. (Assume R = 6.4x106m)
2. Calculate the ratio of mass of the sun to that of the earth, given that the moon
moves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius 4.0x10 5km with a period of 27.3days,
and the orbital radius of the earth round the sun is 1.5x10 8km and its period is 365days.
(2.95x105 )
3. Calculate the ratio of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of mercury to that
on the surface of the earth given that the radius of mercury is 0.38 times that of the
earth and the mean density of mercury is 0.68 times that of the earth (0.2584)

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SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S.H.M)

It is a special type of periodic motion in which the acceleration of the body along the
path of the body is directed towards a fixed point in the line of motion and is
proportional to the displacement of the body from the fixed point.

Characteristic of a body describing Simple harmonic motion

▪ Motion is periodic
▪ Acceleration of the body is towards a fixed point
▪ Acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the distance from the fixed
point
▪ Mechanical energy is conserved.
Equation of simple harmonic motion
Acceleration, a = - 2x
Where  is angular velocity, x is displacement from fixed point.
d 2x
Or a= 2
= − 2 x
dt

The solution of the above differential equation is

X = Acost or X = Asint

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Where A is the maximum displacement of the body called Amplitude.

For X = Asint the curve is as below:

In general X = Asin (t +) Where  is the phase angle.

Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion

(i)Vertical Spiral Spring or Elastic thread

Consider a body of mass m suspended from a spiral spring of force constant, k, as shown
in the diagram. In that case the body will be at equilibrium.
At equilibrium, T = mg
But T = ke (Form Hook’s Law)

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Where e is the extension in the spring at equilibrium and k is the force constant of the
spring.

Hence ke = mg ………………………………….(i)
When the mass is pulled through a distance x then released, the resultant upward force
on the mass is
F = T’ – mg
But T’ = k (e + x)
F = k (e + x) – mg
But from (i) ke = mg
F = k (e + x) – ke
F=kx
From Newton’s 2nd law, ma = F
ma = - kx
k
a = -  x
m
The above equation is in the form a = - 2x
k
Where 2 =  
m

m
Question: Prove that the period T is given by: T = 2
k

(ii) Horizontal Spiral Spring

Consider a horizontal spring of force constant k. One end of the spring is fixed and the
other end attached to a body of mass m resting on a smooth surface.
If the body is displaced through a distance x

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(iii) Simple Pendulum

Suppose a body of mass m attached to a string is displaced through a small angle Ө and
then released. The resultant force on the body towards O is mgsinӨ.

x
mgsinӨ
O mg

By Newton’s 2nd law

ma = -mgsinӨ
a = - gsinӨ
x
If Ө is small and measured in radians Ө  sinӨ =
l
x
a - gӨ = g
l
Which is in the form a = - 2x

l
Where  =
g

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l
Hence T = 2
g

Example: A simple pendulum has a period of 4.2s. When the length is shortened by 1m,
the period is 3.7s. Use these measurements to determine the acceleration due to gravity
and the original length of the pendulum.

l
T = 2
g

4.22 g = 42xl……..(1)
3.72g = 42(l – 1)……….(2)
Solving the above two equations, you get
L= ,g=

(iv) A Floating cylinder

Consider a cylinder of mass m, floating vertically in a liquid of density  to a depth l.

U
U’

mg
l

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In equilibrium, mg = U where U is upthrust

But U = Al g
mg = Alg ………………………………(i)
m = Al
A is the cross sectional area of the cylinder
Suppose the cylinder is given a small vertical displacement x and released, the net force
on the cylinder is U’ – mg.
But U’ = A ( l +x)g
Net force = A ( l +x)g – mg
From Newton’s 2nd law; ma = - A ( l +x)g – mg

From equation (i) mg = Alg

Therefore ma = - Axg
a = - (Ag)x
m
But a = - 2x
Ag
Where 2 =
m
Ag l
And period T = 2 = 2
m g

(v) Oscillation of a liquid in a U – tube

Consider a liquid column of length l at rest in a U – tube of cross section area A. Suppose
the liquid is displaced by a small distance and then released.

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Consider the instant when the meniscus a distance x from their equilibrium position.
The restoring force of the liquid = 2xAg, where  is the density of the liquid.
Using Newton’s 2nd law,
ma = - 2xAg
a = - (2xAg) = - (2Ag)x
m m
Hence 2 = - (2Ag)
m

l
Period T = 2
2g

Velocity of a body executing Simple harmonic Motion

Consider the displacement of a body executing Simple harmonic motion to be given by
X = Asin(t +)
Velocity, v = dx/dt = Acos(t +)

sin(t +) = X /A

A2 − x 2
Cos(t +) =
A

A2 − x 2
Hence v = A =  A2 − x 2
A
When x = 0, V is maximum
vmax = A
when X= A, v = 0

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Kinetic energy and potential energy of vibrating object

Kinetic enrgy, Ek

Velocity v =  A 2 − x 2
Kinetic energy Ek = ½mv2 = ½m2(A2-x2)

Ek = ½m2(A2-x2)
k
For a spring of force constant, k ; 2 =
m
k = 2m
Ek = ½k(A2-x2)

Potential energy, Ep
Work done against the restoring force is the potential energy
F = m2r
x x

 Fdr =  m
2
Therefore, Ep = rdr = ½m2x2
0 0

For a vibrating spring, Ep = ½kx2

Total mechanical energy ET = Ek + Ep = ½m2(A2-x2) + ½m2x2 = ½m2A2

ET = ½m2A2
Note total energy of a vibrating object (a particle undergoing S.H.M) is constant and is
directly proportional to the square of the amplitude. Hence mechanical energy is
conserved in S.H.M.

Kinetic energy
energy Mechanical energy

Potential energy

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Examples:
1. A light spiral spring is loaded with a mass of 50g and it extends by 10cm. Calculate the
period of small vertical oscillations

m
Using T = 2 , but mg = ke
k
K = mg/e = 0.05x9.81/0.1 = 4.905Nm-1

0.05
Hence T = 2 = 0.63s
4.905
2. A body of mass 0.1kg hangs from a long spiral spring. When pulled down 10cm below
its equilibrium point A, and released, it vibrates with S.H.M with a period of 2s.
(i) What is the velocity as it passes through A?
(ii) What is its acceleration when it is 5cm above A.
Solution
(i) v = A, where A = 0.1m,  = 2/T, but T = 2s
 = 2/2 =  rads-1
V =  x 0.1 = 0.314ms-1
(ii) a = -2x = 2 x 0.05 = 0.5ms-2

Types of oscillations
(i) Free oscillations:
Free oscillations occur in the absence of any dissipative forces like air resistance, friction
and viscous drag. The amplitude and total mechanical energy remains constant and the

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system oscillates indefinitely with a period T (the natural period of vibration of the
system)

Displacement

time
-A

A is amplitude
e.g A simple pendulum will undergo free oscillation in a vacuum.

(ii) Damped oscillations

These are oscillations where the system loses energy to the surrounding due to the
dissipative forces. The amplitude reduces with time and oscillations eventually die out.
Damped oscillations can be grouped into under damped, critically damped and over
damped oscillations.
- Under – damped oscillations

Displacement

time

The system actually oscillates but gradually dies out due to the dissipative forces. The
amplitude of oscillation decreases with time. Examples are a simple pendulum in air,
horizontal spring moving over a surface of little roughness.

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- Critically damped oscillations

The system does not oscillate when displaced, but returns to the equilibrium position
in the minimum possible time

Displacement

time

Examples shock absorbers in cars stops the car to oscillate after passing over the hump,
toilet doors are critically damped so that they close very quickly.
- Over damped oscillations
The system does not oscillate but takes a long time to return to the equilibrium
position.

Displacement

time

Examples: a horizontal spring moving over a very rough surface, a metal cylinder
attached to a vertical spring and made to move in a very viscous liquid.

(iii) Forced oscillations

These are vibrations where the system is subjected to an external periodic force thus
setting the system to oscillate indefinitely. When the periodic force has the same

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frequency of oscillation as the system, resonance occurs. Examples of forced

oscillations are; the oscillation of a diving board, the oscillations of the earth quake
and the oscillations of the air column in musical pipe instruments etc.

Resonance occurs

Displacement

fo

frequency

fo is the fundamental frequency

Exercise:
1. The pendulum of length 130cm has a periodic time T1. A bob now pulled a side and
made to move as a conical pendulum in a horizontal circle of radius 50cm. the period
of rotation is T2. Find the ratio
of T1: T2 Ans(1.04)

2. A spring gives a displacement of 5cm for a load of 500g. Find the maximum
displacement produced when a mass of 80g is dropped from a height of 10cm onto a
light pan attached to the spring.
Ans(5x10-2m)
3. A small mass rests on a horizontal platform which vibrates vertically in a simple
harmonic motion with a period of 0.50s. Find the maximum amplitude of the
motion which will allow the mass to remain in contact with the platform
throughout the motion. Ans (6.3x10-2m)

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4. A mass of 0.1kg suspended from a spring of force constant 24.5Nm -1 is pulled

vertically downwards through a distance of 5.0cm and released. Find the
(i) period of oscillation (0.4s)
(ii) position of the mass 0.3s after release (0m)

5. A uniform cylindrical rod of length 8cm, cross sectional area 0.02m2 and density
900kgm-3 floats vertically in a liquid of density 1000kgm-3. The rod is depressed
through a distance of 0.5cm and the released.
i) Show that the rod performs simple harmonic motion
ii) Find the frequency of the resultant oscillations (1.86Hz)
iii) Find the velocity of the rod when it is a distance of 0.4cm
above the equilibrium position. (0.035ms-1)

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HYDROSTATICS

Pressure

The pressure at a point in a fluid is the force per unit area acting normal to an
infinitesimal area taken about the point. The units of pressure Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa).
The pressure in a column of fluid increase with depth. At a given point in a liquid,
pressure acts in any direction hence it is a scalar quantity.

Formula for pressure in liquids

Sippose that a horizontal plate X of area A is placed at a depth h below the liquid
surface. By drawing vertical lines from the points on the perimeter of X, we can see that
the force on X due to the liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid of height h and
uniformm cross section A.

Liquid weight

Area, A

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Since the volume of this liquid is Ah, the mass of the liquid = Ah.

The weight = Ahg, where g is acceleration due to gravity.

force Ahg
Therefore, the pressure, P = = = hg
area A

Archimedes principles

It states that, When an object is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward force

Proof of Archimedes principle

Consider a uniform solid cylinder of length L and cross sectional area A. Suppose the
cylinder is submerged in a liquid of density ρ, so that its face is a depth h, below the
surface of the liquid.

h1

h2 B

D E

Consider a solid immersed in a liquid, the pressure on the lower surface C is greater than
that on the upper surface B, since the pressure at the greater depth h 2 is more than at
h1. The net horizontal force is zero.

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The upward force on C = h2gA, where  is the liquid density.

The down wad force on side B = h1gA. Thus
resultant force on solid = upward force (upthrust) = (h2– h1)gA. But (h2–
h1)A = volume, V, of solid, Therefore upthrust
= Vg = mg, where m = V.

Therefore upthrust = weight of liquid displaced.

Measurement of density or relative density using Archimedes’ principle.

For a solid, weigh the mass of solid in air say, mo. Then weigh its mass when totally
immersed in water say, m1. Then
upthrust = (mo - m1) g = weight of water displaced.

m0
Therefore relative density =
m0 − m1

m0
Density of solid = x density of water
m0 − m1

For a liquid. Weigh the

mass of solid in air say, m0, then weigh it when totally immersed in the liquid whose
density is required say m1 and finally weigh it when totally immersed in water say m2.
Relative density = upthrust in liquid
upthrust in water

m0 − m1
=
m0 − m 2

m0 − m1
And density = x density of water.
m0 − m 2

Law of flotation

A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats.

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THE HYDROMETER

This is a device for comparing densities of liquids. It consists of a uniform stem having a
loaded bulb at the bottom. The stem is graduated in which it is placed.
B

Practical hydrometers have a weighted end M for stability, a wide bulb to produce
sufficient up thrust to counterbalance the weight, and a narrow stem BL for sensitivity.
If V is the whole volume of the hydrometer, a is the area of the stem and y is the length
not immersed in a liquid of density,, then up thrust = weight of liquid displaced
= (V – ay) = w, where w is the weight of the hydrometer.

Examples. 1.
A cube of rubber, volume 10-3m3, floats with half of its volume submerged in a liquid of

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density 1200kgm-3. Find the depth to which the cube would be submerged in a liquid of
density 1000kgm-3.

L = 10-1m Volume =
L3 =10-3m3 When immersed
in liquid of density 1200kgm-3 volume of liquid displaced = ½x10-3 = 5x10-4m3.
mass of liquid displaced = 5x10-4 x 1200 = 6x10-1kg

hence using law of flotation, mass of body = 6x10-1kg

when immersed in liquid of density 1000 kgm-3
mass of liquid displaced = 6x10-1kg.

volume of liquid displaced = m = 6  10 −4 m 3 . If h is the depth

d

l 2 h = 6  10 −4
10 − 2 h = 6  10 − 4
h = 6  10 − 2 m.

2. A solid weight 237.5g in air and 12.5g when totally immersed in a liquid of density
0.9gcm-3. Calculate

(a) Density of solid.

1
(b) The density of the liquid in which the solid would float with of its volume exposed
5
above the liquid surface.

solution

a). When immersed in liquid of density 0.9gcm-3, Loss in mass = 237.5 – 12-5= 225g.
Therefore, mass of liquid displaced = 225g

225
Volume of liquid displaced = 0.9
= 250 cm 3

Hence volume of the body = 250cm3

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237.5
 Density of solid = m = = 0.95 gcm −3
v 250

4
b) Volume of liquid displaced =  250 = 200cm 3
5

Mass of the liquid displaced = 200

Using law of flotation, Mass of liquid displaced = mass of body =

200 = 237.5
 = 1.187gcm-3

3. A string supports a solid iron object of mass 180g, totally immersed in a liquid of
density 800kgm-3. Calculate the tension in the string if the density of iron is 8000kgm-3.

Weight of body, W = mg = 0.18x9.81 = 1.764N

Volume of object = m = 0.18 = volume of liquid displaced

d 8000
= 2.25  10 -5

Upthrust, U = Alpg = 2.25x10-5x800x9.8 = 0.176N

Hence tension, T = W –U = 1.764 – 0.176 = 1.5836N

Exercise: 1. A
piece of metal of mass 2.60x 10-3kg and density 8.4 x 103 kgm-3 is attached to a block of
wax of mass 1.0 x 10-2kg and density 9.2 x 102 kgm-3. When the system is placed in a
liquid it floats with wax just submerged. Find the density of the liquid. (1.13x103 kgm-3)

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2. A block of mass 0.10kg is suspended from a spring balance. When the block is
immersed in water of density 1.0x103kgm-3, the spring balance reads 0.63N. When the
block is immersed in a liquid of unknown density, the spring balance reads 0.70N. Find
(i) the density of the solid ( 2795kgm-3 )
(ii) the density of the liquid (800 kgm-3)

3. A string supports a metal block of 2kg which is completely immersed in a liquid of

density 8.8x102kgm-3. If the density of the metal is 9x103kgm-3, calculate the tension in
the string. (17.7N)

4. A hydrometer floats with 6.0cm of its graduated stem unimmersed, and in oil of
relative density 0.8 with 4.0cm of the stem unimmersed. What is the length of the stem
unimmersed when the hydrometer is placed in a liquid of relative density 0.9? (5.1cm)

5. A block of volume 1000cm3mfloats half – immersed in a liquid of relative density 1.2.

Calculate the volume of brass, relative density 8.7 which must be attached to the wood
in order that the combination just floats in a liquid of relative density 2.2. (246cm3)

6. A hydrometer consists of a spherical bulb and a cylindrical stem of cross-sectional

area 0.4cm2. The total volume of the bulb and stem is 13.2cm3. When immersed in
water, the hydrometer floats with 8.0cm of the stem above the water surface in alcohol
it floats with 1.0 cm of the stem above the surface. Calculate the density of the alcohol.
(0.78gcm-3)

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SURFACE TENSION

Some observation due to surface tension

1. A drop of water, on closing a tap remained dinging on the tap, as if the water
was held in a bag.

2. A thin needle can be made to float on the surface though it is denser than water.

3. Mercury gathers in small spherical drops when poured on a smooth surface

4. When a capillary tube is dipped in water, water is seen rising up in a tube.

5. Insects can walk on the water surface

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All the above observations show that a liquid surface behaves as if it was or it is in a
state of tension. The phenomenon is called surface tension.

Surface Tension or Co-efficient of surface tension (γ)

This is the force per unit length acting in a liquid surface at right angle to an imagining
drawn tangentially to the liquid surface.
F

Liquid surface

 = F
L
The units of  are Nm -1
[ ] = MLT − 2 L−1
= MT − 2

Molecular Theory of Surface Tension

The force F(r) between two molecules of a liquid varies with their separation r as shown
below

F(r)

Repulsive

ro r

attractive

At the average equilibrium separation, r0, F(r) = 0

For r > ro = the force is attractive. For
r <ro = the force is repulsive. The
corresponding potential energy variation with molecular separation is shown below

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F(r)

0 ro r

• The molecule within the body of the liquid (built molecule) is attracted equally
by neighbours in all directions, hence the force on the bulk molecule is zero, so
the intermolecular separation for bulk molecules is ro.

• For a surface molecule, there is a net inward force because there are no
molecules above the surface. Hence to bring a molecule from inside the liquid.

• To the surface, work must be done against the inward attractive force, hence a
molecule in the surface of the liquid has a greater potential energy than a
molecule in bulk. The potential energy stored in the surface is called free surface
energy.

• Molecules at the surface have their separation r > ro The attractive forces
experienced by surface molecules due to their neighbours put them in a state of
tension and the liquid surface behaves as a stretched skin.
Surface molecule, net force inwards

Bulk molecule, net force zero

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Surface energy and shape of a drop of a liquid

All systems arrange themselves in such a way that they have the minimum possible
potential energy. The number of molecules that resides in the surface has to be
minimum, and to minimize the number of molecules on the surface, the surface area
must be reduced, hence liquid surface contract to the smallest possible area. So free
liquid drops are spherical for any given volume because it is the shape which gives the
minimum surface area. A large drop flattens out in order to minimize the gravitational
potential energy which tends to exceed the surface energy. Due to its large weight,
gravitational force distorts the spherical shape of large droplets however a small drop
takes on a spherical shape to minimize the surface energy, which to be greater than
gravitational potential energy. Therefore, the gravitational force can not distort the
spherical shape due to very small mass of tiny droplets.

Angle of contact

The angle between the solid surface and the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of
intersection with the solid surface as measured through the liquid.

Ө<900 Ө>900

A
Ө Ө

Ө = angle of contact

A= point of intersection with solid surface

A liquid makes an acute angle of contact with the solid surface if the adhesive forces
between the liquid and solid molecules are greater than the cohesive forces between

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the liquid molecules themselves. The angle of contact is zero on a clean glass for pure
water. If a liquid makes an acute angle of contact, it is said to wet the solid surface.

A liquid makes an obtuse angle of contact with the solid surface if the cohesive forces
between the liquid molecules themselves are greater than the adhesive forces between
the solid and liquid molecules. Such a liquid is said not to wet the solid surface. The
angle of contact of mercury on a glass surface is 1400.

Addition of detergent to a liquid reduces the angle of contact and therefore helps in
washing.

Excess pressure inside an air bubble

Consider the equilibrium of one half of an air bubble of radius r, in a liquid of surface
tension γ

P2
P1

2r 2r

This half of the bubble is in equilibrium under the action of force F1 which is due to
pressure P1, F2 which is due to the pressure p2 and force F

P1= pressure outside the bubble

P2 = pressure inside the bubble

For equilibrium, F1+F = F2

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F1 = P1 .r , F2 = p 2 .r 2 , F = 2r

Hence P1r + 2r = p 2r
2 2

But ( p − p )r = 2
2 2

2
p 2 − p1 = (Excess press for air bubble)
r

Excess pressure inside a soap bubble

For a soap bubble, it has two surfaces

F = 2.2r
For equilibriu im
F1 + F = F2
But F1 = P1r F = 4r F2 = p 2r 2

p1r 2 + 4r = p 2r 2

( p 2 − p1 )r = 4
4
( p 2 − p1 ) =
r

Note. The pressure on the concave side of a liquid surface is always greater than that on
a convex side e.g. Flat
surface PA = PB

PA

PB

Hence excess is equal o zero on a flat surface.

Concave meniscus

PA

PB
2
PA − PB = where r is the radius of the meniscus
r

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Convex meniscus

PA

PB

2
PB − PA =
r

Capillary Rise

Consider the care of a liquid wets glass.

B h
A A
Y X
A A

Pressure at X = pressure at Y = Po (atmospheric pressure)

2
But PA – PB = r is radius of meniscus
r

2
PB = PA -
r

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Py = PB + hg
2
py = pA − + hg
r
2
But p 0 = p0 − + hg
r
2
hpg = .
r
2
h = height whi ch liqiud rises
rg

The radius of curvature of the meniscus is related to the radius of the capillary and angle
of contact as shown
r
A
ӨR
A A
Ө
A

R 2cos
r= Hence h =
cos Rpg

Effects of temperature on surface tension

When the temperature of a liquid is raised, the mean kinetic energy of the molecules of
the liquid raises on the average of the force of attraction between the molecules
decreases since the molecules spend less time in the neighbourhood of the given
molecules as a result the intermolecular separation rises hence surface tension of the
liquid decreases with rising temperature.

Relationship between surface energy and surface tension

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Consider a liquid stretched on a rectangular metal frame

B B’

l 2γl

C’
C
x
Suppose a film is stretched isothermally (at constant temperature) so that the edge BC
moves through a distance x to B’C’. The work done to stretch the film = F0x

But F = 2l (the film has 2 surfaces)

work done = 2lx
increase in area = 2lx
2lx
Work done to increase a unit area = =
2lx

Hence surface tension can also be defined as the work done to increase surface area of
a liquid by 1m2 under isothermal condition.

Measurement of surface Tension

By capillary rise method

Traveling Microscope

M
Capillary
tube
h pin

Beaker

A pin is attached to the capillary tube with its tip just touching the liquid in the beaker. A
traveling microscope is focused on the meniscus M. The reading S1, on the scale is

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 110

recorded. The beaker is carefully removed and the traveling microscope is focused on
the tip of the pin P. The reading S2 on the scale is recorded.

The capillary rise h = S2-S1.

The radius, r of the capillary tube is determined measuring its diameter by using a
traveling microscope. The angle θ of contact is measured and since the density, ρ of the
hrg
liquid is known, surface tension can be calculated from;  =
2 cos

Jaeger’s method

Water in a dropping funnel

T

h2
Capillary tube
Manometer liquid,
flask densityρ2
h1
Specimen liquid, densityρ1

water

The pressure in the flask is increased gradually by allowing drops to fall down the funnel.
Bubbles formed at the tip of the capillary tube dipping in the specimen liquid are
observed. When the bubble has grown to a hemispherical shape, the tap T is closed and
the reading h2 on the manometer is recorded. The depth, h1 of the end of the capillary
2 cos
tube below the specimen is recorded. Using + h1 1 g = h2  2 g
a

 =
(h2  2 − h1 1 )ga
2 cos

The radius, a of the capillary tube is determined measuring its diameter by using a
traveling microscope. The angle θ of contact is measured and since the density, ρ1, ρ2 of
the liquids are known, then γ can be calculated.

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Examples
1) Mercury is poured into a glass U- tube with vertical limbs of diameters 20mm and
12.00mm respectively. If the angle of contact between mercury and glass is 140 0and the
surface tension of mercury is 0.152 Nm-2. Calculate the difference in the levels of
mercury. (Density of mercury = 1.35 x 104 kgm-3).
20m 12m
m m
Po
Pc

h
Po
Pc
PB

2 cos
PA − PO =
R1
2 cos
PA = P0 +
R1
p B = PA + hpg
2 cos
PB = P0 + + hpg.........(i )
R1

2 cos
PC − P0 =
R2
2 cos
PC = P0 + .....................(ii )
R2
butPB = Pc
2 cos 2 cos
henceP0 + = Po + + hg
R2 R1
 1 1 
hg = 2 cos  − 
 R2 R1 
R1 = 0.006 m
R2 = 0.01m
2 cos  1 1  2  0.52 cos140  1 1 
h=  −  =  − 
g  R2 R1  1.36  10  9.8  0.01 0.006 
4

= 4.9812  10 −3 m

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2. A droplet of mercury of radius 2.0mm falls vertically and on hitting the ground it
splits into two droplets each of radius 0.50mm. Calculate the change in surface energy.
Account for the change in (i) above.
1c) Energy of a large droplet
= 4r12 
= 4 (2  10 −3 )  0.52
2

= 2.61  10 −5 J
Energy of the split drops
( )
= 2 4r22 
= 2.(4    0.5  10 )−3 2
 0.52)
−6
= 3.27  10 J
Change in energy
= 2.61  10 −5 − 3.27  10 −6
= 2.283  10 −5 J
The energy reduces because some of it is lost in overcoming air resistance.

3. Two soap bubbles of radii 2.0cm and 4.0cm respectively coalesce under isothermal
conditions. If the surface tension of the soap solution is 2.5 x 10 -2 Nm-1, calculate the
excess pressure inside the resulting soap bubble.

r3
r1 r2
+ =

2  4r12  + 2  4r22  = 2  4r32 

r12 + r22 = r32
r1 = 0.02 m, r2 = 0.04 m
r3 = (0.0004 + 0.0016 )
r3 = 0.045 m
4 4  2.5  10 − 2
excess pressure = =
r3 0.045
= 2.22Nm -2 .

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4. In Jaeger method for measuring the surface of a liquid, the lower end of a capillary
tube of radius 0.20mm is 25mm below the surface of the liquid whose surface tension is
required and whose density is 8.0 x 102 kgm-3. the pressure in the hemispherical bubble
formed at the end of the tube is measured as 40mm on a water manometer. Calculate
the surface tension of the liquid.
r = radius of capillary
h = reading on manometer
ρ = density of water
h1 = height on tube in liquid
ρ1 = density of specimen liquid.

 =
rg
(hp − h1 p1 )
2
0.002  9.8
=
2
( 0.04  100 − 0.0025  8  10 2 )
= 9.8  10 −2  20
= 1.96  10 −2 Nm −1

Exercise
1. Calculate the total pressure inside an air bubble of radius 10-5m at a depth of 0.3 m
below the surface of the water.
ii) If the bubble is attached to mercury manometer. Calculate the height to which the
mercury rises.
2. A clean glass capillary tube of internal diameter 0.04cm is held with its lower end
dipping in water and with 12cm of its tube above the surface.
(i) To what height will water rise in the tube?
(ii) What will happen if the tube is now depressed until only 4cm of its length is above
the surface? (surface tension of water is 7.2x10-2Nm-1, angle of contact =0)
3. An oil drop of radius 5cm falls on the ground and breaks into small drops each of
radius 2.5cm. Calculate the work done and the speed of the oil drop when it hits the
ground. (density of oil is 800 kgm-3; coefficient of surface tension of oil = 1.2  10 −1 Nm −1

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HYDRODYNAMICS / FLUIDS IN MOTION

Streamline / laminar and Turbulent flow
Laminar flow is the orderly flow of the liquid where;
 Lines of liquid flow are parallel to the axis of the tube.
 The particles at the same distance from the axis have the same velocity.
 Laminar flow occurs low liquid velocities.

Turbulent flow
When the flow velocity is increased beyond a critical value (high velocity), wavy currents
and sideways movements of the molecules occur and turbulence sets in. the lines of
liquid are in random direction.

Experiment to demonstrate laminar and turbulent flow

Laminar and turbulent flow cab be demonstrated by introducing a small amount of
coloured liquid (Potassium permanganate) at the centre of the tube.
Coloured liquid

Water
clip

Thin coloured
stream

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 115

The clip is opened a little to gradually increase the rate of flow. for slow liquid flow
rates, a thin coloured stream flow along the axis of the tube showing laminar or orderly
flow. For fast rate of liquid flow, the flow of the coloured liquid becomes wavy and
spreads out eventually over the whole section of the tube showing turbulent flow.

Continuity Equation
Consider an incompressible liquid (liquid whose density is constant) flowing through a
pipe

Q2
V2
Area, A2
V1
Q1
Area, A1

If a liquid enters a pipe at a rate of Qm3s -1 and leaves at a rate of Q2m3s-1, then
Q1 = Q2. this is the continuity equation.
But
Q1 = A1 V
Q2 = A2V2

Hence A1V1 − A2V2 continuity equation

Bernoulli’s principal
i. An incompressible and non – viscous liquid.
ii. Streamline
iii. Steady state conditions where velocity is independent of time

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Consider a section of flow tube, the ends of which have cross sectional areas A1 and A2
respectively and are at elevations y1 and y2above the reference level.
∆s2
d
∆s1 c
P2
a b
a A2
P1 A1
y2
y1

Let p1 and p2 be the pressure on the two ends of the flow tube respectively. If v 1 and v2
are the velocities of the liquid at the inflow and outflow, then in time t , an amount of
liquid A1v1 t , enters the liquid and an amount A1v1 t , flows out. By the continuity
equation;
A1V1t = A2V2 t
v1t = s1
V2  2 = s 2
 A1 s1 = A2 s 2 where s1 and s 2 are the displacement of
the liquid element between a nad c in time t
The force at end a = Fa =P1A1
And at end d = Fb = P2A2
The net work done on the element when the liquid element is displaced is
w = P1 A1 s1 − P2 A2 s 2

But
A1 s1 = A2 s 2 = v
where v = change in volume
w = p1v − p 2 v
= ( p1 − p 2 )v..................................(1)

The mass of the liquid having volume v is ρ v

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1 2 1
The kinetic energy of the mass of the liquid entering at a is mv = ( pV )v12 and
2 2
1
that of the liquid leaving at d is ( pV )v22
2

The net change in K.E =

1
2 2
1
2
(
( PV )v22 − (PV )v12 = (PV ) v22 − v12
1
)
The net gain in gravitational potential energy = p(v)gy2 − p(v)gy1 = pvg ( y2 − y1 )

The change in mechanical energy = K .E + P.E =

1
2
( )
( pv) v22 − v12 + pvg ( y2 − y1 )
The work done on the liquid element = the change in mechanical energy i.e.

( p1 − p2 )v = 1 pV (v22 − v12 ) + Vg ( y 2 − y1 )

2
1
p1 − p 2 =
2
( )
 v22 − v12 + g ( y 2 − y1 )
1 1
p1 + pv12 + gy1 = p 2 + v 22 + gy2. This is Bemouli' s equation
2 2

Hence
1 2
p+ pv + pgy = constant.
2
For an incompressible non viscous liquid, the sum of pressure kinetic energy per unit
volume, potential energy per unit volume is constant for laminar flow.

Applications of Bernoulli’s principle

V1

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 118

V2

The orientation of aerofoil relative to the flow direction cause the flow lines to crowd
together above the aerofoil corresponding to increased flow velocity. And according to
Bernoulli’s equation the pressure above reduces. Below the aerofoil, the flow velocity is
lower and hence the pressure is higher, hence there is a resultant thrust upwards
leading to the lift.

Jets and nozzles

Bernoulli’s equation suggests that for fluid flow where potential energy change is very
small or zero as in a horizontal pipe, the pressure falls when the velocity rises. The
velocity increases at constriction.
The greater the change in cross-sectional area, the greater is the increase of velocity and
so the greater is the pressure drop.

A1V = A2V2 A1  A2 V2  V1

Several devices with jets and nozzles use this effect e.g. Bunsen burner, filter pump and
paint spray.

iii) Flow meters

These measure the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe.

a) Venturi flow meter

This consists of a horizontal tube with a constriction and replaces part of a piping of a
system.

P1
P2
V1invent and inspire V2
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 119

The two vertical tubes record the pressures in the fluids flowing in the normal part of
the tube and in the constriction.

From Bernoulli’s equation (ρgy is not considered because pipe and constriction are at
the same level)
1 1
p1 + v1 2 = p 2 + v 22
2 2
1 1
p1 − p 2 = pv22 − pv12
2 2
Using the equation of continuity
A1V1 = A2V2
A1V1
V2 =
A2

P1 − P2 =
1
2
(
 v 22 − v12 )
1  A12 v12 
P1 − P2 =   2 − v12 
2  A2 
 2

(P1 − P2 ) = 1   A12
− 1v12
2  A2 

b) Pitot tube
The pressure exerted by a moving fluid called total pressure can be regarded as having
two components namely;
i. The static pressure which it would have if it were to rest.
1 
ii. Dynamic pressure which is the pressure equivalent of its velocity  v 2 
2 

A pitot tube measures total pressure.

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Total pressure

Static pressure
Pitot tube

Total pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure

Dynamic pressure = total pressure – static pressure
1 2
v = (Total pressure - static pressure)
2
2
v 2 = (total pressure - static pressure)


Questions
1. At a certain section of the horizontal water pipe, the static pressure is 1.96 x 105Pa,
the total pressure is 2.04 x 105Pa and area of cross section is 20cm2, if the density of
water is 103kgm-3, find the volume flow rate in the pipe.
Solution:
2
v2 = (total pressure - static pressure).


v2 =
2
10 3
(
2.04  10 3 − 1.96  105 )
= 0.002 ((8000 )
v = 4ms −1
 flow rate = AV
20
= 4
10,000
= 8  10 − 4 m3 s −1

2. P2

P1 h1= 30cm h2= 20cm

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 121

The above diagram represents a venture-meter, if the cross-sectional area of the main
pine is 5.81 x 10-3m2 and that of the constriction is 2.58 x 10-3m2, find the velocity v
Solution
1 2 1
p1 + v1 = p 2 + v 22
2 2
1
(
p1 − p 2 =  v 22 − v12
2
)
but A 1V1 = A2V2
A1V1
V2 =
A2

1  A12V 2 
P1 − P2 =   2 − V12 
2  A2 
1  A12 
P1 − P2 =   2 − 1V12
2  A2 

P1 = P0 + h1 g P2 = P0 + h2 g
1  A12 
(h1 − h2 )g =   2 − 1V 2
2  A2 
V12 =
(h1 − h2 )
1  A12 
  2 − 1
2  A2 

98 98
V12 = =
1 2.04
 4.07
2
V12 = 48.14
V1 = 6.9ms−1

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 122

Flow velocity of a liquid from a tank open to the atmosphere.

P0

P0
y2

y1

By Bernoulli’s principal,
1 2
po + gy2 = P0 + gy1 + v
2
Where v is the velocity from the orifice near the bottom of the tank

g ( y2 − y1 ) =
1
v 2
2
but y 2 − y1 = h
1
gy = v 2
2
v2 = 2 gh
v= 2 gh

VISCOSITY
This is the resistance between fluid layers in contact moving relative to each other.

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The deformation created when the adjacent layers of a material are displaced laterally
over each other is called a shear
All liquids and gasses stick to a solid surface so that when they flow, the velocity must
gradually decrease to zero as the wall of the pipe is approached, a fluid is therefore
sheared when it flows past the solid surface.
The opposition set up by the fluid to shear is called the viscosity. So, viscosity is a kind of
internal friction exhibited to some degree by all fluids.
It arises in liquids because the forced movement of a molecule relative to its neighbours
is opposed by the intermolecular forces between them. But viscosity of a liquid is the
measure of its resistance to flow. The greater the viscosity, the less easier it is for a liquid
to flow and the more sticky it is hence oil is said to be more viscous than water.
Coefficient viscosity, η
Consider two parallel layers of liquid separated by distance δy and having velocities v +
δv
v+δv

δy
v

F
The frictional force F between the layers F shear stress = Where A is the area of the
A
layers.

The rate of change of shear strain is dv , this is also called strain rate or velocity
dy
gradient.
For lamina flow

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F v

A y
F v
=
A y
F
= = coeffient of viscosity
 Av 
 
 y 
shear stress
=
shear strain

Coefficient of viscosity is the stress which results the motion of one layer of a fluid over
another when the velocity gradient is unit or it is the frictional force per unit area when
its in a region of unit velocity gradient.
Unit of η is Nm-2s or Pas
Question: Prove that [η] = ML-1T-1

Poiseulle’s equation (For lamina flow only)

The volume rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe depends on;
i. The radius r of the pipe
ii. The coefficient of viscosity 

P
iii. The pressure gradient   where P is the pressure head and l is the length of
l 
the tube.

(v t ) =
z
kr x
 

p
y 

 l 

L.H .S  =
V 
=
L3
= L3T −1

t  t

 y
z
R.H .S  = K r 
x  p 

 l 

z
 ML−1T −2

= KLX (ML −1
T −1
)
y

 

 L 
= KLX M y
L−Y M z
L2Z
T −2 Z

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= KM y + z Lx − 2 z − y T −Y −2 Z
resolving Left hand side and Right hand side
M;y + z = 0........................(1 )
L; x-2 z-y = 3....................( 2 )
T; y − 2 z = − 1....................(3)

From equation (3) ; y + 2z = 1

y = 1 – 2z
Put in equation (1);1-2z + z = 0
1-z = 0
Z=1
 y = −1
Using equation (2)
x − 2 +1 = 3
x=4
 poiseulle' s equation is

v  p
 = k −1 r 4  
t t
v kr 4 p
=
t l

butk =
8
v  pr 4
=  Poiseulle' s equation (only for laminar flow)
t 8 l
Determining coefficient of viscosity using Poiseulle’s equation (Applies to only less
viscous liquids e.g. water)

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The pressure head h is varied by raising or lowering tube T

Liquid flowing through the capillary tube is collected for a measured time. The volume
of water, V, flowing per second is calculated.

A graph of V against h is plotted;

V
A

O
h

The slope, S of the graph and region OA is determined from

V  pr 4
=
t 8 l
But p = hρg

V  hgr 4  gr 4 
= =  h
t 8 l  8l 
 gr 4 
The slope, S =  
 8l 
gr 4
=
8Sl

In determining the radius of the tube, mercury of known mass is filled in the tube

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l invent and inspire G.U
 127

r 2 lpgh = m

Stokes’s law
A body moving in a fluid experiences a retarding force due to the viscosity of the fluid.
This retarding force is called viscous drag.
Note. The difference between viscosity and viscous drag is that viscosity is a frictional
force which opposes relative motion between liquid layers whereas viscous drag is a
frictional force experienced by a body in a fluid.
The viscous drag F, experienced by a sphere moving in a fluid depend on
i. The radius r of the sphere
ii. The velocity v of the sphere.
iii. The coefficient of viscosity  of the liquid.

For a constant body of similar dimensions moving in a uniform fluid, the force of
viscosity depends on the velocity of the body.
Hence F = kr x y v z
x
(
MLT − 2 = L  ML−1T −1 ) (LT )
y −1 z

= Lx .M y .L− y .T − y .LZ .t − Z
MLT − 2 = Lx − y + z .M y T − y − z
y
M1 = M , hence y = 1
L1 = Lx − y + z , hence x - y + z = 1
but y = 1, x + z = 2
T -2 = T − y − z , hence − y − z = −2
buty = 1, z = 1
hencex = 1

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 F = krv
Detailed analysis indicate that
k = 6
 F = 6rv → Stoke' s law

Motion of a metal sphere in a viscous liquid

Consider the forces acting on the sphere as it falls through a liquid
F
U

W
W = weight
U = up thrust
F = viscous drag
The resultant force on the sphere is W- (F+U)

= w − (F + U ) where m = mass of the sphere

mdv
From Newton’s second law;
dt
If a is the radius of the sphere, ρ the density of the material of the sphere and σ the
density of the liquid then

W = vpg = 4 a 3 pg
3
U = 4 a g
3
3
F = 6av

The sphere will accelerate until the net force on it is zero, hence W – (F+U) = 0

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When the net force on the sphere is zero, it moves with a constant velocity Vo called
terminal velocity.
W = F +U
4 a 3 pg = 4 a 3g + 6av0
3 3
4 a g
3
v0 = (p − )
3 6a
2 a2g
= (p − )
9 
2a 2
 v0 = ( p −  )g
9

A sketch of velocity against time for a sphere moving in a viscous liquid.

v0

A graph of acceleration against velocity.

dv
at
g

v
v0

Measurement of coefficient of viscosity using Stoke’s Law

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From the equation

2a 2
v0 = ( p −  )g
9
2a 2
= ( p −  )g
9v0
The method is suitable for very viscous liquids such as oil.
The densities ρ and  of the material of the sphere and the specimen liquid
respectively are determined.

P
A

A tall glass tube T supported vertically in a constant temperature enclosure. Three

reference marks ABC are made along the tube T using rubber bands at equal spaces.
A ball bearing is moistened with a specimen liquid and then allowed to fall vertically
down a liquid by releasing it.
The times t1 taken by the ball to fall from A to B or t2 from B to C are measured. The
equality of these two times implies that the sphere had attained terminal velocity by the
time it reached point A. if t1 is not equal to t2 the reference marks are drifted further
down the tube and then repeated.
If t1 = t2 = t, then terminal velocity
AB
v0 =
t
2a 2
Fromv0 = ( p −  )g
9

The  can be calculated.

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When the experiment is repeated with a liquid of coefficient of viscosity η1 and density
σ1, using the same ball-bearing, then.
2a 2
1 = (p − 1 )
9v1

Where v1 is the new terminal velocity.

 v ( −  )
 = 1 Thus, knowing v1,v,ρ,σ1,σ,the coefficients of viscosity can be
1 v 0 (  −  1 )
compared.

Effect of temperature on viscosity of fluids

Liquids
The viscosity of a liquid decreases as the temperature rises. When the temperature
increases, the molecules of the liquid on the average are further apart and the
intermolecular attractive forces decrease.
The resistance to flow decreases hence coefficient of viscosity decreases.

Gases
Viscosity in gases is due to molecules in gases moving from the slower moving layers to
the fast moving layers and from the fast moving layers to the slow moving layers. The
net result of this is more momentum is carried one way than the other. This inturn
means that forces exist on the layers which retard the fast moving layers and accelerate
the slower moving layers. The retardation depends on the mass of the molecules and
their speeds i.e. the momentum, mv.
When the temperature of the gas is raised, the molecular speeds and hence the
momentum increase, leading to an increase in the viscosity of the gas.
Examples
1. A flat plate of area 0.1m2 is placed on a flat surface and is separated from the
surface by a film of oil 10-5m thick, where  is 1.5Nsm2. Calculate the force
required to cause the plate to slide on the surface at a constant speed of 1mms-1.

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F −5
shear stress A ,1.5  F  10 1.5  0.1
= = , F= = 15N
strain rate dv 0.1 10 −3 10 -2
dy
2. The terminal velocity of a spherical oil drop falling in air at 20 0c is 2 x 10-7ms-1.
What is the radius of the drop if its density is 930kgm-3?
Assume  of air at 200c = 1.8 x 10-5Pas
Density of air = 1.2kgm-3

2a 2
V0 = ( p −  )g
9
2a 2
2  10 −7 = (930 − 1.2)9.8
9  1.81  10 −5
3.258  10 −11 = 18204 .48a 2
a = 4.2  10 −8 m
3. A steel ball bearing of diameter 8.0mm is timed as it falls through oil at a steady
speed. Over a vertical distance of 0.20m, it takes 0.56s. Assuming the density of
steel is 7.8 x 10-3 kgm-3 and that of oil 9.0 x 102 kgm-3. Calculate;
a) Weight of the ball
b) Upthrust on the ball
c) Viscosity of the oil

Using stokes law

2a 2
V= ( p −  )g
9
0.2
given a = 4  10 -3 V= = 0.36
0.56
P = 7.8  10 3
 = 9  10 2 kgm −3

Weight

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= 4 a 3 pg
3

3
(
= 4  4  10 −3 )2
 7.8  10 3  9.8 = 0.2 N

Upthrust

= 4 r 3 pg
3
( )
= 4  4  10 −3  9  10 2  9.8
3
3

= 0.0024 N

Viscosity of oil
2a 2
= ( p −  )g
9v0

=
(
2  4  10 −3 )2

(
 9.8 7.8  10 3 − 9  10 2 )
9  0.36
= 0.6679 Pas
4. A spherical raindrop of radius 2 x 10-4 m falls vertically in air at 200c. If the densities of
air and water are 1.2kgm-3 and 1000kgm-3 and the viscosity of air 200c is 1.8 x 10-5 Pas.
Calculate the terminal velocity of the drop.

2a 2
V0 = ( p −  )g
9
2  (2  10 − 4 )
2

= (1000 − 1.2)9.8
9  1.8  10 −5
= 4.81ms −1

Exercise
1. Air flows past the upper surface of a horizontal aero plane wing at 250ms -1 and past
the lower surface of the wing at 200ms-1. The density of air is 1.0kgm-3 at the flight
altitudes and the area of the wing is 20m2. Calculate the net lift on the wing. (2.25x105N)

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2. A pitot – static force fitted on a pressure gauge is used to measure the speed of a
boast at sea. Given that the speed of the boat does not exceed 10ms -1 and the density
of sea water is 1050 kgm-3, calculate the maximum pressure on the gauge. (5.25x104Pa)

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ELASTICITY
Mechanical properties of materials.
Strength: It is the ability of the material to withstand an applied force before it breaks.
Stiffness: This is the resistance which a material offers to having its shape or size
changed.
Ductility: This is the ability of a material to be hammered, bent, rolled, or pressed into
different shapes. Ductile materials undergo both elastic and plastic deformation.

A material is said to undergo elastic deformation when it can regain its original length
after the stretching forces are removed.

A material undergoes plastic deformation when it does not regain its original length
when the stretching forces are removed.

Brittle material cannot be permanently stretched. It undergoes elastic deformation not

plastic deformation.
Tensile Stress, Tensile Strain and Young’s Modulus.
Suppose a material of length l, cross section, A, stretched by an extension x when a
force F is applied to the material.
A

l x

Tensile stress is the ratio of the force to the cross-section area.i.e.

force F
Tensile stress = =
area A

Unit of stress is Nm-2 or Pascals (Pa).

Dimensions of stress = [stress] = ML-1T-2.
Tensile strain is the ratio of the extension to the original length of the material. i.e.
extension x
tensile strain = =
originallength l

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Strain has no units.

Young’s Modulus, E. This
is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. Young’s
F
Stress Fl
Modulus, E = = A = . Therefore,
Strain x Ax
l
EAx
stretching force, F = .
l

A graph of Stress against strain for a ductile material

Stress

C D
L B
A

O P Strain

OA is a straight line. Up to point A stress is proportional to strain. The portion OA is the

Hooke’s law region. Region OA is where young’s modulus is defined. A is called the
proportional limit. Along OA and up to L just beyond A, the wire returns to its original
length when stress is decreased to zero. L is called elastic limit. Beyond L up to B the
material becomes plastic. The molecules of the wire begin to slide across each other and
some of the energy of the material is dissipated as heat. Point B is the yield point. With
further increase in stress, work hardening occurs; this is due to the dislocations. When
the dislocation density is high slippage of atomic plates became difficult. The
dislocations become tangled up with each other. Point C is the breaking stress or
maximum stress. At this point the material develops kinks. Point D is the where the wire
breaks. Question: Sketch graphs on the same axes of stress against
strain for glass, metal wire and rubber, and explain the nature of the graphs.

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Force in a metal bar due to contraction or expansion

When a bar is heated, and then prevented from contracting as it cools, a considerable
force is exerted at the ends of the bar. Consider a bar of young’s modulus, E, a cross
sectional A, linear expansivity α, and a decrease in temperature ΔӨ°C. If l is the original
length of the bar, the decrease in length x if the bar were free to contract = αl (ΔӨ). Now

EAx
F= but x = αl (ΔӨ)
l

EA(l )
F= = EA ( )
l

Relationship between Young’s modulus, E and the force constant, k

Fl  EA 
From the definition of young’s modulus, E = ,F =   x ………(i)
Ax  l 
Using Hooke’s law, F = kx …………………………………………….(ii) From
EA
equations (i) and (ii) k =
l

Energy stored in a stretching wire

Suppose a wire is stretched by an amount x by applying a force F without exceeding
elastic limit. The average force = (0+F)/2 = ½F.
Now the work done = force x distance.
Work done = average force x extension= ½F. x
This is the amount of energy stored in the wire.

EAx
Further, since F = ,
l
EAx 2
energy stored = .
2l
Energy stored per unit volume

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EAx 2
energy stored = but volume = Al.
2l

E  x  Young' s mod ulus 

2
EAx 2
energy stored per unit volume = =   = (strain )2
2l. Al 2l 2

 (strain ) = ½ x stress x strain

Stress 2
=
2strain

Experiment to determine Young’s Modulus for a metal wire

Rigid support
P Q
Reference wire l Test wire

Vernier Calliper
M

Mass for keeping the

reference wire taught

Two thin, long wires of the same material and length P and Q are suspended from a rigid
support. P carries a scale M in mm and its straightened by attaching a weight at its end.
Q carries a vernier scale which is along side scale M. Various loads are added to the test
wire and the corresponding extensions caused are read off from the vernier scale. After
each reading, the load should be removed to check that the wire returns to its original
position, showing that elastic limit has not been exceeded. The original length of the
wire l is measured from the rigid support up to the vernier scale. Using a micrometer
screw gauge, the diameter of the test wire and hence the cross-sectional wire A = πr2
can be obtained. A graph of mass(m) of the load against extension(e) is plotted.

m/kg

Slope, s
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mgl EA
From E = , m= e
eA gl

EA
Slope, s =
gl

gsl
Hence E =
A

Examples:

1. A metal wire of diameter 2.0x10-4m and length 2m is fixed horizontally between two
points 2m apart. Young’s modulus for the wire is 2x1011Nm-2.
(i) What force should be applied at the mid point of the wire to depress it by 0.1m.
(ii) Find the work done in (i) above.
1m C
1m
A

0.1m
T
T
θθ
B
1.
F

cos =
0.1
but AB = (1 2
)
+ 0.12 = 1.005 m
AB

0.1
hence cos =
1.005

ABC = 2xAB = 2x1.005 = 2.01m, Extension, e = 2.01 - 2 =0.01m

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EAe
T= and A = πr2 = πd2/4
l

Resolving vertically, 2Tcosθ = F,

2EAe cos 2Ed 2 e cos

Therefore, F = =
l 4l

F=
( )
2  2  1011    2  10 −4  0.01  0.1
2

= 12.5 N
1  4  1.005

ii) Work done = ½Fe = ½x12.5x0.01 = 0.0625J

2. A uniform metal bar of length 1.0m and of diameter 2.0cm is fixed between two rigid
supports at 25°C. If the temperature of the rod of raised to 75°C. Find (i) the force
exerted on the supports. (ii) The energy stored in the rod at 75°C (Young’s modulus for
the metal = 2.0x1011Pa, coefficient of linear expansion = 1.0x10-5K-1)
F = EA ( )
( )
(i)
F = 2.0  1011    0.012  1.0  10 −5 (75 − 25) = 31400 N
(ii) Energy stored = ½Fe, but e =αl(∆θ)
Hence energy stored = ½Fαl(∆θ) = ½x31400x1.0x10-5x1x(75-25) =7.85J

Exercise
1. A thin steel wire initially 1.5m long and of diameter 0.5mm is suspended from a rigid
support. Calculate (i) the final extension, (3.53x10-3m)
(ii) the energy stored in the wire, when a mass of 3kg is attached to the lower end.
(Young’s modulus of steel = 2.0x1011Nm-2) (5.19x10-2J)

2. Two thin wires, one of steel and the other of bronze each 1.5m long and of diameter
0.2cm are joined end to end to form a composite wire of length 3m. What tension in this
wire will produce a total extension of 0.064cm? (Young’s modulus for steel = 2x1011Pa,
Young’s modulus for bronze = 1.2x1011Pa) (1009N)

3. A copper wire and steel wire each of length 1.0m and diameter 1.0mm are joined end
to end to form a composite wire 2.0m long. Find the strain in each wire when the

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composite stretches by 1.0x10-3m. (Young’s moduli for copper and steel are 1.2x1011Pa
and 2.0x1011Pa respectively).

4. The ends of a uniform wire of length 2.00m are fixed to points A and B are 2.00m
apart in the same horizontal line. When a 5kg mass is attached to the mid-point C of the
wire, the equilibrium position of C is 7.5cm below the line AB. Given that young’s
modulus for the material of the wire is 2.0x1011Pa, find:
(i) the strain in the wire,
(ii) the stress in the wire,
(iii) the energy stored in the wire.
Answers
Exercise 1:
Massxlength
a) Force =
(time)2
Mass
(b) Pressure=
lengthx(time )
2

forcex (length)
2
(c) work =
(time)2
massxlength
(d) momentum =
time
Exercise 2:
(a) [Density] = ML-3
(b)[Pressure] = ML-1T-2
(c) [Power] = ML2T-3
(d)[Momentum] = MLT-1
Exercise 3:
Velocity ratio, logarithmic numbers, efficiency, coefficient of friction,
Exercise 4:
1. x = 1, y = 1 and z = 1
2. x = 1, y = 1 and z = 1

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Exercise 5:
1. 6.06N
2. 13.3ms-2
Exercise 6:
1. V = gt, S = ½gt2, V2 = 2gs
2. t = U/g, s = U2/2g
Exercise 7
2. (i) 9.9s, (ii) 27.7ms-1 (iii) 137.2m
Exercise 8:
1. 83.1m, 2. angle of projection 53.1°, initial speed = 63.9ms-1
Exercise 9:
1. (i) 3004N (ii) 1114.3N
2. (i) 4.905ms-2 (ii) 98.1N (iii) 58.87J

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HEAT
THERMOMETRY
Temperature scale:
A scale of temperature is one which can be used to measure the degree of hotness or
temperature.
In order to set up a temperature scale, one selects some physical property, whose value
changes with different degree of hotness.
Examples of physical properties used in different thermometers;
1. Length of a liquid column (a liquid – in – glass thermometer.
2. Electrical resistance of a wire (platinum resistance thermometer).
3. The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure (constant – pressure
gas thermometer).
4. Volume of the fixed mass of the gas at constant pressure (constant – pressure
gas thermometer).

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5. E.M.F of a thermocouple (thermocouple thermometer).

6. quality (wave length) of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a hot body
(Pyrometers; optical pyrometer and total radiation pyrometer).

Qualities of a good thermometric property

i. It should vary continuously and linearly with temperature changes.
ii. It should change considerably for a small change in temperature.
iii. It should vary over a wide range of temperatures.
iv. It should be accurately measurably over a wide range of temperature of fairly
simple apparatus.
v. Each value of thermometric property should correspond to one and only one
value of the temperature.
Establishing a temperature scale
i. Choose a thermometric substance with a good thermometric physical property.
ii. Choose two fixed points i.e. upper and lower fixed points. For the Celsius scale,
the lower fixed point is the ice point which is 00c, and the upper fixed point is the
steam point is 1000c. For the Kelvin scale, one fixed point is chosen i.e. triple
point of water.
iii. The values of the thermometric property corresponding to the two fixed points
are measured.

Let XL and Xu represent the properties corresponding to the lower fixed point and upper
fixed point respectively.
Assuming linear variation of the thermometric property.

Xu

X0

XL

Temperature
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tl θ tu

The property Xθ at unknown temperature, θ is measured.

(X u − X l ) (X  − Xl )
slope = =
tu − tl  − tl
(X  − X l )(t u − t l )
 − tl =
Xu − XL
(X  − X l )(t u − t l )
= + tl
Xu − Xl
t u − t l = N = fundamenta l interval.

For the Celsius scale,

N = 100 0 c where t l = 0C
X − X 0
=  100
X 100 − X 0

Examples of celsius scale defined on different thermometer

i. Liquid in- glass thermometer (property is length, l)

 L − L0 
Q =     100
 L100 − L0 
ii. Resistance thermometer (property is resistance, R)
(R − R0 )
=  100
R100 − R0

iii. Constant pressure gas thermometer (property is volume, V)

(V − V0 )
=  100
V100 − V0

iv. Constant volume gas thermometer (property is pressure, P)

(P − P0 )
=  100
P100 − P0
v. Thermocouple thermometer (property is electromotive force, E)

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(E − E0 )
=  100
E100 − E0

Mercury in glass thermometer

The thermometric property is the length L, of the mercury column. If L 100, L0 Lθ are the
lengths of the mercury column at the steam and ice points, and the unknown
temperature, then,

 L − L0 
Q = 100   0
C defines the celculus scale on the mercury in glass thermomte r.
 L100 − L0 
Limitations of the mercury in glass thermometer are its freezing point ( -390c) and its
boiling point at one atmosphere pressure (3570c)
Inaccuracies of the thermometer include;
i. Non-uniformity of the bore of the capillary tube.
ii. Gradual creep of the zero due to the shrinking of the bulls long after
manufacture.
iii. The mercury in the stem is not all the same temperature when taking a
measurement.

Advantages of the mercury in glass thermometer

1. They are simple, cheap and portable.
2. They give direct readings of temperature.

Constant volume gas thermometer.

Dead space
c
Mercury
h
Constant Volume
mark

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❖ A constant volume gas thermometer uses pressure of a gas as its thermometric

property.
❖ The bulb is immersed in an ice – water mixture. Time is allowed for the air inside
the bulb to assume the temperature of the bath.
❖ Tube C is moved downwards to bring the mercury level in the left hand arm to
the constant volume mark.
❖ The difference, h0 in the mercury levels in the two arms is measured.
❖ Time is allowed for the air in the bulb to attain the temperature in the bath
❖ Tube C is allowed to bring the mercury in the left hand side to the constant
volume mark. The difference h100 between the mercury levels is measured.
❖ The bulb is then immersed in the system whose temperature is required.
❖ The difference in mercury levels, hθ is determined as above.
The unknown temperature

 h − h0  0
 = 100  c
 h100 − h0 
sources of errors in a constant volume gas thermometer
i. The temperature of the gas in the ‘dead space’ is different from that of the gas in
the bulb.
ii. Thermal expansion of the bulb.
iii. Capillary effects at the mercury surfaces.

For accurate work (solution). H2 or Helium or N2 gases are used.

The gas thermometers are used as a standard to calibrate other more practical
thermometers.
Advantages of the constant volume gas thermometers

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1. They have a wide range (-2700C to 15000C).

2. They are accurate.
3. They are sensitive to any change in temperature.

Disadvantages
1. They are bulky
2. They are slow to respond
3. They do not give direct reading.
4. Expensive to make.
5. Cannot be used to measure temperatures at points, only temperature of the air
surrounding the bulb.
6. Inaccuracies in measuring the heights.

The electrical resistance thermometer

It consists of a fine platinum wire is wound on two strips of mica, arranged cross wire as
shown below.

Platinum wire

Mica strips

Leads

Mode of operation
The platinum wire is connected in one cm of a whetstone bridge circuit shown below

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R1
R2

Dummy leads
R r

The resistance of the platinum wire is R. The resistance of the leads of the thermometer
is r. Dummy leads which lie alongside the thermometer have resistance r.
The thermometer is immersed in an ice water mixture and S is adjusted until the
galvanometer G shows no deflection. Let S0 be the value of S at balance
R 1 R0 + r
then =
R 2 S0 + r

Where R0 is the value of R at the ice-point. In the set up R1 is made equal to R2 hence
R0=S0.
The resistance of the thermometer when it is immersed in a steam bath at 76cm of
mercury is determined by adjusting S to obtain balance. Let S100 be the value of S then.
At balance, R100 = S100.
The thermometer is then immersed in the system whose temperature θ0c is required. S
is adjusted to obtain balance. Let Sθ be the value of S then.
At balance Rθ = Sθ. the unknown temperature θ° is calculated from

 S − S 0 0
 = 100  C
 S100 − S 0 

The range of the platinum resistance thermometer

The thermometer has a wide range of -2000c.

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Advantages of the electrical resistance thermometer

1) The single advantage of the electrical resistance thermometer is that is accurate.
This is so because it is possible to measure resistance accurately.
2) They can be used over a fairly wide range of temperature.
3) It is used to measure steady temperatures.
Disadvantages of the electrical resistance thermometer
1) A long time is needed for the thermometer to assume the temperature it is
required to measure owing to the large heat capacity. This means that a long
time is needed for making an observation.
2) The thermometer cannot be used to measure temperature at a point.
Note. When calibrated against constant volume thermometers the resistance R of
platinum is found to vary with Celsius thermometer θ according to

(
RQ = R0 1 +  + 
2
)..................................................(1)
Where R0 is the resistance of the platinum at 00c and α and  are constants. The values
of R0, α and  for a given platinum resistance thermometer can be found by measuring
its resistance at the ice point, steam point and boiling point of sulphur and inserting the
values into equation (1).

Thermocouples
Suppose wires A and B of different materials are joined to make junctions 1 and 2 as
shown
G
B
B

1 2

If the temperature of the junction 1 is raised above that of junction 2, the galvanometer
G shows a deflection implying that an emf has been generated. This emf is called a

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thermoelectric emf. The magnitude of the emf varies with the temperature difference
between the two junctions. This is the basis of measurement of temperature using a
thermocouple.
The test junction is immersed in a steam bath at one atmosphere pressure and the
corresponding thermoelectric emf E100 measured.
The test junction is immersed in the system whose temperature is required. The
corresponding thermoelectric emf Eθ is measured.

 E 
The unknown temperature,  = 100   0 C
 E100 

Advantages of a thermocouple
1) Wide range of temperature i.e. -2500c to 15000c
2) It has a small heat capacity, hence it can be used to measure rapidly changing
temperatures.
3) It can measure temperatures at a point.
4) Thermocouples can robust and compact. They are cheap and easy to construct.
5) It can be used for measuring low temperatures since the emf generated is small.
Disadvantages of thermocouple
Each thermocouple requires separate calibration.

The thermo Dynamic scale of temperature

This is the fundamental temperature scale in science and uses the Kelvin, K as the SI unit
of temperature.
It uses the triple point of water as the standard fixed point.
Triple point is the temperature at which pure water, pure melting ice and saturated
vapor pressure exist in equilibrium.
The temperature of the triple point of water is given the value 273.16k.
Let Xtp be the thermometric property at the triple point of water and Xt the
thermometric property at the unknown temperature, T. Then

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(X t )
T=  273 .16 K
X tp

The magnitude of a degree, on the Celsius scale is equal to the magnitude of a degree
on the thermodynamic scale. If θ denotes temperature on the Celsius scale, and t the
temperature on the thermodynamic scale then, t = θ + 273.16

Radiation pyrometers
A radiation pyrometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature of a body by
the radiation that the body emits. They are best suited for measuring temperatures
above 10000c. Radiation pyrometers are of two types;
i. Total radiation on pyrometer. These respond to both visible and infrared
radiation
ii. Optical pyrometer- these respond only to visible radiation.

Optical pyrometer
A typical optical pyrometer is the disappearing filament pyrometer. This consists of a
refracting telescope having a tungsten lamp filament at the focus of its objective as
shown below.

filament

Hot body eyepiece

F
Eye

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The observer looks through the red filter F at the filament against a background formed by
the image of a small area of the body. If the image of the hot body is brighter than the
filament, the filament will appear dark on a bright background. If the filament appears bright
on the dark background i.e. hot body is then less bright than the filament. Current through
the filament is adjusted until the filament “disappears”. The ammeter A, calibrated to read
temperature, will give the temperature of the hot body. The range of pyrometer is up to
3000C.

Examples:
1. In a constant volume gas thermometer, the following observations were recorded on a
day when the volumetric reading was 760mmHg.

Reading in the closed limb Reading in the open limb

(mm) (mm)
Bulb in melting ice 126 112
Bulb in steam 126 390
Bulb at room temperature 126 157

Calculate the room temperature

P0 = (H + h0 )
= 760 + (112 − 126 )
P0 = 746 mm

P100 = (H + h100 )
= 760 + (390 − 126 )
= 1024 mm

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P = (H + h )
= 760 + (157 − 126 )
= 791mm

 P − P 
U sin g =    100 0 C
 P100 − P0 

791 − 746
= 100 0 C = 16.18o C
1024 − 746
Room temperature = 16.18 0 C

2. The resistance of platinum thermometer is 5.7, 5.5, 5.2 at boiling point,

unknown temperature, θ, and at the freezing point of water respectively. Determine the
unknown temperature in θ°C.
R100 = 5.7
R = 5.5
R0 = 5.2
R − R0 5.5 − 5.2 0.3
= =  100 =  100 = 60 0 C
R100 − R0 5.7 − 5.2 0.5

3. The resistance Rθ of a platinum thermometer at a temperature at a temperature

θ0C on a gas thermometer is
( )
R = R0 1+   +  2 where  = 1.3  10 -2 K −1 ,  = 1.33  10 −6 K −2
R0 = resistance at 0 0 C

Calculate the temperature of the resistance thermometer when temperature on the gas
thermometer is 3000C

(
R = R0 1 +  +  2 )
(
R100 = R0 1 + 100 + (100 )  )
2

= R (1 + 300 + (300 )  )
2
R300 0

− R = R (1 + 300 + (300 )  ) − R
2
R300 0 0 0

− R = R (1 + 100 + (100 )  ) − R
2
R100 0 0 0

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 R −R 
 =   0
  100
 100
R − R 0 

 R − R0 
  =  300   100
 R100 − R0 

=
( )  100
R0 300 + (300 ) 
2

R (100 + (100 )  )
2
0

=
( ) (
300 1.3  10 − 2 + (300 ) 1.33  10 −6
2
) 100
( ) (
100 1.3  10 − 2 + (100 ) + 1.33  10 −6
2
)
 = 306 C 0

Exercise
1. If the resistance Rt of the element of a resistance thermometer at a temperature of
t°C on the ideal gas scale is given by Rt = Ro(1 +At + Bt2), where Ro is the resistance at 0°C
and A and B are constants such that A = - 6.50x103B, What will the temperature on the
scale of resistance thermometer when t = 50.0°C? (50.4°C)
2. The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 4.00Ω at the ice point and
5.46Ω at the steam point. What temperature on the platinum resistance of 9.84Ω?
(400°C)
3. The resistance of platinum wire at the triple point of water is 5.16Ω. What will its
resistance be at 100°C? (7.05Ω)

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SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg
mass of a body by 1k. Its unit is Jkg-1K-1.
The quantity mass times the specific heat of the substance is called the heat capacity.
Its unit is JK-1
Measurement of specific heat capacities
Using method of mixtures
❖ A calorimeter is weighted empty and its mass, mc recorded.
❖ The calorimeter is then half – filled with water and weighted again to determine
the mass of water mw added.
❖ The temperature θ1 of the water and calorimeter is measured after thorough
stirring.
❖ The mass ms of the specimen solid is determined.

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❖ The specimen is heated to a temperature, θ2 and then quickly transferred into

the water in the calorimeter.
❖ The temperature θ3 reached by the mixture is determined.
Continuous stirring during the mixture must be ensured.
Assuming that all heat lost by the specimen is gained by the calorimeter and the water,
then
ms c s ( 2 −  3 ) = mw c w ( 3 − 1 ) + mc cc ( 3 − 1 )

Where cs= Specific heat capacity of the specimen,

cw = Specific heat capacity of water,
cc = Specific heat capacity of material of the calorimeter

 m c + mc c c 
Thus c s =  w w ( 3 − 1 )
 m s ( 2 −  3 ) 
Precaution
• Ensure that the specimen indeed reaches the temperature θ2
• The specimen must be transferred into the calorimeter as fast as possible but
carefully so as to avoid splashing water out of the colorimeter.
• The colorimeter must be placed on insulating stands in a constant temperature
jacket.
• The calorimeter must be highly polished on the outer surface and the jacket on
the inner surface to reduce heat loss by radiation.
• The lid reduces heat law by convection.
• Stirring while the temperature of the mixture is raising must be ensured.

Cooling correction in the method of mixtures

In the method of mixtures in determining specific heat capacity, a hot body is placed in a
liquid at lower temperature. Consequently, the temperature of the liquid rises above
that of the surroundings. In the process, heat is lost to the surroundings. The observed
final temperature is lower than it would have been if no heat had been lot to the
surroundings.

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Θ31 Theoretical curve

∆θ
Θ3

Experimental curve

Θ1 Time
0

Δθ is the cooling correction

θ3 is the observed temperature of mixture
θ31 is the true final temperature of mixture
The cooling correction is the small temperature added to the observed final
temperature of the mixture to compensate for heat lost to the surroundings, while the
temperature of the mixture was rising.
A cooling correction is normally carried out when determining specific heat capacity of a
bad conductor, such as rubber, by method of mixtures.
Question: Why is cooling correction not applicable for good conductors?

Obtaining a cooling correction for a poor conductor of heat:

A known mass of water mw is placed in a container of known mass mc. The temperature
θ1 of water is recorded.
A rubber bung is weighed and its mass ms recorded. The bung is placed in boiling water
and left in for sufficiently long for it to attain the temperature θ2 of the boiling water.
The rubber bung is removed from the boiling water, shaking off the water drops dinging
to it and is quickly transferred into the calorimeter.

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The temperature θ, of the mixture, is recorded every half minute. A graph of

temperature θ against time is plotted.

θ°C

A
Θ3
q
C

A1 A2
∆θ

θ1 D
B
time

AB is drawn through the top of the cure parallel to the temperature axis and CD further
along the curve. The areas A1 and A2 are estimated by counting the squares on the

A 
graph paper. Cooling correction is therefore,  =  1 q
 A2 

(mc cc + mw cw )( 3 +  − 1 )
cs =
ms ( 2 −  3 −  )

Determination of specific heat capacity of a liquid by the continuous flow method.

A
Liquid from tap

Constant head
apparatus
V
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 160

In the figure above, P1 and P2 are platinum resistance thermometers.

The rate of flow of liquid through the apparatus is adjusted to suitable value by raising
or levelling the constant head apparatus. The electric circuits connected up. Time is
allowed for the thermometers P1 and P2 to record steady temperatures θ1and θ2
respectively, are then recorded.
Water is collected at the outlet in a previously weighed beaker for a measured time. The
rate, m1 of flow of water is recorded. The ammeter and voltmeter reading I1 and V1
respectively are recorded. The constant pressure head is raised to obtain a new rate of
flow. The current flowing is adjusted so as to keep (θ2- θ1) constant. The ammeter and
voltmeter reading I2 and V2 respectively are recorded. The new rate m2 of the flow of
water is measured.
In the first part of the experiment
I1V1 = m1c (θ2 – θ1) + h……………………………………………. (i)
Where c is the specific heat capacity of liquid, h is the small rate of loss of heat to the
surroundings.
In the 2nd part of the experience
I2V2 = m2c (θ2 - θ1) + h……………………………………………….. (ii)
Note that the rate of loss of heat to the surroundings is the same in both experiments
since the excess temperature above the surroundings is the same (See Newton’s law of
cooling later).
Hence; equation (i) – equation (ii)

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c = I1V1 – I2V2
(m1 – m2) (θ2 – θ1)
Advantages of the method
1. The temperatures are measured are steady and therefore can be determined
accurately by using platinum resistance thermometer.
3. The heat capacity of the apparatus does not have to be known.
4. According correction is eliminated by a repeat experiment.
5. Since temperatures are steady, small temperature differences can be used.
Hence the method can be used to investigate the temperature dependence of
the specific heat capacity of a liquid.
Disadvantage
1. A large quantity of liquid is required.
2. Only limited to liquid

Questions
1. In a determination of the specific heat capacity of rubber, by the method of mixtures,
this data was obtained
Mass of calorimeter = 44.70g.
Mass of water in the calorimeter = 70.33g
Initial temperature of the rubber stopper = 96.5°C.
The temperature of the mixture was read and recorded every minute and the following
results were obtained
Time 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
(mm)
Temp. of 30.5 34.5 35.5 36.0 36.5 36.3 36.0 36.0 35.9 35.6 35.4
the
mixture

i) Plot a graph of temperature of the mixture versus time

ii) Use the graph to determine the cooling correction (0.6K)

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iii) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the rubber (1.28x103Jkg-1k-1)

(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x 103 JKg-1k-1)
(Specific heat capacity of copper = 3.8x 102 JKg-1K-1)
(Mass of rubber stopper = 27.05g).

1. A copper colorimeter of mass 0.30kg contains 0.50kg of water at a temperature

of 15oC. A 0.56kg block of copper at a temperature of 100oC is dropped into the
colorimeter and the temperature is observed to increase to 22.5oC. Find the specific
heat capacity of copper.
mc = 0.30kg , ms = 0.56kg , cc = 3.8 x10 2 Jkg −1 K −1 , mw = 0.50kg , 2 = 100 0 C , c w = 4.2 x10 3 Jkg −1 K −1
1 = 15 C , 3 = 22.5 C
ms c s ( 2 −  3 ) = mw c w ( 2 − 1 ) + mc cc ( 2 − 1 )

 m c + mc c c 
c s =  w w ( 3 − 1 )
 ms ( 2 −  3 ) 

cs =
( )
0.5 x 4.2 x10 3 + 0.3x3.8 x10 2 (22.5 − 15)
= 3.83 x10 2 Jkg −1 K −1
0.56(100 − 22.5)

2. In a continuous flow experiment it was found that when the applied p.d was 12.0V,
the current was 1.54A, the rate of flow of liquid of 50g per minute caused the
temperature of the inflow to differ by 10°C with temperature of inflows. When the p.d
was increased to 16.0V (the current of 1.6A) a rate of flow of 90.0g per minute was
required to produce the same temperature difference as before. Find the specific heat
capacity of the liquid and the rate of heat loss.
I 2V2 − I 1V1
c=
(m2 − m1 )( 2 − 1 )

In continuous flow colorimeter for measurement of specific heat capacity of a liquid, 3.6
x 10-3m3 of liquid flow through the apparatus in 10 minutes. When electrical energy is
supplied to the heating coil at the rate of 44W, a steady difference of 4K is obtained

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between the temperatures of the outflow and inflow. When the flow rate is increased to
4.8 x 10-3m3 of liquid in 10 minutes, the electrical power required to maintain the
temperature difference is 58W. Find the;

i) Specific heat capacity of the liquid (2187.5JKg-1K-1)

ii) Rate of loss of heat. (2W)
(Density of the liquid = 800kgm-3)

4d) An electric drill takes 300s to make a hole in a piece of brass of man 9.5kg and
the average power delivered from the mains in 45w.

i) Calculate the amount of energy used in drilling the hole.

ii) If 80% of the energy supplied to the drill is used to raise the temperature of
the brass.
Calculate the average temperature rise. State any assumption made.
(S.H.C of brass = 390JKg-1K-1).

NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

The rate of loss of heat by a body is proportional to the excess temperature over the
surrounding.

= ( −  0 )
dQ
dt
Where θ = Temperature of body.
θo = temperature of surrounding

Experiment of verify Newton’s law of cooling.

A colorimeter is filled with hot water initially at the temperature of about 90°C is placed
in an air draught near a window and its temperature θ measured every ½ a minute.
Thermometer
Stirrer

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Stop Clock
 164

A graph of θ against time, t is plotted and is called a cooling cure.

θ

dθ

dt

θ0

Where θ0 is the room/surrounding temperature

Tangents are drawn at different points of the curve and the slope of the tangents are
d
the rate of fall of temperature, are determined
dt

d
A graph of against excess temperature (θ- θo) is plotted.
dt

d
dt

 − 0

d
From the graph, we can say that  ( −  0 )
dt

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 165

dQ mcd
=−
dt dt
where m = mass of liquid.
C is the specific heat capacity
dQ d
  ( −  0 )
dt dt

 ( −  0 )
dQ
Hence
dt
In general, the above relation is given by;

= ks( −  0 )
dQ
dt
where s = surface area of body losing heat, k is a constant which depends on the nature
of the surface.
The mass of body is proportional to its volume.
The rate of heat loss however is proportional to surface area of the body. Therefore,
the rate of fall at temperature is proportional to ratio of surface to volume of body.

For bodies of similar shape, the ratio of surface to volume is inversely proportional to
any linear dimension
surfacearea 1

Volume linear dim ension
If the bodies have surfaces of similar nature, the rate of fall of temperature is inversely
proportional to linear dimension. A small body cools faster than a large one. A tiny
baby should be more thoroughly wrapped up than a grown man. In calorimeter, the fact
that a small body cools faster than a larger one i.e. the larger the specimen, the less
serious is the rate of loss of heat, large calorimeter are normally used to reduce loss of
heat to the surrounding.

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Latent heat
Melting: When a solid is heated, the amplitudes of vibration of the atoms increase. Then
the amplitude of vibration exceeds article fraction of the atomic spacing, the regular
arrangement of the atom in the solid collapses and the liquid is said to melt.
At the melting point, the solid and liquid form exists in thermal equilibrium with each
other. The energy required to break the bands holding the atom in a rigid lattice is the
latent heat of fusion.
Specific heat of fusion. (L)
This is the energy required to change one kilogram of a solid into liquid at its melting
point.
Note: If the solid has to be given energy to melt it, then that energy must be given out
when the liquid freezes.

Determination of specific latent heat of ice by the method of mixtures

Thermometer
Stirrer

Constant temperature enclosure

Small chips of ice are added one by one and the water stirred until each piece has
melted before the next is added. When the temperature of the water as fallen by as
much as the water was above room temperature, the final temperature θf is measured
and recorded.

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The calorimeter and contents are weighed again and the mass mi of ice added,
calculated.
Theory of the method
Heat lost by the water and calorimeter in cooling from
Θ1 to θf is (McCc + MwCw) (θ1– θf)
Where Cc and Cw are the specific heat capacities of the calorimeter and water
respectively.
Heat gained by ice = mi L+ mi Cw θf
Where L = latent heat of fusion of ice.
Assuming no heat is lost to the surrounding.
(McCc + MwCw) (θ1– θf) = mi L+ mi Cw θf

(M c Cc + M wC w )(1 −  f ) − (mi C w ( f ))
Hence L =
mi

Determination of specific latent heat of fusion of ice by an electrical method.

K
V
A

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 168

Ice of has been pressed between bloating papers is packed in the funnel, and the funnel
and the heating coil submerged unit. Switch K is closed and a clock started. A beaker of
known mass is placed below the funnel to collect the water produced when the ice
melts.
When sufficient ice has melted, the clock is stopped. The beaker is weighed to
determine the mass of water, m1.
Assuming no heat losses to the surrounding;
Electrical energy supplied = energy used to melt the ice.
IVt = m1 L
IVt
L=
m1

Specific Latent heat of vaporization:

It is the amount of heat required to convert 1kg mass of a liquid to vapor at its boiling
point.

Measurement of specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid.

Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization. of by method of mixtures

Physics: Imagine, invent and inspire G.U

Thermometer
Stirrer
Boiling water
 169

A calorimeter of known mass, mc is half filled with cold water. The mass mw of the water
is determined. The temperature θ1 of the water is measured, after thorough stirring.
The calorimeter is placed a constant temperature jacket as shown below.
The temperature θs of the steam is recorded. Steam is blown onto the surface of the
water in the calorimeter until a temperature rise of about 30oC is obtained. The
temperature θf of the water is measured after thorough stirring. The calorimeter and
contents are weighed a gain to determine the mass of steam condensed.

Theory of method.
Heat lost by steam in condensing and cooling to a temperature θf is
MsLv + MsCw (θb – θf)
Where θb is the boiling point of water
Heat gained by the colorimeter and water = (McCc + MwCw) (θf – θ1)
Where Cc and Cw are the specific heat capacities of the calorimeter and water
respectively.
Assuming no heat losses to the surrounding.
(McCc + MwCw) (θf – θ1) = MsLv + MsCw (θb – θf)
(M c Cc + M w C w )( f − 1 ) − M s C w ( b −  f )
Lv =
Ms

Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization by an electric method

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 170

Dewar flask
H
H Felt lagging

liquid under
investuigation

Warm water out

Cold water in

Condensed water

The specimen liquid is heated to boiling point by the heating coil, R, Shown above. The
vapor passes by the holes H down tube T and is condensed by the water jacket K. When
the apparatus has reached steady state (with the liquid boiling and the temperatures of

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 171

the apparatus steady), liquid emerging form T is collected in a previously weighed

beaker for a measured time t.
The mass rate m1 of vapor of condenses in time t is found. The readings I1 and V1 of the
ammeter and voltmeter respectively are recorded.

In the steady state, the electrical energy supplied is used to evaporate the liquid and to
offset losses.
Thus I1V1 = m1LV + h ………………………………….. (1)
Where h is the rate of loss of heat to the surrounding
The current and voltage are adjusted to obtain a new rate of evaporation. The mass
rate, m2 of vapor which condenses in the same time t is determined. Let I2, V2, be the
new values of current and voltage.

Then I2V2 = m2LV + h (2)

since the rate of loss of heat is constant as the temperature excess above the
surrounding is constant, from equation (1) and (2).
I 2V2 − I 1V1
Lv =
m2 − m1
Examples,
1. Water in a vacuum flask is boiled steadily by a coil of wire immersed in the
water. When the p.d across the coil is 5.25V and the current through it in 2.58A, 6.85g
of water evaporates in 20minutes. When the p.d and the current are maintained at
3.20V, 1.57A, 2.38g of water evaporate in 20 minutes. Calculate the specific latent heat
of vaporization of water.

M 
IV =   Lv + h
 t 
6.85 x10 −3
5.25 x 2.58 = L + h............(i )
20 x60
2.38 x10 −3
3.20 x1.57 = L + h..............(ii )
20 x60

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Equation (i) – equation (ii)

  6.85 x10 −3   2.38 x10 −3  

(5.25 x2.58) − (3.20 x1.57 ) =    −    L

 20 x 60   20 x 60 
Hence L = 2.29x106JKg-1
2. A stream of election each of mass 9.0x10-31 kg and velocity 2.0x107 ms-1 strikes
5 x 10-4kg of silver initially at 20oC mounted in a vacuum. Assuming 106 elections strike
the silver per second, and that all their energy in converted into heat which is retained
by the silver, calculate the time taken for the silver to melt.
Specific heat capacity of silver at 20oC = 2.35 x 10 JKg-1K-1, melting point of silver =
960oC.
Specific latent heat of fusion of silver = 1.09x104 JKg-1
Solution
Kinetic energy of the electron, = ½mv2 = ½ x 9.0 x 10-31 (2x 107) x 1016Js-1 = 1.8Js-1
Heat required to melt the silver = 5 x10-4 x2.35 x102x (960-20) + (5 x10-4) x 1.09x104
= 115.9J
Let the time taken to melt the silver be t seconds.
1.8t = 115.9
t = 64.45
Exercise
1. An aluminium pail of man 1.5kg contains 1kg of water and 2 kg of ice at 0°C. If 3 kg
of water at 70°C is poured into the pail, calculate the final temperature of the pail water.
(7.9°C)
Specific heat capacity of aluminium = 910 JKg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x103 JKg-1K-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x 105 JKg-1
2. When electrical energy is supplied at a rate of 12.0W to a boiling liquid, 1.0x10 -2 kg of
liquid evaporates in 30 minutes. On reducing the electrical power to 7.0w, 5.0x10-3kg of
the liquid evaporates in the same time. Calculate;
i) The specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid (1.91x106 JKg-1)
ii) The power loss of the surroundings. (1.4W)

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4. A well lagged copper calorimeter of mass 100g contains 200g of water and 50g of ice
at 0°C. Steam at 100°C, containing condensed water at the same temperature is
passed into the mixture until temperature of the calorimeter and its content is 30°C.
If the increase in mass of the calorimeter and contents is 25g, calculate the
percentage of condensed water in stem. (25.6%)
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x103 JKg-1K-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34x 105 JKg-1
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26x 10 6 JKg-1
Specific heat capacity of copper = 400JKg-1K-1

5. An electrical heater rated 500W is immersed in a liquid of mass 2kg contained in

a large thermo flask of heat capacity 840Jk-1 at 28°C. Electrical power is supplied
to the heater for 10minutes. If the specific heat capacity of the liquid is 2.5x103
Jkg-1K-1, its specific latent heat of vaporization is 8.4x103JKg-1 and its boiling point
is 78°C, estimate the amount of liquid which boils off. (0.94kg)
6. Ice at 0°C is added to 200g of water initially at 70°C in a vacuum flask. When 50g
of ice has been added and has all melted, the temperature of the flask and
content is 40°C. When a further 80g of ice has been added and has all melted,
the temperature of the whole becomes 10°C. Calculate the specific latent heat of
fusion of ice, neglecting any heat lost to the surroundings. (3.78x105Jkg-1) Use
the constants in question 4

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EXPANSION IN GASES AND GAS LAWS

Gas laws
Boyle’s law: The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to pressure at
constant temperature.
VP = constant.
Or P1V1 = P2V2
Charles’ law
The volume of fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to absolute
temperature at constant pressure
V
= cons tan t
T
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

The pressure law

The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature
provided volume is constant.
P
= cons tan t
T
P1 P2
=
T1 T2

Question: Describe the experiments to verify the above laws.

General ideal gas law.

Consider a fixed mass of an ideal gas taken through the stages shown below.

P1 P1 P2
Physics: Imagine, invent andPinspire
1 constant
G.U
T2 constant
 175

When the gas changes at constant pressure

V1 V
= ……..(1)
T1 T2

When the gas at constant temperature T2

VP1 = V2 P2 ............(2)
From equation (1) T2V1 Substitute equation (3) into (2)
V = ...............(3)
T1

P1V1T2
= V2 P2
T1

P1V1 P2V2
Hence =
T1 T2

PV
There fore = cons tan t
T
PV
Or = nR
T
Where R is called the \universal gas constant, and n is the number of moles of the gas.

Question:
1. In an experiment the pressure of a fixed mass of air at constant temperature is
10.4kpa.
When the volume is halved, keeping temperature constant, pressure becomes 19.0Kpa.
Discuss the applicability of the above result in verifying Boyle’s law.

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2. Two cylinders A and B of volumes V and 3V respectively are separately filled with gas.
The cylinders are connected as shown with the top closed. The pressure in A and B are P
and 4 P respectively. When the tap is opened, the common pressure becomes 60kPa.
Assuming isothermal conditions, find the value of P.
Tap

B
A

Initially in A
PV
nA =
RT
inB
4 Px3V 12 PV
nB = =
RT RT
After opening
60V
NA =
RT
60 x3V 180V
NB = =
RT RT
Given that the number of moles remains constant
n A + nB = N A + N B
PV 12 PV 60V 180V
+ = +
Rt RT RT RT
P = 18.5 Pa

2. A column of air 10cm long is trapped in a horizontal uniform capillary tube by

mercury thread 8cm long, one end of the tube being closed and the other end opened
to the atmosphere. If the atmospheric pressure is 76cmHg, find the length of air when
the tube is placed vertically with its open end upwards.
When the tube is horizontal

Pa = 76cmHg

10cm 8cm
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P1 = 76cmHg, V1= 10Acm3, where A is the cross section area.

When the tube is vertical

Pa = 76cmHg

8cm

L cm

P1 = (76 +8) cmHg = 84cmHg, V1= LAcm3, where L is the length of the air column.
Using Boyle’s law
P1V1 = P2V2

76 x10 A = 84 xLA
L = 9.05cm
Exercise
1. A narrow uniform glass tube contains air enclosed by a thread of mercury 15cm long.
When the tube is vertical with the open and uppermost, the column is 30cm long. When
the tube is inverted, the length of the column becomes 45cm long. Calculate the value
of the atmospheric pressure. (75cmHg)
2. A Uniform narrow bored tube closed at one end contains some dry air with is sealed
by a thread of mercury 15cm long. When the tube is held vertically with the closed end
at the bottom, the air column is 20cm long, but when it is held horizontally, the air
column is 24cm long. Calculate the atmospheric pressure.
3. Two bulbs A of volume 100cm3 and B 50cm3 are connected to a three way top which
enables them to be filled with gas or evacuated. The volume of the tubes may be
neglected. Initially bulb A is filled with an ideal gas at 10°C to a pressure of 3.0 x105Pa.
Bulb B is filled with an idea gas at 100°C to a pressure of 1.0x105Pa. The two bulbs are

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connected with A maintained at 10°C at B at 100°C. Calculate the pressure at

equilibrium. (2.45 x 105 Pa.)

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Assumptions/postulates made in Kinetic theory of ideal gases
1. Molecules in a container are always randomly moving about, continuously
colliding with each other and with the walls of the container.
2. Collisions between the molecules and the walls of the container are elastic
3. The intermolecular forces (repulsive and attractive) are negligible.
4. The volume of the molecules themselves is negligible compared with the volume
of the container.
5. The duration of collision (i.e. time the molecule spends in contact with the wall)
is negligible compared with the time spent by a molecule in collision.

Calculation of the pressure of an ideal gas.

Consider a large number N, of molecules of a gas each of mass contained in a cubical
y
box of length l.

v
X
u
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w
x
l
 179

Let c be the velocity of a molecule at some instant with components u,v,w a long X,Y
and Z axis.
c 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w2
Consider the molecule colliding with the wall X at right angles
The change in momentum on impact = -mu-mu
= -2mu

If t is the time taken for the molecule to more across the cube to the opposite face and
2l
back to the wall X, t =
u
Hence the rate of change of momentum at X will be
2mu 2mu mu 2
= = =
t 2l l
u
hence the force exerted by the molecule on the wall X,

mu 2
F=
l
mu 2
Pressure on X due to one molecule = 3
l
For N molecules moving with speeds u1 , u 2 , u3 ...............u N , the total pressure exerted on

the wall X is given by

2
mu12 mu22 mu N
P= + + .................................. +
l3 l3 l3

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Pl 3 = m u12 + mu22 .................................. + muN2

(
Pl 3 = m u12 + u22 .......................................+ u N2 )
But l 3 = V = volume of the cube
(
PV = m u12 + u22 ................................... + uN2 )
If u 2 is the mean value of the square of the X – component of velocity

u12 + u22 + ................................. + u N2

u = 2

N
N u 2 = u12 + u22 + .................................. + u N2
Hence PV = NM u 22
Since the molecules are moving randomly in the container, there is no preference for
moving parallel to any axes.

Hence u 2 = v2 = w2
c 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w2

c 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w 2 = 3u 2
c2
u =
2

From PV= Nmu 2

1
PV = Nmc 2
3
1  Nm  2
p=  c
3 v 
Nm
But =  = density of the gas.
V

1 2
P= c
3

C 2 means square value of the velocity of the gas.

c 2 = root mean square value of the speed of the gas.

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Interpretation of absolute temperature

1
From Kinetic theory PV = Nmc 2 _________(i)
3
For an ideal gas PV = nRT _________(ii )
From (i) and (ii)
1
nRT = Nmc 2
3

For 1 mole of a gas

n = 1, N = N A = Avogadronumber
1
N A mc 2 = RT
3
2 1 
N A  mc 2  = RT
3 2 
1 2 3 R 
mc =  T
2 2  N A 

1 2
But mc = mean K.E of translational per molecule
2
1 2
mc  T
2
R
= K b = Boltzmann’s constant
NA

1 2 3
mc = K bT .
2 2

8.314
Kb = = 1.38 10 −23 JK −1
6.02 10 23

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But NAm = M = Molecular mass of the gas

1
M c 2 = RT
3
3RT
c2 =
M
3RT
C2 =
M

c2  T

c12 T1
Hence =
c22 T2

Examples
Calculate root mean square of the molecule of an ideal gas at 127 0C given that the
density of the gas at a pressure of 1.0x 105 Nm-2 and temperature 00C is 1.43kgm-3.
1 2
From P = pc
3

3 1 3  1.0  10 5
at 0 0 C C12 = =
1 1.43

p1 = 1.0  105
1 = 1.43

1270C = 400k

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2
c1 T1
=
c22 T2

2.09 x10 5 273

c22 400

c22 = 554 .423ms −1

Deduction from Kinetic theory

Avogadro’s hypothesis: Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same no. of molecules. Consider two different gases of equal volume at the
same temperature and pressure.
Gas 1 Gas 2

P,V,m1, P,V, m2,

c1, N1 c2, N2

For Gas 1
1 2 1 
PV = N1m1 c12 = N1  m1 c12 ............................................(i)
3 3 2 
For Gas 2
1 2 1 
PV = N 2 m2 c22 = N R  m2 c22 .........................................(ii )
3 3 2 
If the two gases are at the same temperature.

1 1
m1 c12 = m2 c22
2 2
Hence

2 1  2 1 
N1  m 1 c12  = N 2  m2 c22 
3 2  3 2 

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2 2
Hence N1 = N 2
3 3

N =N
1 2

2. Dalton’s law of partial pressures

Partial pressure of a gas is the pressure a gas would occupy if it occupied the whole
container alone.
The law states that the total pressure of the mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressure of the constituent gases
Suppose a cylinder

P1, V1, T
1
P1V = N 1 m1 c12
N1, m1, c1 3
2 1 
= N 1  m1 c12 
3 2 
Gas 1 is removed and replaced by gas 2
P2, V, T 1
P2V = N 2 m 2 c 22
3
N2, m2, c2
2 1 
= N 2  m 2 c 22 
3 2 
If the two gases are mixed
P, V,

N, m, c
Where m is the mean mass per molecule
1
PV = Nmc 2
3
2 1 
= N  mc 2 
3 2 
If the gases are mixed at constant temperature;

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1 1 1
 m1 c12
= m2 c22
= mc 2
2 2 2
( P1 + P2 )V = 2 N1 
1 2 
m1 c1  +
2  1
N2  m2 c22 

3  2  3  2 
 1   
( P1 + P2 )V = 2
N1  mc 2  +
2
N 2
1
mc 2 
3  2  3  2 

( P1 + P2 ) =
2
( N1 + N 2 )

1 
mc 2 
3  2 
But N1 + N2 ) = N
 1 
( P1 + P2 ) =
2
N mc 2 
3  2 

But

2 1 
N  mc22  = PV
3 2 
Hence (P1 + P2 )V = PV
P = P1 + P2

Boyle’s law
From Kinetic theory
1 2 1 
PV = Nmc 2 = N  mc 2 
3 3 2 
1 2
But mc  T
2

If the temperature is kept constant, then

1 2
mc is constant
2

2 1 2
Hence N  mc  is constant term
3 2 

Therefore PV = constant

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Charle’s law
1
From Kinetic theory PV = Nmc 2
3
1 N  2  N  1 
V =  mc 2 =   mc 2 
3 P  3  P  2 

N
For a fixed mass of gas kept at constant pressure   = constant
P
But
1 2
mc  T .
2
1 2
V mc  T .
2
Hence V  T

Pressure law
1
From Kinetic theory PV = Nmc 2
3
1  N  1 
p =   mc 2 
3  V  2 

N
For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume = constant
V

1 2
But mc  T .
2
1
 p  mc 2  T
2
PT

Real gases and Vander Waal’s forces

 Pressure of gas   Free volume of movement 
The general equation of state:      = nRT
 in bulk   of gas molecules 

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For ideal gases, the attractive forces are ignored and the pressure in the bulk of the gas
is equal to the pressure P at the walls, and since the repulsive forces are ignored, the
volume of the molecules themselves is also ignored hence the free volume of
movement of the molecules is equal to the volume V of the container.
Hence the equation of state of an ideal gas is
PV = nRT
For real gases, the following assumptions of the Kinetic theory have to be modified
i. Intermolecular forces are negligible.
ii. The volume of the molecules themselves is negligible.
Due to the repulsive forces in real gases, molecules have a particular volume and hence
cannot be compressed indefinitely. Surrounding each molecule, there is a definite
volume called co-volume which cannot be occupied by any other molecule, therefore
the free volume of movement of the molecule is (V-b) where V is the volume of the
container and b is a factor which depends on the co-volumes of the molecules.

Due to the attractive forces, molecules approaching the walls of the container are
attracted by the bulk molecules. This would reduce the momentum of the bombarding
molecules thereby reducing the pressure exerted on the walls. The pressure P exerted
at the walls is less than the pressure in the bulk.
Pressure in bulk = pressure at the wall (p) + pressure defect (p1)
But pressure defect (p1)  (density)2
p1   2
but  = m
v
2
m
p1   
v
1
For a fixed mass of gas m is constant  p1 
v2

a
As a result, p1 = where a = constant
v2

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 188

 a 
Hence pressure in bulk =  p + 2 
 v 

 a 
From general equation of state;  p + 2 (v − b ) = nRT − ()
 v 
equation() is Vander Waals equation of real gases.
P-V sketches for a gas
i. Which obeys Boyle’s law
ii. Obeys Vander Waals forces
iii. Which is real practically (experimental curves for real gas)
(i)

P
T1 < T2 < T3

T3
T2
T1

P
(ii)

C
B

T3
T2 = Tc
A
T1
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V
 189

(iii)

gas

liquid
B
Liquid
T3
Saturated Unsaturated
A
T3
vapor Vapor T2 = Tc

T1

Tc is critical temperature which is temperature above which a gas cannot be liquidified.

i. At high temperatures, experimental isothermals (curves), are similar to those in
(i) and (ii). Therefore, real gases behave as ideal gases at high temperatures.
ii. As the temperature is reduced, the isothermals in (ii) change in shape. The
isothermals in T2 has an inflexion at C which corresponds to the critical point of a
real gas and this is similar to that in figure (iii).
Vander Waals equation roughly applied to real above their critical temperature
iii. Below the critical temperature, the isothermals in figure (ii) differ from those in
figure (iii) e.g. region AB in (ii) implies that pressure increases with volume which
is practically impossible. Therefore, Vander Waals equation does not hold for
real gases below their critical temperature.

State and explain the conditions under which real gases behave as ideal gases.

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At high temperatures, the intermolecular forces of attraction for real gases are so weak
such that they become negligible thus behaving like ideal gases.
At very low pressures all real gases obey PV=RT just like ideal gases.
Therefore, for a particular container, the gas molecules will then be few (since pressure
is low) and much further apart. This implies that the volume of the gas molecules
becomes negligible compared to the volume of the container
Examples
1. Helium gas is contained in a cylinder by a gas – tight piston which can be assumed to
move without friction. The gas occupied a volume of 1.0 x 10-3 m3 at a temperature of
300K and a pressure of 1.0 x 105 pa. Calculate the number of helium atoms in the
container.
PV = nRT
1.01  10 5  1.0  10 −3 = n  8.314  300
n = 0.0405 moles
1 mole of helium contain 6 x 1023 atoms
0.0405moles of helium contain
6  10 23  0.0405 = 2.4  10 22 atoms

2. A volume of 0.23m3 contains nitrogen at a pressure of 50 x 105 pa and temperature

300k. Assuming that the gas behaves ideally,
(i) calculate the amount in mole of nitrogen present.
(ii) Calculate the ms speed of nitrogen molecules at a temperature of 300k. (molar
mass of
N2= 0.028kgmol-1)
(i)
PV = nRT
0.5  10 5  0.23 = n  8.314  300
11500
n=
24942
n = 4.62 moles
(ii)

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 191

1
M c 2 = RT
3
1
 0.028  c 2 = 8.314  300  3
3
2 8.314  300  3
c =
0.028
c 2 = 267235 .7

c 2 = 527 ms −1

Exercise
1. Calculate the root mean square speed at 00C of (i) hydrogen molecules and (ii) oxygen
molecules assuming 1 mole of a gas occupies a volume of 2 x 10-2 m3 at 00C and 105Nm-2
pressure. Assuming helium molecules have a 1ms speed of 900ms-1 at 270C and 105 Nm-2
pressure, calculate the ms speed at (i) 1270C and 105Nm -2 pressure.
(ii) 270C and 2 x 105Nm-2 pressure.
2. Two vessels of capacity 1.0l are connected by a tube of negligible volume. Together
they contain 3.4 x 10-4kg of helium at a pressure of 8cm Hg and temperature 270c.
Calculate the pressure developed in the apparatus if one vessel is cooled to 0 0c and the
other heated to 1000c, assuming that the heat capacity of each vessel is unchanged.
(.12x105Pa)
3. A container of volume 1.0l contains a mixture of 5g of nitrogen and 5g of hydrogen
gas at 293k. Calculate
i. The partial pressure exerted by each gas (6.08x106Pa, 4.34x106Pa)
ii. The root mean square speeds of the gas
(molar masses of H2 and N2 are 2 and 28 respectively)
4. Air may be taken to contain 80% nitrogen molecules and 20% oxygen molecules of
relative molecular masses 28 and 32 respectively. Calculate.
i. Ratio of partial pressure of each in air. (0.25)
ii. Ratio of mean square speed of Oxygen to that of nitrogen molecules in air
(0.875)

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Thermodynamics
Work done by an expanding ideal gas
Consider a volume V of the gas confined in a cylinder by a frictionless piston

P,V P, V+DV

DX
A force F must be applied to keep the volume of the gas constant.
Suppose the gas is allowed to expand to V+∆V at constant pressure, the work done by
the gas is ∆W = F∆X, where ∆X is the distance moved through by the piston.
But F = PA, where A is the cross sectional area of the piston.
∆W = PA∆X
But A∆X = ∆V (change in volume)
∆W = P∆V
Hence for finite expansion from a volume V1 to a volume V2, the work done is
V2

W=  pdv = area under P - V curve

V1

P
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 193

v2

W=  pdv
v1

1st law of Thermodynamics

When a quantity of heat, ∆Q is supplied to a gas, that heat may be used by the gas to
expand and do work, ∆W or it may be used to increase the internal energy of the
molecules, ∆U.
Hence ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W ……………1st Law of thermodynamics

-∆Q = energy removed from system

-∆W = means gas is being compressed hence work done on the gas
+∆W = gas does work, there is an expansion
+∆U = internal energy increases
-∆U = internal energy reduces.
Internal energy
For real gases, the internal energy of the gas is due to the kinetic energy component and
the potential energy component.
kinetic.energy  T
potential.energy  V
An ideal gas has no intermolecular forces so its internal energy has no potential energy
components so the internal energy of an ideal gas is independent of its volume and only
depends on its temperature.
Hence, for ideal gases U  T

Molar heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp)

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The amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 mole of a gas at constant
pressure by 1 Kelvin
Q p
Cp =
nT
Q p = nCpT
orQ p = mc p T
When n = number of moles, ∆T = change in temperature.
Molar heat capacity at constant volume (Cv)
The amount of heat required to change the temperature of mole of a gas at constant
volume by 1 Kelvin.
∆Qv = nCv∆T
From the 1st law of thermodynamics
∆Qv = ∆U + P∆V
Hence ∆Qv = ∆U
∆U = nCv ∆T.

The volume expansion of a metal at constant pressure is very small compared to that of
a gas. So, the external work done is very small. Hence it follows that there is not much
difference between the Specific heat capacity of metal at constant pressure and
constant volume.

Relation between Cp and Cv

Relation between Cp and Cv
Consider one mole of an ideal gas heated at constant volume. Its temperature changes
by ΔT

ΔW = PΔV = 0 (since ΔV = 0)
Fixed
piston T→T+ΔT

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ΔQv = ΔU = CvΔT
ΔU = Cv ΔT………………………………… (i)
Consider one mole of a gas heated at constant pressure such that its volume increase
from V1 to V2 and the temperature changes by ΔT.

Q p = U + PV
But  PV = P(V2 − V1 )
V1→V2 Q p = C v T + P(V2 − V1 )
T→T+ΔT Q p = C p T ............(ii )
C p T = C v T + P(V2 − V1 )

Using the ideal gas equation PV = RT

PV1 = RT
PV2 = R(T + T )
Hence P(V2 − V1 ) = RT

Equation (ii) becomes

C p T = C v T + RT
C p = Cv + R

Question
Explain why Cp is greater than Cv?
Solution
At constant pressure, the heat energy supplied is partly taken in to increase internal
energy and also used to do external work. However, at constant volume, all the heat
energy supplied is taken in to raise the internal energy since no external work is done.
Therefore, a lot of heat is required to cause a 1K temperature rise.
Particular gas changes
(i) Isovolumetric process (constant Volume,V)

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At constant volume, the work done by the gas is zero hence Qv = U = nCv T

(ii) Isobaric process (constant pressure, P)

At constant pressure Q p = nC p T = U + PV = nCv T + P(V2 − V1 )

(iii) Isothermal process (constant temperature, T)

At constant temperature, ΔT = 0. hence ΔU =0
Therefore, ΔQ = PΔV. All the heat energy reappears as work done, hence all heat is used
to expand the gas.
For an ideal gas PV = nRT
Since T is constant, PV = constant.
Hence Isothermal processes obey Boyle’s law.
From the kinetic theory, if a gas confined in a cylinder by a piston expands, the
molecules bounce off the moving away piston with reduced speeds. The mean kinetic
energy of the gas and hence the temperature would decrease. Hence for an isothermal
expansion, heat must flow into gas to keep the temperature constant. When a gas is
compressed with a moving in piston, the molecules of the gas bounce off the piston
with increased speed. The mean kinetic energy and hence temperature of the gas would
increase. Hence in an isothermal compression, heat must flow out of the gas to keep the
temperature constant.
Conditions for realizing an isothermal process in practice.
1. The gas must be contained in a thin walled highly conducting vessel.
2. The vessel must be surrounded by a constant temperature bath.
3. The process must be carried out slowly to allow time for heat exchanges.

Reversible isothermal change

Suppose a gas expands isothermally from a state (P1, V1, T) to a state (P2, V2, T). If the
change can be reversed so that the gas can be returned to the state (P 1, V1, T) through
identical steps as were taken in going from state (P1, V1, T1) to state (P2, V2, T), then the
change is said to be reversible.

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 197

Hence from the graph below process AB is reversible if B changes to A through the same
path.

P1 A(P1, V1, T)

B(P2, V2, T)
P2

V1 V2 V

Work done by a gas in an isothermal expansion

V1 δv V2 V

Suppose the volume of the gas changes by δV at an average pressure P, the work done
by the gas δW = PδV = area of the shaded region.
Hence the total work done when the gas expands isothermally from V1 to V2 is
V2

W =  PdV
V1

nRT
For n moles of an ideal gas PV = nRT, hence P =
V
 V2 
V2 V2
nRT dV
W= V V dV = nRT V V = nRT ln 
 V1


1 1

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 198

V 
Hence work done during isothermal expansion, W = nRT ln  2 
 V1 
P1V1 = P2V2 = nRT
But V  V  V 
W = nRT ln  2  = P1V1 ln  2  = P2V2 ln  2 
 V1   V1   V1 
(iv) Adiabatic process
In this process, no heat enters nor leaves the gas system. Hence ΔQ =0
Hence from 1st law of thermodynamics 0 = ΔU +ΔW
 -ΔU =ΔW,
ΔU = -ΔW
When the gas expands adiabatically, the gas does work at the expense of the decrease
in internal energy. Hence the temperature of the gas decreases.
In adiabatic compression, internal energy increases as the work is done on the gas.
Hence the temperature of the gas increases. This can be perceived when operating a
bicycle pump; the pump warms up (Adiabatic compression). When you allow air to
move out of a valve of a tube or car tyre, the air feels cold (Adiabatic expansion).
Conditions for realizing an Adiabatic process in practice
1. Gas must be contained in a thick- walled perfectly insulated container.
2. The process must be carried out rapidly.
Equations of reversible Adiabatic changes
(i)
TV  −1 = cons tan t Cp
 −1  −1
where  =
T1V1 = T2V2 Cv

(ii) PV  = Cons tan t

P1V1 = P2V2
Examples
1. Nitrogen gas, in an expandable container is raised from 0°C to 50°C at a constant
pressure 4x105Pa. The total heat added is 3.0x104J. Find (i) the number of moles of
the gas

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 199

(ii) the change in internal energy of the gas

(iii) the work done by the gas (Cp = 29.1Jmol-1K-1)
Solution
(i)
Q p = nC p T
3.0  10 4 = n  29.1  50
n = 20.62moles
U = nCv T
(ii) C v = C p − R = 29.1 − 8.314 = 20.786 mol −1 K −1
U = 20.62  20.786  50 = 21430 .3J
Q = U + PV
(iii)
PV = 3.0  10 4 − 21430 .3 = 8569 .6 J

2. The density of a gas is 1.775kgm-3 at 27°C and 105Pa pressure and its specific heat
capacity at constant pressure is 846Jkg-1K-1. Find the ratio of its specific heat capacity at
constant pressure to that at constant volume.
From..PV = RT ,
1
V= , T = 273 + 27 = 300 K
1.775
subsituting
PV 10 5  1
R= = = 188 Jkg −1 K −1
T 1.77  300
Now
c p − cv = R
846 − cv = 188
cv = 658 Jkg −1 K −1
cp 846
 = = = 1.29
cv 658

3. A vessel containing 1.5x10-3m3 of an ideal gas at pressure of 8.7x10-2Pa and

temperature 25°C is compressed isothermally to half its volume and then allowed
to expand adiabatically to its original volume. (γ =1.41)
(i) Calculate the final temperature and pressure

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(ii) Calculate the work done during the isothermal process.

P
B
P2
A
P1
T1
P3 C
T2

V1 V2 V

From the graph above, motion AB is isothermal, hence applying Boyle’s law
P1V1 = P2V2
8.7  10 −2  1.5  10 −3 = P2  7.5  10 −4
P2 = 1.74  10 −1 Pa
Process BC is adiabatic, hence
P2V2 = P3V1
(
1.74  10 −1  7.5  10 −4 )1.41
(
= P3  1.5  10 −3 )1.41

P3 = 6.55  10 − 2 Pa
Hence final pressure is 6.55x10-2Pa
To find final temperature, consider process BC
T1V2 −1 = T2V1 −1
298  (7.5  10 − 4 ) = T2  (1.5  10 −3 )
1.41−1 1.41−1

T2 = 224 .3K

(ii) Work done during the isothermal compression

V   7.5  10 −4 
W = P1V1 ln  2  = 8.7  10 − 2  1.5  10 −3 ln  −3
 = −9.05  10 =5 J
 V1   1.5  10 

Exercise
1. A cylinder contains 4kmoles of Oxygen gas at a temperature of 47°C. The cylinder is
provided with a frictionless piston which maintains a constant pressure of 1x10 5Pa.
The gas is heated until its temperature is increased to 147°C. (Cp =29.41Jmol-1K-1,

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R = 8.31Jmol-1K-1)
Calculate (i) the Amount of heat supplied to the gas (1.176x107J)
(iii) The change in internal energy. (8.436x106J)
2. One litre of a gas at a pressure of 1.0x105Pa and temperature of 17°C is
compressed isothermally to half its volume. It is then allowed to expand
adiabatically to its original volume. Calculate the final temperature and pressure.
(γ = 1.40) (Final pressure = 7.57x104Pa, final temperature =219.8K)
3. An ideal gas at a pressure of 2.0x106Pa occupies a volume of 2.0x10-3m3 at
47.5°C. The gas expands adiabatically to a final pressure of 110x105Pa. (= 1.40)
Calculate (i) the number of moles of the gas (1.5 moles)
(ii) The final volume (5.92x10-4m3)

SATURATED AND UNSATURATED VAPORS

Fixed piston

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Condensation
 202

Consider a liquid confined in a container with fixed piston.

In the confined space above liquid, two processes take place. These are evaporation( the
most energetic molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the attraction by
other molecules and leave the surface of the liquid to become vapor molecules) and
condensation ( the vapor molecules collide with the walls of the container giving rise to
vapor pressure and also bombard the surface of the liquid and re-enter the liquid).
In an unsaturated vapor, the rate of evaporation is greater than the rate of
condensation in a saturated vapor, the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of
condensation and there is dynamic equilibrium between liquid and its vapor. At a given
temperature, the saturated vapor has a maximum density at that temperature and the
vapor exerts a maximum vapor called saturated vapor pressure (S.V.P).
Saturated vapor can be defined as the vapor in contact with its own liquid or it is the
vapor which is in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid. Unsaturated vapor is the
vapor which is not in contact with its own liquid.

Effect of volume on S.V.P

If the volume of the space above the liquid is increased at constant temperature. There
is a momentary decrease in the density of the vapor. The rate of condensation
decreases and more liquid evaporates until dynamic equilibrium is restored.
Hence, volume changes have no effect on saturated vapor pressure (S.V.P) i.e. saturated
vapor pressure is independent of volume at constant temperature.
If the increase in volume is continued, more and more liquid evaporates until there is
none left. The vapor becomes unsaturated.

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Pressure Saturated vapor

S.V.P
Unsaturated vapor

Volume

Saturated vapor does not obey Boyle’s law but unsaturated vapor do.

Effects of temperature on SVP

Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of liquid molecules and also of the
vapor molecules. Hence both the rate of evaporation and the rate of condensation
increase.
The dynamic equilibrium is achieved at higher saturated vapor pressure since a higher
vapor density is obtained eventually all the liquid evaporates and the vapor becomes
unsaturated. Increase in temperature, increases saturated vapor pressure

Pressure

Unsaturated vapor

Saturated vapor

Temperature

Unsaturated obeys pressure law whereas saturated don’t. Since saturated vapor do not
obey either Boyle’s or pressure law, they cannot obey the equation of state hence never

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PV
apply = constant to saturated vapours. However, the equation of sate can be
T
applied to unsaturated vapor.

Measurement of SVP of a liquid

In the figure below, C is a large chamber acting as a buffer against pressure variations
and keeping h steady.
The pressure in the chamber C is adjusted to a suitable value by opening the clip D, and
pumping air on the system and then closing D. The liquid in the flask is heated until it
boils. The reflex condenser condenses the vapor and return it flask.
When cooling occur, the SVP = atmospheric pressure – h. The boiling point is read from
the thermometer. The procedure is repeated for different values of h. the
corresponding boiling point
(θ° C) are determined.

Condenser
D

C h

Cold water

Heat source

A graph of SVP vessel θ° C can be plotted.

SVP
76cmHg

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 205

θ° C
100°c
We note that at low temperature, a large change in temperature leads to a small change
in SVP.
Examples
A closed vessel contains air and little water. The temperature of water is 200C and the
pressure in the vessel is 76cmHg. Calculate the new pressure when the temperature of
the vessel is raised to 400C, water still being present. (S.V.P of water at 200C and 400C =
2.0cmHg and 8.0cmHg respectively)

At 20 0 C
PT = Pa1 + PS .V
76 = Pa1 + 2
Pa1 = 74cmHg

At 400c
Pa1 Pa 2 74 P
= = a2
T1 T2 273 313
74  313
Pa2 = = 79.05cmHg
293

Hence PT at 40 0 c = 79.05 + 8.0

= 87.05cmHg

2. A column of nitrogen is trapped in a capillary tube of constant X sectional area and

closed at one end by a thread of water.

Water index
L
Nitrogen

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 206

The length of nitrogen column is 20.0cm at 250c and 25.2cm at 83.30c.

Calculate the saturated vapor pressure of water at 83.30c if its value at 250c is 1.70 x 103
Nm-2, Neglect weight of water thread and assume that atmospheric pressure remains
constant and is 1.01 x 105Nm-2.
At 250c
T1 = 25 + 272 = 298 K . V1 = ( A  20.8)cm 3
PN = PT − P.S .V
= 1.01  10 −5 − 1.70  10 3
= 9.93  10 4 Nm −2

At 83.3°C
T2 = 83.3 + 273 = 356.3K
V2 = 25.2 Acm 3
P2 = ?
P1V1 PV
= 2 2
T1 T1
9.93  10 4  20.8 A P2  25.5 A
=
298 356 .3
−2
P2 = 9.80  10 Nm
4

( ) (
S .V .P of H 2 O = 1.01  10 5 − 9.80  10 4 )
= 3.00  10 3 Nm −2

3.
Constant temperature
bath at 60°C
P Q

Two vessels P and Q each of volume 1.5cm3 are joined in the middle by a closed tap and
placed in the constant temperature both at 600C. P contain a vacuum while Q contains

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 207

air and saturated water vapor. The total pressure in Q is 200mmHg. When T is opened,
equilibrium is reached with the water vapor remaining saturated. If the final pressure in
the cylinders is 150 mmHg, calculate the S.V.P of water at 600c.
P1 = (200 − PS ) V1 = 1.5cm 3
P2 = (150 − PS ) V2 = 3.0cm 3
P1V1 = P2V2
(200 − PS )  1.5 = (150 − PS )  3
300 − 1.5 PS = 450 − 3PS
1.5 PS = 150
PS = 100 mmHg

Exercise
1. The air column is trapped in a tube of uniform cross section area and closed by a
thread of water. The length 1, of the air column, is column, is 10.0cm at 15 0C and 12.6
cm at 500C. Calculate the SVP of water at 500C. If the value at 150C is 1.7 x 103 Pa.
(Neglect the weight of the water thread and assume that the atmospheric pressure =
1.01 x 105 Pa) (1.26x104Pa)
2. In a laboratory, a student collected 1000cm3 of hydrogen over water at 200C. The
external pressure was 70.0cm of mercury. The S.V.P of water at 200c is 1.76cm of
mercury. Calculate the corresponding volume of hydrogen at STP. (836.6cm3)
3. A volume of 4.0 x 10-3 m3 of air is saturated with water vapor at 1000C. The air is
closed at 200C at constant pressure of 1.33 x 105pa. Calculate the volume of air after
cooling, if the SVP of water at 200C is 2.3 x 102Pa.
(Atmospheric pressure = 1.01x105Pa)

4. A horizontal tube of uniform bores enclosed at one end, has some air trapped a small
quantity of water. If the length of the enclosed air column is 20cm at 140C, what will it
be if the temperature is raised to 400C and atmospheric pressure remains at 760mm of
Hg.
(l =23cm)

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5. The total pressure in a closed vessel containing air and saturated vapor at 350C is 1.01
x 105Pa. If the saturation vapor pressure is at 350c and 870c are 3.99 x 103Pa and 7.18 x
104 Pa respectively, calculate the total pressure in the vessel at 87 0C, assuming the air
remains unchanged. (1.852x105Pa)

HEAT TRANSFER
Thermal Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy from one place to another without the
movement of the substance as a whole. When the end of the solid is heated, the
amplitude of vibration of the atom of the solid increase. The atoms collide with
neighbouring cooler atoms and pass on some of their energy to these atoms. In this way
heat is transferred from the hot end to the cool end.
In gases, fast moving molecules pass on kinetic energy to the slower moving ones when
they collide with them. In this way heat is slowly conducted through gases.
In metals, the free elections travel at high speeds and transfer energy quickly from one
part of the metal to another by collisions with other elections and other atoms. Hence in
metals, heat is carried by mainly the motion of free election and by the inter atomic
vibration.
In non-metals and liquids, there are no free elections and hence heat is transferred from
one atom to another by inter atomic vibration. This process of heat conducted is slow as
compared to that in metals.

Thermal conductivity (Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity, K)

Consider a slab of thickness L and area of cross sections A having temperatures θ1 and
θ2 at its ends.

l
1   2

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 209

dQ
dt

θ1 θ2

Experiment shows that the rate of flow of heat through the slab is;
i. Proportional to the cross sectional area, A
ii. Proportional to the temperature drop or difference between the faces, (θ1-θ2).
iii. Inversely proportional to the thickness, L
iv. Is dependent of the material
Rate of flow of heat,
dQ A(1 −  2 )

dt l
dQ KA(1 −  2 )
=
dt l

Where K= thermal conductivity or co-efficient of thermal conductivity.

dQ
K= dt
A(1 −  2 )
l
Hence thermal conductivity of a material is the rate of heat flow through the material
normal to opposite faces of cross section area 1m2 in a region of unit temperature
gradient.
Units of K is Wm-1K-1

Temperature distribution along an insulated bar of a good conductor of uniform cross

section in steady state

lagging

θ1 θ2

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Temperature in °C
θ1
 210

dQ
Since there is no loss of heat to the surrounding, the rate of heat flow is constant
dt
d
hence temperature gradient, ,will be constant.
dx

Temperature distribution along an unlagged metal bar

θ1 θ2

θ1

Temperature

θ2
Length

Determination of thermal conducting K of a good conductor of heat e.g. Cu

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 211

The thermal conducting of a good conductor of heat e.g. copper can be obtained using
Searle’s apparatus. The specimen bar is heated from one end using a steam jacket and
cooled at the other end by circulating water.

θ3
θ4

A
θ1 θ2 B
Water out
Water in

l
Heater

When the apparatus has been moving for some time, a steady state condition is
attained when,
i. The temperature θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 remain constant.
ii. The rate of heat flow and the temperature gradient are the same for any section
of the bar since it is lagged.
The steady temperatures θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 are recorded and the mass rate of flow, m of
water obtained by collecting the warm water flowing out of B and measuring the mass
obtained in a given time.
Q ( − 1 )
  = mc( 4 −  3 ) = KA 2
t  l
Where c is the specific heat capacity of water, A = area of cross section of bar.
Using:
KA( 2 − 1 )
mc( 4 −  3 ) = , the thermal conductivity K can be calculated
L

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 212

N.B In order not to upset the temperature gradient, the cold water is allowed in through
A and not through B

Determination of thermal conductivity K of a poor conductor of heat e.g. glass

The specimen is made uniform of a disk D. the disc d is placed on a thick brass slab B
containing a thermometer and is heated from above by a steam chest C whose thick
base carries a thermometer. C

Steam out
Steam in

θ2

D
θ1
B

The experiment has two parts:

Part 1of the experiment
Steam is passed until the temperature θ1 and θ2 are steady. Heat flow from C to B
through D and is then lost to the surrounding. At steady state, the rate of heat flow
equals the rate of heat loss of B of temperature θ1 to the surrounding.

Q KA( 2 − 1 )
= .............(i)
t l
Where A1, θ2, θ1 and l are all measured.
Part 2 of the experiment
The disc D is removed and B is heated directly from C until its temperature is above
what it was in part 1. C is then removed and a thick felt pad is placed on top of B.
Temperature and corresponding time readings are recorded as B cools and a cooling

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 213

curve is plotted. The aim of part 2 is to find the rate of heat loss from B at temperature
θ1

Temperature Cooling curve

θ1 a

b
Time

the rate of temperature fall of B at θ1, equals the slope a of the tangent at θ1
b
Q
t
( )
= mc a .........................(2)
b
Where m = mass of the brass slab B, c = specific heat capacity of brass
Since the rate of heat loss from B depends on the temperature of B (which is the same
KA( 2 − 1 )
in the two parts) then = mc a b
l
The thermo - conductivity K can then be calculated.
Note: In determination of thermal conductivity of a poor conductor such as card board
or ebonite, the substance is made thin in order to get an adequate rate of heat flow and
fairly of large surface area to reduces the heat loss to the surroundings from the
specimen.

Examples:
1. Uniform composite slab is made of two types of material A and B of thickness 6cm
and 3cm and of thermal conductivities 369Wm-1k-1 and 120 Wm-1k-1 respectively. If the
ends of A and B are maintained at 80°C and 20°C, calculate
i. The temperature of the junction of the two materials
ii. The rate of flow of heat through an area of 1m2 of the slab.

80°C A θ B 20°C

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dQa  80 −  
Rate of heat flow through A = k a Aa  
dt  la 

dQb   − 20 
Rate of heat flow through B = K b Ab  
dt  lb 
If heat is to flow rates should be equal
Rate of heat flow through A = Rate of heat flow through B

 80 −    − 20 
K a Aa   = K b Ab  
 la   lb 
 80 −     − 20 
360  A   −2 
= 120  A   −2 
 6  10   3  10 
6000 (80 −  ) = 4000 ( − 20 )
4.8  10 5 − 6000 = 4000 − 8.0  10 4
5.6  10 5 = 10000
 = 56 0
 80 − 56 
 = 360  1
24 
Rate of heat flow = K a Aa  −2 
 la   6  10 

= 1.44  10 5 W
2. A wall 6m x 3m consists of two layers A and B of bricks of thermal conductivities 0.6
and 0.5 Wm-1K-1 respectively. The thickness of each layer is 15.0cm. The inner surface of
layer A is at a temperature of 200C while the outer layer of B is at temperature of 100C.
Calculate
i. The temperature of the interface of A and B
ii. The rate of heat through the wall

20°C 10°C
A θ B

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0.15m 0.15m
 215

A= 6 X 3 = 18m2
dQ 0.6  18(20 −  ) 0.5  18  ( − 10 )
= =
dt 0.15 0.15
0.6(20 −  ) = 0.5( − 10 )

0.6
(20 −  ) =  − 10
0.5
1.2(20 −  ) =  − 10
24 − 1.2 =  − 10
34 = 2.2
 = 15.5 0 C
(ii) Rate of heat flow,

dQ 0.6  18(20 − 15.5)

= = 324W
dt 0.15

Exercise
1. A wall consists of two layers of thickness L1 and L2 and thermal conductivities k1 and k2
respectively. If the surfaces of the wall are maintained at temperatures T1 and T2. Show
that the rate of heat transfer through the wall is
A(T2 − T1 )
Where A is the area
L1 + L2
K1 K2

i. State the assumption made above

ii. A cooking utensil of thickness 3mm is to be made of two layers, one of
aluminium and the other of brass. If one layer is to be 2mm thick and the other
1mm, determine which combination allows a higher rate of flow.

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(K AL = 240Wm −1 K −1 ; K Br = 112Wm −1 K −1 )

2. The external walls of a house consist of two layers of brick separated by an air cavity.
The outer face of the wall is at a temperature of 45°C while the inside of the house is at
20°C. If the thickness of each brick layer is 15cm and air cavity is 5cm, calculate the
temperature of the walls in contact with the cavity.

3. Water in an aluminium saucepan of diameter 16cm and thickness 4mm is kept

boiling at 100°C in the Stove. The water boils at a rate of 2.28 x 10-4 kgs-1. Calculate the
temperature of the underside of the saucepan. (100.5°C)

4. A window of height 1.0m and width 1.5m contains a double glazed unit consisting of
two single glass planes, each of thickness 4.0mm separated by an air gap of 2.0mm.
Calculate the rate at which heat is conducted through the window if the temperature of
the external surfaces of glass are 30°Cand 20°C (K of glass = 0.72 Wm-1k-1 , K of air =
0.025 Wm-1k-1 )
5. One end of a perfectly lagged metal bar of length 0.10m and cross sectional area
5x10-4m2 is maintained at 100°C while the other is in contact with ice. Calculate the rate
at which the ice melts. (Thermal conductivity of the metal is 400Wm-1K-1, specific latent
of fusion = 3.36x105JKkg-1) (5.95x10-4kgs-1)

RADIATIVE TRANSFER
This is the transfer of heat radiation from place to place without the need for the
interning medium. It is the mechanism by which heat radiation propagates in a vacuum.

Electromagnetic spectrum
The term radiation covers a wide spectrum from the very short length Y –rays to the
very long, ware length radio waves.
The variation of wave length across the electromagnetic spectrum is illustrated below

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Radiation γ- X-rays Ultra- Visible light Infra- Micro- Radio-

rays Violet Violet Red red waves waves
Wavelength( 1012 10-10 to 10-8to 0 -7 4 x 10-7 7.5 x 10-7 10-6 to 10-3 to 10-1 to
m) 10-8 10-3 10-1 104m

Detection of infrared radiation

Thermopile
This is a pile of thermocouples arranged as shown schematically below
Hot junction

Cold junction

G
Sensitive galvanometer

The pile of thermocouple is connected to a sensitive galvanometer G. The

thermoelectric emf developed in proportional to the temperature difference between
the hot and cold junctions.
In dynamic equilibrium, the infrared radiation incident per second on the hot junction is
equal to the rate of heat loss to the surrounding by the hot junction. But the rate of loss
of heat to the surrounding is proportional to the excess temperature above the
surroundings.
Hence, the thermoelectric emf is proportional to the rate of incidence of infrared
radiation of the thermopile. The thermopile has the disadvantage that it integrates
infrared radiation from a large area

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PREVOST’S THEORY OF HEAT EXCHANGE

i. A body radiates heat radiation at a rate which is determined by the nature of its
surface and its temperature.
ii. A body absorbs heat energy at a rate which is determined by the nature of its
surface and the temperature it’s surrounding.
iii. A body at constant temperature radiates heat energy at the same rate as it
absorbs heat.
It follows from Prevost’s theory, that if the surface of a body is a good absorber of
radiation then it must be equally a good emitter, otherwise its temperature would rise
above that of its surrounding. Black and rough surface are better absorbers and emitters
of radiation.
Black body radiation
When radiation falls on a surface, three things happen, that is:
i. A certain amount of heat R is reflected,
ii. A certain amount of heat A is absorbed,
iii. A certain amount of heat T is transmitted.
I
R

A
I=A+R+T
T

For a black surface, no reflection or transmission occurs. All the radiation incident on it
is absorbed. Hence a black body is one which absorbs all the wavelengths of the
radiation in incident on it and transmits or reflects none.
An approximation of a black body consists of a hollow sphere whose inside is coated
with black rough material and a small hole for admission of radiation into the cavity.

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 219

At each reflection inside the cavity, a certain percentage of the radiation is absorbed.
Eventually after multiple reflections all the radiation is absorbed.
A device like this which absorbs all the radiation incidents on it is known as a black body.
Black body radiation is that radiation whose quality (wave length) depends only on the
temperature of the body. It is sometimes called full radiation or cavity radiation or
temperature radiation.
Spectral curves for black bodies

Relative Intensity

T1< T2< T3

T3
T2
T1
Wavelength, λ

Visible light

Intensity, E is the radiant energy emitted per second, per metre squared or it is the
power incident on a unit area, or power emitted by metre squared.

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 220

Power
E=
area
Relative intensity, Eλ is the power radiated per metre squared of a black body in a unit
wavelength interval.
power E
Relative intensity E  = =
area  wave length interval wave length
Features of the graph
i. As the temperature increases the intensity of every wave length increases but
the intensity of the shorter wave lengths increases more rapidly.
ii. The wavelength at which maximum intensity occurs shifts to shorter wave
lengths as the temperature increases.
The appearance of the body depends on the position of  m (Wavelength at which

maximum intensity occurs). The body changes from its colour when cold, to red hot
(  m is in the red region of the specimen) to yellow hot, white hot (  m is in the middle of

the spectrum, to blue hot (  m in the blue region).

Laws of Black Body Radiation

1. The wavelength at which the intensity is maximum for a temperature (T) is such that
 m T = constant. The constant = 2.9 x 10-3mk. This is called Wien’s Displacement Law
2. The total power radiated per metre squared (intensity) of the black body at absolute
temperature T is proportional to T4.
intensity, E  T 4
E = T 4 …………. Stefan’s Boltzmann’s law

σ is constant called Stefan’s constant

 = 5.67  10 -8Wm −2 K −4

Cooling of bodies
Suppose a hot sphere with surface area A and temperature, Th is placed in a cold
enclosure with temperature, Tc. If the body is a black body, the rate of absorption of
heat Pa = ATc4 and the rate of emission Pe = ATh4

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 221

Pe − Pa
Hence power radiated =
(
= A Th4 − Tc4 )

Examples
1. Calculate the rate pf loss of heat energy of a black body of area 40m2 at a
temperature of 50°C, if the radiation it receives from the sun is equivalent to a
temperature in space of
-220°C.
Tc = -220 +273 = 53K
Th = 50 +273 = 323K
Rate of heat loss
( )
= Pe − Pa = A Th4 − Tc4 = 40  5.67  10 8 4 323 4 − 53 4( )
= 40  5.67  10 −8  1.087  1010 = 2.467  10 4 W

2. The element of an element fire has a temperature 1150K. Calculate the frequency at
which the intensity of the radiation by the element is maximum.
c
maxT = acons tan t But  max = where c = speed of light
f min
c
 T = 2.9  10 −3
f min
3  10 8  1150
f min = −3
= 1.19  1014 Hz
2.9  10

3. A copper wire of length 130.2cm, diameter 0.0326 cm is blackened and placed along
the axis of an evacuated glass tube. The wire is connected to a battery, a rheostat, an
ammeter, and a voltmeter. The current is then increased until the ammeter reads 12.8A
and voltmeter 20.2V. At this point the wire is about to melt.
(i) Draw diagram of the circuit
(ii)find the Melting temperature of the copper

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A
 222

Melting temperature of Cu

Radiating surface area = 2rl

r = 3.26  10 −4 m , L = 1.302m ,  = 5.67  10 -8Wm −2 , I = 12.8A, V = 20.2V
Heat generated P = VI
Power radiated = ES =   T 4  A (assuming the wire radiated as a black body)

VI = A    T 4
VI 12.8  20.2
T4 = =
A 5.67  10 −8  13.33
T 4 = 3.4  10 8
T = 135 K
Exercise
A solid copper sphere of diameter 10mm is cooled to a temperature of 150k and is then
placed in an enclosure maintained at 290k. Assuming that all the interchange of heat is
by radiation; calculate the initial rate of rise in temperature of the sphere. The sphere
may be assumed to behave as a black body. (Density of copper = 8.93 x 103kgm-3,
specific heat capacity = 370Jkg-1K-1)

ESTIMATING TEMPERATURE OF THE STARS

Assume the sun to be a sphere of radius rs having a temperature Ts and radiating as a
black body. The power radiation by the sun,

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 223

Pr = ATs4 , but A = 4rs2

Pr = 4rs2Ts4

The power is radiated in all directions

Imaginary sphere

R = rs + Res

Earth

total power radiated

Intensity at the earth surface =
surface area of imaginary sphere

4rs2Ts2
= 
4R 2
rs2Ts4
R2
Intensity at the earth’s surface is called solar constant
rs2Ts4
Power received by the earth =
R2
( )
RE2

Where RE2 is the area of earth on which the sun’s radiation is incident normally.

1. Estimate the temperature of the earth assuming it is in radiative equilibrium of the

sun.
(rs = 7 x 108m, Surface temperature of sun = 6000K, distance from the earth to the sun =
1.5 x 1011m,  = 5.7  10 −8 wm −2 k −4 )

Solar constant =
rs2Ts4
=
( )
7  10 8  5.7  10 −8  (6000 )
2 4
=
3.6197  10 25
= 1.594  10 3 Wm −2
R2 (
1.507  1011 )
2
2.271049  10 22

Power reached by earth = solar constant x area

= 1.594  10 3  RE2

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 224

Using Stefan’s law,

1.594  10 3  RE2 = 4RE2 TE4
1.594  10 3
TE4 =
4  5.7  10 −8
TE4 = 6.9905  10 9
TE = 2.89  10 2 K

2. Assuming that the sun is a sphere of radius 7 x 108m, at a temperature of 6000k,

estimate the temperature of the surface of mars if its distance from the sun is 2.28 x
1011m.
Solar constant for mass =

rs2Ts4
=
(
7  10 8 )
2
 5.7  10 −8  (6000 )
4

R2 (
2.28  1011 )
3.6197  10 25
=
5.1984  10 22

= 6.9632  10 2 Wm -2
Power reached by mass = solar constant x area
= 6.9632  R 2
Using Stefan’s law

6.9632  R 2 m = 4Rm 2Tm4

6.9632  10 2
Tm4 =
4  5.7  10 −8
Tm = 2.35  10 2 K

Exercise
1. The total output of the sun is 4.0 x 1026W. Given that the mass of the sun is 1.97 x
1030kg and its density is 1.4 x 103 kgm-3, estimate the temperature of the sun, state any
assumptions made (  = 5.67  10 −8 Wm−1k −1 ) (5.84x103K)

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MODERN PHYSICS
CATHODE RAYS
Cathode rays are highly energetic electrons moving from the cathode to the anode.
They are produced in a cathode ray tube.
Production of cathode rays

Cathode
Anode

Cathode rays

heater

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-+
 226

The electrons are produced at the cathode by thermionic emission and are accelerated
towards the screen by the anode which is connected to the terminal of the extra high
tension battery.
The thermionic emission is the process by which metal surfaces emit electrons when
heated.
The tube is evacuated to avoid electrons from interacting with any particle before they
reach the screen.
When the cathode rays hit the florescent screen, the screen glows. This shows that
electrons posses momentum and therefore have mass.

Properties of cathode rays

i. They are negatively charged
ii. They travel in a straight line
iii. They are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields (this proves that they
carry a charge)
iv. They cause fluorescence in certain materials.
v. When cathode rays are stopped by heavy metals, x-rays are emitted.
vi. They are electrons moving with high speeds.

To Verify that electrons travel in a straight line

Cathode
Anode

heater
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 227

If an opaque object (Maltese cross) is placed in the path of the cathode rays, a sharp
shadow of the Maltese cross is cast on the screen.

Shadow of the Maltese cross cast on the florescent screen

Motion of cathode rays in electric field

P1

uo

P2

Consider an electron of speed uo entering mid way between metal plates P1 and P2
separated by a distance d and across which a pd V is applied. The electric force has no

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 228

component in the horizontal direction. Hence, the horizontal component of the electron
velocity stays constant at the values uo. The vertical component of the electrons velocity
at a time t, after the electron has entered the region of electric field is Vy = ayt
But electric force in the vertical direction
F = Ee
ma y = Ee
Ee
ay =
m
Ee
Vy = t − − − − − −(1)
m
The vertical displacement of the electron in the electric field

y = u y + 1 a yt 2
2
Ee
uy = 0 , a y =
m
1 Ee 2
y= t − − − − − − − (2)
2 m
Horizontal displacement
X = uot
x
t= − − − − − −(3)
uo

Put equation (3) in equation (2)

2
1 Ee  x 
y=  
2 m u
Eex 2
y=
2muo2

The motion of the electron in the field is parabolic

Y
1
Vy
θ
Vx1
θ

Physics: Imagine, invent

l and inspire G.U
 229

l
The time taken by the electron to move through the plates t1 =
u0

The vertical component of velocity as the electron emerges out of the field is
Eet Eel
V y1 = =
m mu0

The horizontal component of velocity as the electron emerges out of the field
Vx1 = u o

The angle θ, the electron makes with the horizontal as it emerges out of the field is
given by

V y1 Eel 1
tan  = 1
= 
V x Muo u o
Eel
tan  =
muo2

Y
But tan θ =
(
D+ 1 l
2
)
Eel y
=
Hence 2
muo D+ 1 l
2
( )
The vertical displacement on the screen,

Y=
(D + 12l )Eel
muo2

=
(
D + 1 Eel
2l
)
2K
Where k is the kinetic energy

Note: When an electron is accelerated by a pd of Vs volts, then the kinetic energy of the
1
electrons is given by muo2 = eVs
2

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 230

Examples
1).

A beam of electrons of speed 1 x 106 ms-1 is directed midway between p and Q at right
angles to the electric field between p and Q. Show that the electron emerges from the
space between p and Q at an angle of 64.60 to the initial direction of the beam.

vy
tan  =
vx
Eel
tan  =
muo2
m = 9.11  10 −31 kg
e = 1.6  101−19 C
E v 12
E= = = 300Vm −1
d 4  10 − 2
300  1.6  10 −19  0.04
tan  =
( )
9.11  10 −31  1  10 6
2

1.92  10 −18
= = 2.017
9.11  10 −19
tan  = 64.6 

Exercise
1. An electron operating at 3 x 103 V is used to project electron into the space between
two oppositely charged parallel plates of length 10cm and reparation 5cm. calculate the
deflection of the electron as they emerge from the region between charged plated
when the p.d is 1 x 103V.
2. An electron of energy 10KeV enter midway between two horizontal metal plates each
of length 5.0cm separated by a distance of 2cm. A p.d of 20V is applied across the
plates. A fluorescent screen is placed 20cm beyond the plates.

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 231

Calculate the vertical deflection on the screen.

Motion of electron in magnetic field

Consider an electron projected with a speed V at right angle to a uniform magnetic field
of flux density B, out of the plane of the page.

    
   F v  
    
The magnetic force on the electron is F = Be and using Flemings left hand rule it is at
right angles to both u and B.
The rate of change of kinetic energy of the electron is equal to the force x velocity
dk → →
= F . Where k= kinetic energy
dt
→
But since F is perpendicular to 
dk → →
Then = F . = 0
dt
Hence the kinetic energy K = constant.
Therefore, the speed v is constant
This implies that the electron moves in a circular orbit.
m 2
= Be
r
m
r=
Be

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 232

2 2m
The period T = =
 Be

The kinetic energy

2
1 1  Ber 
k = m 2 = m 
2 2  m 
1 B 2e2r 2 B 2e2r 2
= =
2 m 2m

Motion of electron in crossed field (magnetic and electric)

+ + +
e

- - -

Consider an electron projected with a speed v at right angles to both electric intensity E
and magnetic flux density B.
The electric force on an electron Fe = Ee downwards. The magnetic force on an electron
Fm = Bev upwards. If the electron passes through the crossed fields undeflected
then Fe = Fm.
Ee = Bev
E = Bv
E
v = as long as electrons are not deflected
B
e
Thomson’s method used to measure the charge to mass ration ( ) of an electron.
m

Fluorescent screen
Cathode Anode

Y
P1
O
P2
D
Physics: Imagine, invent and inspire l G.U
 233

Electron emitted by the heated cathode is accelerated to the anode.

In the absence of the electric and magnetic fields, the cathode rays strike the florescent
screen at O.
The p.d is then applied between plate’s P1 and P2, the deflection Y of the cathode rays is
measured.
A magnetic field is then applied to the plane of the figure by passing current through a
pair of circular coil one on each side of the glass tube.
The current in the circular coil is varied until the fluorescent spot is brought back to O.
When cathode rays are in the electric field alone,

e Yu o2
=
(
m El D + 1 l
2
)
When the magnetic field is applied such that the electron beam is brought at O, then
Beuo = Ee
E
uo =
B
e YE
=
m  1 
B 2l D + l 
 2 

V
But E = where d is the separation of plates P1 and P2
d
Example

P1 10cm

P2
24cm
Physics: Imagine, invent and inspire G.U
 234

In the figure, p1 and p2 are metal plates each of length 2cm and separated by 0.5cm in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density 4.7 x 10-3T.
An electron beam incident midway between the plates is deflected by the magnetic field
by a distance of 10cm on a screen placed a distance of 24cm from the ends of the
plates. When a p.d of 103V is applied between P1 and P2, the electron spot on the screen

is restored to the undeflected path O, calculate the e of the electron.

m
e YE
= 2
(
m B l D+ 1 l
2
)
V 10 3
E= =
d 0.5  10 − 2

e 10  10 − 2  2.0  10 5
=
m (4.7  10 −3 )2  2  10 − 2  (0.24 + 0.01)
2  10 4
=
1.1045  10 −7
= 1.81  1011 Ckg −1

Measurement of electric charge using Milkan’s oil drop experiment

Constant temperature enclosure

Oil spray

A
X-ray tube
+
E.H.T
B -

Microscope

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 235

Two horizontal plates A and B are connected to an extra high tension battery E.H.T such
that a vertical field is created between the plates.
The apparatus is surrounded by a liquid bath to provide constant temperature, an oil
spray is introduced into the field through a vent in the upper plate. The oil droplets
acquire some charge by friction. Additional charge on the drops can be provided by
radiating the region between the plates with X rays. X rays cause ionisation of atoms
they interact with.
The chamber is illuminated with intense light and the oil drop observed through a short
focus travelling microscope. The drops are allowed to drop freely when the electric field
is put off.
The terminal velocity Vo of the drop is measured by measuring the distance it falls
through in a measured time.
During free fall
F(Viscous drag)
U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

F = 6avo
4a 3
W= g
3
4a 3
U= g
3
where ρ and σ are the drop and air densities respectively and a is radius of drop.
W = U + F ...................(1)
At terminal velocity, 4 3 4
a g = a 3g + 6avo
3 3
9v0
Hence a 2 =
2 g ( −  )
Therefore, in determining the terminal velocity of free fall, the radius a can be got.

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 236

Case 1 When the p.d is applied such that the oil drop rises steadily,

Fe(electric force)
U(upthrust)

F’(viscous drag)
W(Weight)
At terminal velocity, v1
Fe + U = W + F ' .............(2)

Put equation (1) into (2)

'
Fe + U = U + F + F
Fe = F + F '
Eq = 6avo + 6av1
6a (v0 + v1 )
q=
E
V
But E = where d is separation of plates
d
Case2 When the p.d V is applied such that the drop falls steadily with a speed v2.

F’e(electric force)
F’ (viscous drag) U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

W = Fe' + U + F ' .............(3)

'

At terminal velocity,

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 237

Fe' = F − F '
'

Sub Eqn (1) in eqn (3) Eq = 6av0 − 6av2

6ad
q= (v0 − v2 )
V
Case3 When the p.d is applied such that the drop remains stationary

Fe(electric force)
U(upthrust)

W(Weight)

W = U + Fe ...................(4)

sub. Eqn (1) in (4)

F =Fe
6av0 = Eq
6adv0
q=
V
After repeating the experiment for different oil drops, Milkan found out that the charges
on the drop were integer multiples of the value 1.6x10-19C. This value was taken to be
the basic charge and is the charge on the drop.

Exercise
1. An oil drop carrying a charge of 3e falls under gravity in air with a velocity 4.6x10 -4
ms-1 between two parallel plates mm apart. When a p.d of 4.6x103V is applied between
the plates, the drop rises steadily assuming the effect of the air buoyancy on the drop is
negligible. Calculate
(i) the radius of the drop (2.06x10-6m)
(ii) the velocity with which the oil drop rises

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 238

(density of oil =900kgm-3, viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nsm-2)

2. A charged oil drop of radius 7.26x10-7m and density 880kgm-3 is held stationary in an
electric field of intensity 1.72x104Vm-1. How many charges on the drop (density of air =
1.29kgm-3)?

Positive rays
At low pressures, in a discharge tube, electrons from the perforated cathode ionise the
gas atoms in the tube. The positive ions produced and accelerated to high energies are
called positive rays.
The positive rays are related to the gas atoms initially in the discharge tube unlike
To vacuum pump
cathode rays.

Physics:Anode
Imagine, invent and inspire G.U Positive rays
Cathode rays
Perforated cathode
 239

Properties of Positive rays

❖ They are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields to a lesser extent than
cathode rays. This is because they are more massive than cathode rays.
❖ They are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields in a direction opposite
those in which cathode rays are deflected, this because they are positively
charged.
❖ They exhibit a range of speeds because they are produced at various points
along the discharge tube between the cathode and the anode.
❖ They cause fluorescent and affect photographic plates such as cathode rays.
Measurement of specific charge of ions using Bain Bridge Mass Spectrometer

Momentum selector
(Evacuated chamber)
B2
S2 x
Photographic plate
- B1 +
Velocity selector

S1
Ions from
source

Ions from the source enter the velocity selector through collimating slit s1. The ions
E
enter the velocity selector and only ions with velocity v = pass through undefeated.
B1

E is the electric field intensity of electric field in the momentum selector, B1 is the
magnetic flux density of the magnetic field in the velocity selector.
When these ions reach the momentum chamber, they are deflected by the magnetic
field of magnetic flux density B2 and describe a circular arc and strike the photographic
plate.

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 240

mv 2
Hence in the momentum chamber, = B2 qv
r
q v x
Hence = , But r =
m B2 r 2
Where x is the distance between a point on the photographic plate where the ion strike
and slit s2.
E
Also, v =
B1

q 2E
Hence =
m B1 B2 x

For two ions of masses m1 and m2;

q 2E q 2E
= , =
m1 B1 B2 x1 m 2 B1 B2 x 2

Hence the separation of ions on the plate

x 2 − x1 =
2E
(m2 − m1 )
qB1 B2

Example
In a mass spectrum, two ions of mass 26,28 with charges +10e and +30e respectively.
Both enter magnetic fields B2 with the same velocity. The radius of a circular path
described by a heavier ion 0.28m, find the separation of two images formed on a
photographic plate by these ions.
q 2E
From =
m B1 B2 x

q 2E
Hence x , since is constant
m B1 B2

q1 q2
But = kx1 , = kx 2
m1 m2

q1m2 x1
Therefore =
q2 m1 x2

But m1 = 26, m2 = 28, q1 = 10e, q2 = 30e, x1 = 2  0.28m = 0.56m

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 241

10e  28 0.56
=
30e  26 x2
x 2 = 1.56 m
separation = x 2 − x1 = 1.56 − 0.56 = 1.00 m

Exercise
1. Ionised gas atoms produce in a discharge tube. They enter slits S1 of the Bain
Bridge spectrometer. The charges pass through B1 of 0.5T applied at 90 to the electric
fields (3V, 5cm). The ions then pass through undeviated. The beam next passes through
B2 of 0.8T and moves along the two circular path. The radius of the small path is 18cm.
The separation on the plates is 6cm. If the charge on the ions is 10C, identify the ions
(m1=12g, m2 = 14g, hence ion is carbon).
2. A stream of singly ionised magnesium atoms is accelerated through a p.d of 50V,
and then enters a region of uniform magnetic field of flux density 2.08x10-2T. calculate
the atomic mass of the ions. (24U or 3.987x10-26kg)
3. The mass of the singly charged neon isotope 20
10 Ne+ is 3.3x10-26kg. A beam of

these ions enters a uniform transverse magnetic field of mass 0.3T, and describes a
circular orbit of radius 0.22m. What is (i) the velocity of the ions
(ii) the p.d which has been used to accelerate them to this velocity?

PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT

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 242

When some metals held at a negative potential are illuminated by electromagnetic

radiations, electrons are emitted. This process is called photoelectric emission.
Demonstration of photoelectric effect
Light

Cathode (alkali metal)

Anode
Evacuated tube

When light falls on a metal cathode, a galvanometer shows a deflection, indicating flow
of current. However, when the plates are covered, more current flows. Energy of the
incident light is absorbed by the electrons and instantly an electron jumps out. Such
ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.
Experimental observations on photoelectric effect
1. There is negligible time delay between irradiation of metal surface and emission of
electrons by the surface.
2. The photocurrent (number of photoelectrons per second) is proportional to the
intensity of the incident radiation.

Photo current, I

Intensity

3. The maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons increases linearly with the frequency
of the incident radiation but is independent of the intensity of the radiation.

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 243

4. For each metal surface, there is a minimum frequency, f0 of the incident radiation
below which no electrons are emitted however high the intensity is. This frequency is
called Threshold frequency of the metal surface.

Max. Kinetic energy

f0 Frequency

Threshold frequency, This is

Classical theory and photoelectric effect
According to the classical theory of radiation, radiant energy is evenly distributed in a
wave front.
If the radiation is incident on a metal surface, the surface electrons should share equally
the energy delivered to the surface by the radiation. Photoelectric emission should
occur when electrons have gained sufficient energy from the radiation.
The order of magnitude of the delay time predicted by the classical theory is
approximately 103 seconds which contradicts with the observed 10-9 second. Hence the
classical theory is not correct.
However classical theory explains that photo current is proportional to intensity
because the more energy carried by the wave front, the more energy will be absorbed
by the surface electrons; and therefore, more electrons will escape from the metal
surface. Classical theory fails to explain experimental observations 3 and 4.
The quantum theory of photoelectric effect
Einstein postulated that light is emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts of packets
called quanta or photons. The energy of each photon is hf, where f is frequency of light
and h is Planck’s constant.
When light on a metal surface, each photon of light interacts with one and only one
electron in the surface of the metal giving it all its energy or none at all.
If the photon energy, hf, is greater than the work function of the metal, 0, electrons
are dislodged from the attraction of the nucleus of the metal.

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 244

Work function is the minimum energy required to overcome the attraction of electrons
by the nuclei of the metal surface.
Different metals have different work functions. Work functions can be expressed in
electron volt (eV).
Note: Electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated by
a p.d of 1V.
Hence kinetic energy = ½mv2= eV = 1.6x10-19x1 = 1.6x10-19J
1eV = 1.6x10-19J
Electron emission occurs only if hf > 0
The difference hf - 0 is available to the emitted electrons as kinetic energy. The
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is given by
1 2
mvmax = hf −  0
2
1 2
 hf = mvmax +  0 .....(1)
2
Equation (1) is called Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect.
0 =hf0, where f0 is the threshold frequency of the metal surface.
1 1 
mvmax = h( f − f 0 ) = hc − 
1 2
2   0 
where λ is the wavelength of the incident photon and λ0 is the threshold wavelength
Experimental investigation of photoelectric effect

Monochromatic light Anode

mA a
b
d
c V

Cathode

Evacuated tube
With a connected to b and c to d, the photocurrent I is measured for increasing values
of V. A graph of I against V is plotted and has the form shown below;

I Increasing intensity
Is

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 245

The curves saturate early meaning that a small voltage is sufficient to collect all the
electrons emitted. The photocurrent is not zero when the voltage is zero. The
photocurrent persists even when the anode is negative relative to the cathode. This is
because electrons are emitted with sufficient kinetic energy which overcomes the
opposing electric field and reach the anode.
If the anode is negative with respect to the cathode (i.e. when a is connected to d and b
to c), and the applied p.d across the anode is varied, a stage is reached when electrons
stop reaching the anode, hence no current flows. This negative potential at the anode at
which the photo current is zero is called Stopping potential (Vs).
1 2
Hence at stopping potential, mvmax = eVs where Vs is the stopping potential.
2
Hence eVs = hf −  0

Experiment to determine Planck’s constant

Monochromatic light Anode

mA

Cathode

Evacuated tube

The anode is at a negative potential with respect to the cathode.

The pd between the cathode and anode is varied until the photocurrent recorded by the
ammeter is zero. The value of Vs of the voltmeter when this occurs is noted. The

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experiment is repeated for monochromatic light of different frequency, f but same

intensity. A graph of Vs against f is plotted

Vs

Slope, s = h/e

f0 f

The slope of the graph, s = h/e, where e is the electronic charge

Hence Planck’s constant, h = es.
For different metal surfaces we obtain,

Metal 1
Vs Metal 2

f01 f02 f
Examples
1. the minimum frequency of light that would cause photoelectric emission from
Potassium surface is 5.37x1014Hz. When the surface is illuminated by another
radiation, photoelectrons are emitted with a speed of 7.9x105ms-1. calculate the:
(i) work function of Potassium metal
(ii) maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons.
(iii) Frequency of the second source
(h = 6.625x10-34Js, mass of the electrons = 9.11x10-31kg)
solution
(i) 0 = hf 0 = 6.625 10 −34  5.37 1014 = 3.558 10 −19 J

1 1
(ii) Kinetic energy = mv 2 =  9.11  10 −31  7.9  10 5
2 2
( )2
= 2.84  10 −19 J

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1 2
hf = mv +  0 = 2.84  10 −19 + 3.56  10 −19 = 6.4  10 −19 J
2
(iii)
6.4  10 −19
f = −34
= 9.66  1014 Hz
6.625  10
2. A 100mW beam of light of wavelength 400nm falls on a caesium surface of a
photocell.
(i) how many photons strike caesium surface per second.
(iii) If 80% of the photons emit photoelectrons, find the resulting current.
(iv) Calculate the kinetic energy of each photoelectron if the work function of
caesium is 2.15eV.

Solution
hc
(i) power = nx (energy of a photon) = n  hf = n  , where n is number of electrons

emitted per second
 6.625  10 −34  3  10 8 
0.1 = n   
 4  10 −7 
n = 2  10 17

(ii) number of photons which produce electron

80
emission=  2  1017 = 1.61  1017 = n ' , number of electrons emitted per second.
100
But I = n ' e = 1.61  1017  1.6  10 −19 = 0.026 A
(iii) Kinetic energy

 3  10 8 
= hf −  0 = 6.625  10 −34   −7
( )
 − 2.15  1.6  10 −19 = 3.46  10 − 20 J
 4  10 
Exercise
1. The work function of a cleaned metal surface is 4.5eV. calculate
(i) the minimum frequency of the radiation that will cause emission of
electrons from the metal surface. (1.09x1015Hz)
(ii) The maximum energy of the electrons emitted when the surface is
illuminated by radiation of frequency 1.2x1015Hz. (7.5x10-20J)

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Application of photo electricity

Photo emissive cells

A photo emissive cell consists of two electrodes enclosed in a glass tube which may be
evacuated or containing an inert gas at low pressure.

Cathode

Anode

Evacuated glass tube

The cathode is curved metal plate having an emissive surface facing the anode. When
electromagnetic radiation fall on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted and are
attracted to the anode if it is a suitable positive potential. A current of few
microamperes flows and increases with the intensity of the incident radiation.
This photocell can be used to detect intruders. The intruder intercepts the infra red
falling on the photocell. Hence current is cut off. The interruption therefore sets off the
alarm.

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Atomic Nucleus
Rutherford’s model of the atom
All the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a small region called the nucleus of
diameter less than 10-10m. The negative charge surrounds the positive charge.
This was verified by Rutherford and his team. The experiment involved the scattering of
thin Gold foil.
Alpha particles emitted by a radioactive source were directed towards a thin gold foil.
The scattered alpha particles were observed on a fluorescent screen on the focal plane
of the microscope. Scintillations were observed on the screen whenever the alpha
particles struck the ZnS scintillation detector. The microscope was moved to different
positions in order to detect the alpha particles.
Observations
1. The majority of the alpha particles passed through undeflected.
2. A few of the alpha particles were scattered through small angles.
3. Very few alpha particles were deflected through angles greater than 90º.

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Alpha particles

Gold atom

Conclusion
1. The alpha particles being positively charged, their scattering must be due to the
positive charge in the gold atom.
2. Since the majority of the alpha particles passed through undeflected, most of the
space inside the atom is empty.
3. Large angle scattering occurred whenever an alpha particle was incident almost
head on to the nucleus.
4. Since very few alpha particles were scattered through large angles, it follows that
the probability of a head on collision with the nucleus is small and it follows that
the nucleus occupies only small proportion of the available space inside an atom.

Closest distance of approach of alpha particles.

+2e
Alpha particle
+Ze

Where Z is the proton number or atomic number of the atom.

At closest distance of approach, all alpha particle’s kinetic energy is converted into
electrostatic potential energy of the alpha particle or nucleus system.
Hence

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1 2 Ze 2
mu =
2

2 4 0 b
1 Ze 2
mu 2 =
2 2 0 b
Ze 2
b=
 0 mu 2
Example
A beam of alpha particles of energy 4.2MeV is incident normal to a gold foil. What is the
closest distance of approach by the particles to the nucleus of the gold atom?
(Atomic number of golds = 79)

1 Ze 2
mu 2 =
2 2 0 b

4.2  1.6  10 −13

=
(
79  1.6  10 −19 )2

2    8.85  10 −12  b
b = 5.412  10 −14 m

Summary, the atom consists of the following main particle: (i) the protons which are
positively charged, (ii) the neutrons which carry no charge and the electrons which are
found in orbits around the nucleus. The neutrons and protons make up the nucleus of
the atom.

The Bohr model of the atom

Bohr postulated that:
(i) Electrons in atoms can exist only in certain discrete orbits and while in these
orbits, they don’t radiate energy.
(ii) Whenever an electron makes a transition from one orbit to another of lower
energy, a quantum of electromagnetic radiation is given off.

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The energy of the quantum of radiation emitted is given by E = hf = Ei − E f , where

Ei is energy of the electron in the initial orbit, Ef is the energy of the electron in the
final orbit, h is Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of emitted electron.
(iii) The angular momentum of an electron in its orbit in an atom is an integral
h
multiple of
2
nh
i.e. mvr = , where n = 1, 2, 3 ……….
2
The orbit with the lowest energy is called the ground state. All physical systems are
in physical equilibrium in the lowest energy state. Other high energy levels are called
excited state.
Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom
Consider an electron in a hydrogen atom to be in a circular orbit of radius, r, about
the nucleus. v

+ -
r

mv 2 e2
For circular motion, a centripetal force on an electron is =
r 4 0 r 2

e2
mv 2 =
4 0 r

1 2 e2
Hence kinetic energy, T = mv = ..................(i)
2 8 0 r

− e2
The electric potential energy of the electron, V (r ) =  (− e ) =
e
................(ii )
4 0 r 4 0 r

e2 − e2 − e2
Total energy, E = T + V(r) = + = ................(iii )
8 0 r 4 0 r 8 0 r

nh
From Bohr’s postulates, mvr =
2

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n2h2
Hence v = 2
.................(iv)
4 2 m 2 r 2
Substitute equation (iv) in equation (i)
mn 2 h 2 e2
=
8 2 m 2 r 2 8 0 r

n 2 h 2 0
Hence r = ..............(v)
me 2
Substitute equation (v) in equation (iii)

− e2 − me 4
E= =
 n 2 h 2 0  8 02 n 2 h 2
8 0  2 

  me 
Hence the allowed electron energies can be obtained from the equation
− me 4
En = , where n is the principal quantum number, n – 1, 2, 3, …….
8 02 n 2 h 2

Note: (i) The energy of the electron is always negative. This means that work has to be
done to move the electron to infinity where it is considered to have zero energy. The
electron is therefore bound to the nucleus.
(ii) Whenever an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level, ni, to a lower
energy level, nf, the energy of the quantum of radiation emitted is

− me 4 − me 4 me 4  1 1 
hf = Ei = E f = − =  − 2
8 02 ni2 h 2 8 02 n 2f h 2 8 02 h 2 n 2 
 f ni 

− me 4
Energy of the ground state: - E 0 = 2 2 , since n = 1
8 0 h

But m = 9.11  10 −31 ,  0 = 8.85  10 −12 , h = 6.6  10 −34

E 0 = −2.18  10 −18 J
E 0 = −13.6eV

− 13.6
Hence En = eV
n2

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me 4  1 1 
E = hf =  − 2
n
8 02 h 22 
 f ni 
me 4  1 1 
f = 2 3 2 − 2
8 0 h  n f ni 

f me 4  1 1 
The wave number of the radiation emitted is  = = 2 2  2 − 2
c 8 0 h c  n f ni 

me 4
The term = RH = Rydberg constant
8 02 h 3 c

 1 1 
 = RH  − 2
n 2 
 f ni 
Spectral lines of hydrogen atoms
Energy levels are grouped into shells. Electrons in one shell have nearly the same
energy. The shells are denoted by letters K, L, M, N etc. where K corresponds to n = 1, L
to n = 2, M to n = 3 and so on.
Transitions of electron from a high energy level to lower energy level cause electron to
lose energy hence producing electromagnetic waves. Transitions from other shells to K-
shell emit spectra of wavelength grouped into what is called Lymann series.
Lymann series lie in the Ultra violet region of the spectrometer.

1 1 
 = RH  −
 12 ni2 
 
Where ni = 2, 3, 4…….
Transitions from other high energy levels to the L- shell (n = 2), emits spectra of
wavelengths referred to as Balmer series. Balmer series lie in the visible spectrum.

 1 1 
 = RH  − , ni = 3, 4, 5…
 2 2 ni2 
 
Transition from other high energy levels to the M – shell (n = 3), emits spectra referred
to as Paschen series which lie in the infra red region.

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1 1 
 = RH  − 2  , ni = 4, 5, 6……..
3 2
ni 


n=∞
n = 6 (P shell)

n = 5(O shell)
n = 4 (N shell)
n = 3 (M shell)

Paschen series n = 2 (L shell)

Balmer series

Ground state n = 1 (K shell)

Lymann series

Note Bohr’s theory is to simple to explain spectra of more complicated atoms however,
the following remain valid:
(i) electrons exist outside the atomic nucleus
(ii) existence of energy levels.
(iii) Emission and absorption of radiation occur in discrete amounts called
quanta.
Line emission spectra
When atoms like H2, neon etc. are excited due to some form of heat from a frame or
electricity, electron transition may occur to higher energy levels. This makes the atom
unstable since energy has increased. Electron transition may occur to a vacancy left in
the lower energy level and radiation of a definite wavelength or frequency is emitted. A
line appears bright against a dark background. The lines are separated which give
evidence that energy levels of the atoms are separate.
Line absorption spectra.
An atom’s energy can change by only discrete amounts. If a photon of energy, hf, is just
enough to excite the atom, such that an electron can jump to one of higher energy

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levels, the photon will be absorbed. The intensity of the incident radiation is reduced
since it has lost a photon. A dark line on a white background is observed, whose
wavelength is that of the absorbed photon.

Example
1. The figure below represents the lowest energy levels of mercury.

n=6 -2.71eV
n=5 -3.74eV
n=4 -4.98eV

n=3 -5.55eV

n=2 -5.77eV

n=1 -10.44eV

(i) Calculate the energy and wavelength of the photon emitted when the
mercury atom’s energy changes from E6 to E2.
(ii) Determine which energy levels in the mercury atom are involved in the
emission of a line whose wavelength is 546nm.
2. The figure below shows some of the energy levels of a neon atom. In what region of
the electromagnetic spectrum does the radiation emit in the transition E 3 to E2 lie?
n=∞ 0 eV
n=4 -0.81eV

n=3 -2.77eV

n=2 -4.83eV

n=1 -21.47eV

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X – Rays
X- rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength which are produced when
cathode rays are stopped by heavy metals.
Production of X – rays

Shield
Cathode Vacuum
Target ( tungsten or Molybdenum)

Filament Cooling fins

supply

X- rays

E.H.T Voltage
Cathode rays
Copper anode

Mode of operation
A low voltage is applied across the filament and heats the filament. Electrons are
emitted by the filament by thermionic emission.

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The concave focussing cathode focuses the electrons from the filament onto the target.
A very high alternating voltage is applied between the filament and the anode.
During the half cycles when the anode is at a positive potential relative to the cathode,
electrons are accelerated across the tube. No electrons flow to the anode when the
anode is at a negative potential relative to the cathode.
When the cathode rays (electrons) strike the target, 99% of the kinetic energy of
electrons is dissipated into heat while 1% is turned into X-rays.
The heat generated at the target is cooled by the copper cooling fins mounted on the
copper anode. Heat is conducted from the target away from the tube by conduction and
radiation.
The electron current, I in an X-ray tube in operation is given by I = ne, where n is the
number of electrons per second and e is the electronic charge.

Intensity of X-rays (Quantity)

The intensity of X- rays in an X – ray tube is proportional to the number of electrons
colliding with the target.
The number of electrons produced at the cathode depend on the filament current. The
greater the heating current, the greater the number of electrons produced and hence
more x- rays are produced. Therefore, the intensity of X- rays is controlled by the
filament current.
Penetration of X – rays (quality)
Penetration power of X-rays depends on the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the
target. The higher the accelerating voltage, the faster the electrons produced.
Faster electrons posses higher kinetic energy and shorter wavelength x-rays of greater
penetration power are produced. Hence penetrating power of X-rays is determined by
the accelerating Voltage across the tube.
Hard and soft X- rays
Hard x-rays have a high penetrating power. This because they have very short
wavelengths. They are produced when a high p.d is applied across the tube.

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Soft X-rays are produced by electrons moving at relatively lower velocities than those
produced by hard x –rays. They have less energy, longer wavelengths, hence less
penetration power compared to hard x-rays.
Soft x-rays can penetrate flesh but are absorbed by bones. Soft x-rays are used to show
malignant growths since they only penetrate soft flesh. They are absorbed by such
growths.

Properties of X –rays
They travel in a straight line at a speed of light
They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields. This indicates that they
carry no charge.
They penetrate all matter to some extent. Penetration is least in materials with high
density and atomic number e.g. lead.
They ionise gases through which they pass.
They affect photographic plates just like light does.
They cause fluorescence in some materials.
They cause photoelectric effect when they are illuminated on certain metal surfaces.
They are diffracted by crystals leading to an interference pattern.

Examples
In an x-ray tube 99% of the electrical power supplied to the tube is dissipated as
heat. If the accelerating voltage is 75kV and power of 742.5W is dissipated as heat,
find the number of electrons arriving at the target per second.
99
 power = 742.5W
100
742.5  100
Hence Power supplied = = 750W
99
But power = VI
Hence 75000I = 750
I = 0.01A

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But I = ne
0.01 = 1.6x10-19n
Therefore n = 6.25x1016 per second
Exercise
1. In an x-ray tube operated at 5x105V, the target is made of material of specific heat
capacity 2.5x102Jkg-1K-1 and has a mass of 0.25kg. 1% of the electrical power is
converted into x-rays and the rest is dissipated as heat in the target. If the temperature
of the target rises at 8Ks-1, find the number of electrons which strike the target every
second.
2. The current in a water- cooled x-ray tube operating at 60KV is 30mA. 99% of the
energy supplied to the tube is converted into heat at the target and is removed by water
flowing at a rate of 0.060kgs-1. Calculate: (i) the rate at which energy is being supplied to
the tube. (1800Js-1)
(ii) the increase in temperature of the cooling water, assume specific heat capacity of
water = 4200Jkg-1K-1. (7.1°C)
3. In an X-ray tube, the current through the tube is 1.2mA and the accelerating
potential is 25kV. Calculate:
(i) the number of the electrons striking the anode per second.
(ii) the speed of the electrons on striking the anode. Assume that they leave the
cathode with zero speed.
(iii) the rate at which cooling fluid entering at 12ºC must circulate through the
anode if the anode temperature is to be maintained at 26.7ºC. Assume 1% of the
kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into x rays and take specific heat
capacity of liquid is 2.0x103Jkg-1K-1.
4. An X-ray tube is operated at 75KV and 10mA. If only 2% of the electric power
supplied is converted into X-rays at a target of mass 0.30kg and specific heat
capacity 150Jkg-1K-1, at what rate would the temperature of the target rise?

Diffraction of X-rays by crystals

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Consider a beam of X- rays incident on the crystal.

Photographic plate
X-rays

Crystal

Lead shield for collimating

the beam

After long exposure to x-rays, the photographic plate is developed and printed. A
regular pattern of dark spots called Laue spots are observed around the central dark
image. The pattern is due to scattering of x-rays by interaction with electrons in the
atom of the crystal. The regularity of the spots implies that atoms in the crystal are
arranged in a regular pattern.

Consider a beam of monochromatic x-rays incident on a crystal such as KCl at a glancing

angle θ.
Let d be the interatomic or interplanar spacing and λ the wave length of the x-rays. A
small fraction of the incident x-rays is scattered by each atom. The scattered x-rays
interfere constructively in those directions for which the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection.

A d
C

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The path difference between x-rays scattered by atoms in two consecutive planes = AB +
BC.
But AB = BC = dsinθ
For constructive interference path difference AB + BC = nλ,
where n = 1, 2, 3, …. is called the order of diffraction and θ is the glancing angle.
Hence
2dsinθ = nλ ……. For n = 1, 2, 3.... This is Bragg’s law

Example
X-rays of wavelength 10-10m are diffracted from a set of planes of rubidium Chloride.
The first diffraction maxima occurs at 8.8°. calculate the interplanar spacing.

2d sin  = n ,
n = 1,  = 10 −10
2d sin 8.8 = 10 −10
d = 3.27  10 −10 m
Atomic spacing in crystals
Consider a unit of NaCl
Na Cl

Let M be the molecular mass of NaCl, ρ density and Na Avogadro’s number.

M
Mass per molecule =
Na

M
Volume associated with one molecule =
Na

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M
One molecule of NaCl has two atoms, hence volume associated with one atom =
2N a 

But volume associated with one atom = d3.

M
Hence d 3 =
2N a 

Example
A beam of x-rays of wavelength 1.0x10-10m is incident on a set of cubic planes of NaCl
crystal (Molecular mass = 58.8). First order diffraction is obtained for a glancing angle of
10.2°. find
(i) the spacing between consecutive planes
(ii) the density of NaCl.
Solution
2d sin  = n
(i) n = 1,  = 10 −10 ,  = 10.2
10 −10
d= = 2.82  10 −10 m
2  sin 10.2

M
d3 =
2N a 
(ii)
58.8  10 −3
= = 2.16  10 3 kgm −3
(
2  2.82  10 )
−10 3
 6.02  10 23

Question
A monochromatic beam of x-rays of wavelength 2x10-10m is incident on a set of cubic
planes in a KCl crystal. First order diffraction maxima are observed at a glancing angle of
18.5°. Find the density of KCl if its molecular weight is 74.55g. (1.97x103kgm-3)

X-ray spectra in an x-ray tube

There are two spectra; continuous and line/prominent/ characteristic spectra.
The intensity of x-rays plotted as a function of wavelength has the features shown
below. The line spectrum is superimposed on the continuous spectrum.

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Continuous spectrum
This arises from multiple collisions of electrons with target atoms. Different amounts of
energy are lost during these collisions. The x-rays given off when the electrons are
decelerated will have wavelengths varying from a certain minimum value λmin to infinity.

Line spectrum

Intensity Continuous spectrum

λmin Wavelength

When an electron loses all its energy in a single collision with an atom of the target, a
most energetic x-ray photon is given off. The kinetic energy of the electrons equal to eV,
where V is the accelerating voltage between a filament and the anode. It is converted
hc
into electromagnetic radiation of energy, hf max = = eV
min
hc
Hence min = ……. (1)
eV
Equation (1) is called the Hunt- Duane equation. λmin represents the minimum
wavelength of the X-ray produced for a given accelerating voltage V. It is also called-cut
off wavelength.
Line spectrum
This is formed as a result of highly energetic electrons penetrating deeply into the inner
shells I.e K,L,M,N,O….of the target.
This hitting electron from the inner most shell ( K-shell) from the atom of the target such
that the atom is excited I.e its energy is increased and is made unstable.

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An electron from a higher shell i.e L-shell shifts to the K-shell to occupy the vacancy left
by the ejected electron.
During this transition, a radiation is emitted whose energy hf is equivalent to the energy
gap and these radiations appear as prominent lines on a dark background thus thee
characteristic spectrum.
NB: Different prominent lines like K, K, L, L and many more are obtained in this spectrum
K series are obtained when electrons shift from L-shell to K-shell.
K-series are obtained when electrons shift from M-shell to K-shell
L M to L
L N to L
M O to M
M O to M

Uses of X-rays
1. Structural analysis, stresses, fractures in solids, castings and welded joints can be
analysed by examining X-ray photograph.
2. Crystallography; Orientation and identification of minerals by analysis of diffraction
patterns using Bragg’s law.
3. Medical uses;
(i) Analytical uses. These include location of fractures, cancer and tumour/defective
tissue absorbs x-rays differently from normal tissue.
(ii) Therapeutics use for destroying cancerous cells and tumours.
5. detection of fire arms at international airports.

Sample Questions

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Nuclear physics
The nuclei of atoms contain protons and neutrons. The collection of protons and
neutrons together is called the nucleon.
A species of atoms with a specified number of protons and neutrons is called a nuclide.
There are forces which bind the nucleons together. In some nuclides, the forces make
the nucleons stay together permanently; however, in some, the energy forces binding

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the nucleus affect some to the nucleons, this happens when the ration of neutrons to
protons is big. When ration is big, the nucleus releases excess energy to become stable.
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number while the number of
protons and neutrons is the mass number.
An atom X, with atomic number Z and mass number A can be symbolised by ZA X
A = Z+N, where N = number of neutrons
Radioactive decay
This is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei emitting alpha, α, beta, β and
gamma, γ radiation
Alpha particles
An α-particle is a Helium atom that has two protons and two neutrons. When a nuclei
decays by release of an α particles, it loses two protons and two neutrons i.e. mass
number decreases by 4 and atomic number by 2.
Alpha particle symbol is 24 He
A− 4
A
z Z → 206
82 He+ z − 2Y

eg
210
84 Po→ 206
82 Pb+ 2 He
4

Properties of α particles
They cause fluorescent in some materials
They blacken photographic plates
They readily ionise gases
They are easily absorbed by matter. The penetration of matter by α particles is
unique in that the α particles cannot be detected beyond their range.
They are defected by electric and magnetic fields to a lens extent than  particles.
This means that they are heavier than  particles. In both magnetic and electric
fields, they are deflected in a direction opposite to that of the  particles. This
indicates that they are positively charged.
They are emitted with speeds of the order 10 −7 ms −1
They are helium nuclei with mass 4U and charge +2e

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Beta particles
These are electrons, the mass of the electron is much smaller than that of the
proton
When an element decays by emitting a  particle it loses an electron. Hence the
mass number remains the same but the atomic number increase by one.
A neutron is thought to consist of a proton and an electron. When a nucleus
disintegration, a neutron breaks down into an electron (  particle) which is emitted
and a proton which increases the atomic number.
Properties of  particles
They have a much smaller fluorescent effect than  patties
They blacken photographic pates
They ionise gases ion readily than  particles
They penetrate power more easily than α particles but are absorb completely by
about 1mmof Aluminium, or a few metres path of air. They don’t have a definite
range like α particles owing to successive deflection cause by collision with the atom
of the absorber.
They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields much more than  particles
because they are lighter.
They are fast moving electrons. They move faster than cathode rays
Gamma rays
They are electromagnetic radiation with very short ware lengths. These are found to
occupy a band the X-ray which are thought to have the shortest ware length known.
The main difference between δ- rays and X-rays is that δ -rays originate from energy
changes in the nucleus in the atom while X rays originate from energy changes
associated with electron structure of the atom.
Emission of δ rays has no effect on the mass of the nucleus. Emission of δ- rays is
usually accompanied by α or  emission e.g.

91 Pa+ −1  + 
Th→ 234
234 0
90

60
27 Co→ 28
60
Ni+ −01  + 

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Properties
Affect photographic plates
They are not deflected by magnetic and electric fields. This implies that they carry no
charge
They travel in a vacuum with the speed of light
They are diffracted by light or X rays
Ware length of  rays shorter than those of X rays
They cause photoelectric effect i.e. they eject electrons when they fall on certain
metals
They have a greater penetrating power than  particles i.e. are absorbed by thick
lead.
The Decay law
The rate of disintegration of a given sample at any time is directly proportional to the
number of nuclide N, present at that time, t.
Mathematically

 (− N )
dN
dt
The negative sign indicates that N decreases as t increases
dN
= −N Where  is the decay constant
dt
Decay constant,  , is defined as the fraction of the radioactive nuclei which decays per
second.
dN
=  − dt
 N
InN = −t + c

When t = 0, N = N0, which is the original number of nuclei.

Hence lnN0 = c
Hence lnN = -λt + lnN0

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 N 
ln   = − t
 No 
or
N = N 0 e − t

A graph of N against t is called the decay curve

N
N0

A graph of lnN against t is a straight line with a negative slope.

lnN

lnN0

( )
Half life T 12

The half life of a radioactive source is the time taken for half the number of radioactive
nuclei present in the source to disintegrate.
Consider the decay curve of a radioactive source

N
N0

N0/2

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N0/4

2T½ t
T½

Relationship between  and (T 1 2 )

When t = T½ , N = N0/2
From

N = Noe − t
No − T 1
= N 0e 2
2
1 − T 1
=e 2
2
− T 1
In 1 2 = Ine 2

In 1 2 = −T 1
2

− 0.693 = −T 1
2

0.693 ln 2
= =
T1 T1
2 2

Activity of a radioactive source

This is number of disintegration of a radioactive source per second.
dN
Activity A = = −N
dt
The SI unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq)
IBq = 1disintegration per second
A large unit of activity is curie (Ci)

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3.70  1010 Bq = 1Ci

dN
Activity, A = = −N
dt
N = Noe −t
A = −Noe −t
but A 0 = - N 0 = initial activity
when t = 0
hence
A = A0 e −t

Hence Half-life can also be defined as the time taken for the activity of the source to
decrease to half the original value.

Example
1. The half life of a radio isotope is 5.27 years, calculate
i. Its decay constant
ii. The number of years it will take 75% of a given mass of isotope to decay

0.693 ln 2 ln 2
= = = = 4  10 −9 s −1
T1 T1 5.27  365  24  3600
2 2

(ii)
N = Noe − t
N = 0.25 No
0.25 No = Noe −t
In0.25 = −t = 4  10 −9 t
t = 3.31  10 8 s
t = 10.5 years

2. The radio isotope 60Co decays by emission of a  particle and a  ray. Its half life is
5.3 years. Find the activity of the source containing 0.10 gm of 60Co

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 273

A = N
In 12
but,  = = 4.15  10 −9
5.3  365  24  3600
NA 6.02  10  0.10
0.10 gm contain  0.10 = atoms
60 60
N = 1.003  10 21 atoms
A = N
A = 115  10 −9  1.003  10 21 = 4.16  1012 disntegrat ion s −1

Exercise:
108
A silver isotope 47 Ag has a half life of 2.4mins. Initially, a sample contain 2.0 x 106

nuclei of silver. Find the number of radioactive nuclei left after 1.2 minutes.
(ans:1.412x106)

Carbon dating
The unstable isotope 14C produced during nuclear reactions in the atmosphere as a
result of cosmic ray bombardment give a small portion of 14C in CO2 in the atmosphere.
Plants take in CO2 for photosynthesis. When a plant dies it stops taking in CO2 and its
14Cdecays to 14N by  particle emission.
By measuring the activity of 14C in the remains, the time when the plant died can be
estimated.
Example
The activity of a sample of dead wood is 10 counts per minute, while for a living plant is
19 counts per minute. If the half life of 14C is 5500 years, find the age of the wood
sample.
A = A0 e − t
10 = 19e −t
 10 
− t = ln  
 19 
but
ln 2 ln 2
= = yr −1
T1 5500
2

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Hence
ln 2  10 
− t = ln  
5500  19 
t = 5093 years

Exercise
Wood from a buried ship has a specific activity of 1.2x10 2Bqkg-1 due to 14C, whereas
comparable living wood has an activity of 2x102Bqjkg-1. What is the age of the ship? (half
life of 14C = 5,7x103years).

Radio isotopes
Radioisotopes are nuclides which are unstable and undergo radioactive decay emitting
 or  particles or γ- rays during return to a stable form. 238U, 226Ra and 230Th are
examples of natural radioactive.
A greater number of radio isotopes are produced artificially by bombarding stable
nucleus with high energetic particles such as protons, α-particles, deuterons and
neutrons.
Artificial radioisotopes behave the same way as the natural radioactive materials in that
each will emit its characteristic particle or radiation and each has a characteristic half-
life.
Examples
1. By bombarding
27
Al with  particles, one gets 30
P which decays by emission of a position ( 01 e)
27
13 Al + 24He→15
30
P + 01n
30
15 P→14
30
Si+ 01e

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 275

2. Bombarding of boron 115B with  particles to get 146C which decays by emission

or  particles.
11
5 B+ 24He→146C +11H

then 14
6 C →147N + −10 e with half life 5730 years.

3. Neutrons are ideal for bombardment of stable nuclei to produce radioisotope

because they carry no charge and are therefore not deflected by either atomic
electrons or nuclear charge.
They will penetrate the nucleus even when their energies are comparatively low.

Some uses of radioisotope

1. Biological uses
i. Radiotherapy
Radio cobalt 60
27 Co decays with emission of  particles together with very high

energy γ-rays. The γ -rays have greater energy than is available with standard X- rays
machines when properly shielded, the γ -rays are employed in the treatment of
cancer.
131
The iodine isotope I (half life 8 days) decays by γ -ray emission. This is injected

into the blood stream of a patient having cancer of the thyroid and the γ -rays given
off are concentrated right where they are needed. The speed with which the iodine
isotope becomes concentrated in the thyroid provides a measure of the thyroid
function.
ii. Tracers
Small qualities of low activity radioisotope are administered by injection into
patients and their passage through the body and absorption by diseased tissue
studied.
The radioisotope 59 Fe is administered into a patient’s blood stream. Measurements
of the radioactivity of a plasma sample will indicate the amount of dilution and
hence the total number of red blood cells can be determined if some of the patients
own red cells are labelled with 59Fe or 51 Cr and returned into the blood stream.

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In agriculture, traces have been used to study how fertilizers, hormones, weed
30
killers and pesticides perform their functions. E.g. the radioisotope 15 P has been

used to provide information about the best type of phosphate fertilizer to supply to
particular crops and soil.
iii. Mutants
Radioisotopes have been used to induce plant mutations. This has led to improved
seed varieties of crops like wheat, peas, beans with high yields and high resistance to
crop disease.
iv. Sterilization
Medical instruments and equipments are sterilized by exposure to γ –rays. Gamma
ray as are also being used to sterilize and preserve some food products. The method
is safe as no radioactivity is induced in the material irradiated by γ- rays.
Radiation has also been used to eliminate agricultural pests by sterilizing them and
therefore serving the reproduction chains.

v. Carbon dating
14
By measuring the residual activity of the quality 6 C remaining after death of an

organism, we can determine how long ago the organism died.

2. Industrial uses
(i) Tracers
a) For investigation of flow of liquids in chemical plants or in underground water
and sewerage pipelines. In the latter cases, a little radioactive solution is added
to the liquid being pumped. Temporary high activity around a leak is detected
from the ground above. The rate of flow of liquids can also be measured.
b) For study of wear in machinery such as of piston rings in motor engine. Before
the piston is put in place, it is irradiated with neutrons to form the radioisotope
59 Fe. As the piston rings wear out, the 59Fe which comes off with the oil is tested
using Geiger Muller counter. Through comparison of the initial activity with the
activity measured time, the rate of wear of the piston is deduced.

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c) Automatic control of thickness paper, plastic or metal sheeting as it gives

through the production plant. The thickness
Metal is controlled by measuring the
case (Cathode)

transmission of radiation through theThin metal rod (anode)

sheet.

Ionising3.
radiation
Diagnostic uses To amplifier
Cobalt 60 and other γ- rays emitters are used as alternatives to X rays set ups which are
R
more elaborate to produce radiographs for examination of welded beams and metal
castings.
Thin mica plate H.V
High Voltage unit
Neutral gas atoms
Detections of Nuclear radiation
The requirement for the detection of any nuclear radiation is that it must dissipate
energy in the detector.
The causes of dissipation of energy by nuclear radiation are
i. Ionisation of atoms in the detector e.g. in ionisation chamber and G.M. Tube
ii. Excitation of atoms without removal of orbital elections e.g. in scintillation
counter.

Ionisation chamber

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 278

Mode of action
When ionising radiation enters the chamber through the mica window, it ionises the
neutral gas atoms. Ion pairs are produced as a result of collision. The positive ions
produced drift to the cathode and the negative ions to the anode resulting in an
ionisation current which is amplified and measured with the micrometre. A high voltage
is set to a value that a constant current Is flows. In this setting, the energy (intensity) of
the incoming radiation is proportional to Is.
A graph of ionisation current against voltage V has the following features.

Ionisation
Current C

Is A B

O
Voltage

Features of the graph

Region OA: The applied voltage is low. The positive ions and electrons produced by
collisions of incoming radiation with the neutral gas atoms have a high chance of
recombining since their velocities are low. The current produced is proportional to the
voltage.
Region AB (Saturation region): All ions pairs produced per second travel and reach the
respective electrodes. This results in constant current or saturation current Is = ne.
In this region, the energy lost by the incoming particles is proportional to I s. This is the
region in which the ionisation chamber is normally operated.

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 279

Region BC (Gas amplification): because of the high voltage, the electrons produced by
ionisation of the neutral gas atoms, acquire sufficient energy to cause ionisation
themselves (secondary ionisation). This results in rapid multiplication of ions in the
chamber, and hence the rise in ionisation current.

The Geiger Muller tube or counter

Thin metal rod (Anode)

Ionisation To amplifier and counter

radiation R

Mica window
Cylindrical cathode
Partially evacuated tube containing
argon and bromine vapours

When the radiation enters the tube, it causes ionisation of the gas atoms. The
electrons produced are accelerated to such a high energy that they also cause more
ion pairs by repeated collisions. When the electrons reach the anode, the pulse is
produced which is amplified and detected by a rate meter. The positive ions in the
chamber are accelerated towards the cathode and if these ions reach the cathode,
they will cause secondary discharge, which will give a false impression of an arrival in
the chamber of another ionising particle. This is prevented by using a quenching agent
like bromine.
During the quenching process, an electron from the bromine molecule is transferred to
the organ ion neutralising it. In this way a tube is made to receive next ionising particle.
In a G.M tube the time taken by the positive ions to travel to the cathode is known as
the dead time. The number of pulses per unit time (counter rate) corresponds to the
activity of the source of radiation

A graph counter rate against applied voltage

Counter rate D
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C
 280

Below a certain value of p.d known as threshold voltage; no counts are recorded at all
since the number of ions produced per second is not enough to produce sufficient
current which can result in a pd of sufficient magnitude to be detected.
Between A and B, magnitude of pulse developed in the tube depends on the initial
ionisation of the tube and energy of the incident particles.
Between B and C, the plateau region, the counter rate is almost constant. All the region
when the tube is said to be normally operated
Beyond C, the counter rate increases rapidly with voltage due to incomplete quenching
one incident particle may start a whole chain of pulses.
Cloud Chamber
There two types:
(1) Diffusion type chamber
Felt pad soaked in alcohol
and water

Intense light
S
Saturated vapour

Cold metal base

Solid CO2(at -78°C)
Sponge

Mode of operation
Alcohol vaporised in the warm upper part of the chamber. It diffuses towards the cold
part of the chamber. Above the cold metal base, there will be a layer of air super
saturated with alcohol and water vapour.

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 281

The shield surrounding the radioactive source is removed. The radiation from S ionises
the air molecules. The ions provide nuclei for condensation and their paths are seen by
means of the intense light directed in the chamber. The tracks of the ions can be
photographed. the chamber is cleared of ions by supplying a p.d between the top and
bottom of the chamber.
The type of radiation emitted by the radioactive source can be deducted from the tracks
formed. α particles proceed without deviation except at the end of their range. They
ionise copiously and have well defined range.

α-particles

Β-particles proceed along tortuous tracks because they are light and are easily deflected
by collision with atoms.

β-particles

γ-rays give rise to diffuse ionisation.

γ-rays

(2) Expansion cloud chamber

Camera

Intense
illumination S
S- source of radiation
Dark pad Saturated vapour
(alcohol vapour)
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 282

Mode of operation
The air inside the chamber undergoes adiabatic expansion by pumping on it. The air
cools down as a result. After a few adiabatic expansions, condensation takes on the
residual ions (or dust nuclei). The chamber is cleared of these ions by application of a
p.d between the top and bottom of the chamber.
The gas in the chamber is then subjected to a precise adiabatic expansion so that the
gas becomes super saturated. The shield S is removed, condensation takes place on the
ions formed radiation emitted by S. The tracks of emissions of S are photographed and
emissions identifies.

Example
A source of  particles has an initial activity of 2 x 105 disintegrations per second. When
the  particles enter an ionisation chamber, a saturation current of 2 x 10-7 A is
obtained. If the energy required to produce an ion pair is 32ev. Find the energy of one
 -particle
I = ne
I 2  10 − 7
n= = −19
= 1 .25  10 12
e 1 .6  10

Energy lost per second = 1.25  1012  32 = 4  1013 eV

4  1013
Energy of one α- particle = = 2  10 7 eV
2  10 5

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 283

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Einstein’s mass- energy relation
If the mass of the closed system changes by an amount of m, the energy of the system
changes by an amount, E = mc2, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. The above
relation is Einstein’s mass- energy relation.
For a given mass, there is energy released.
Recall that 1U = 1.66x10-27kg.
If the mass changes by 1U, then the energy change is

(
E = mc 2 = 1.66  10 −27  3  10 8 )
2
= 1.494  10 −10 J = 934 MeV
Binding Energy
The protons and neutrons of an atom are called nucleons. The energy needed to take all
the nucleus a part so that they are completely separated is called the binding energy of
the nucleus.
Hence from Einstein’s mass- energy relation, it follows that the mass of the individual
nucleons is greater than that of the nucleus in which they are together. The difference in
mass is a measure of binding energy.
Example
Find the binding energy of a helium nucleus 24 He

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 284

Mass of 24 He = 4.0015U

Mass of 01 n = 1.0087U

Mass of 11 p = 1.0073U
4
2 He →2 01n +211p

mass on the right hand side = (2 1.0087 ) + (2 1.0073) = 4.032U

Change in mass, m = 4.032 − 4.0015 = 0.0305U
But 1U = 931MeV
Hence binding energy = 931x0.0305 = 28.4MeV
Binding energy per nucleons is the ratio of the binding energy to the atomic mass of the
nucleus.
The binding energy per nucleons of elements of the periodic table varies with mass as
shown below.

Binding energy per

nucleons (MeV) 56
8 Fe

12
6 C
238
U

1
2 1 H

Mass number

The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus.
Excluding the nuclei lighter than 12C, the graph indicates that the average binding energy
per nucleon is fairly constant for a great majority of nuclei. The average value is about
8MeV per nucleon. The pitch occurs at approximately the 56Fe nucleus which is
therefore one of the most stable nuclei.

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Nuclear fusion and fission

Nuclear fission
A nuclear fission reaction involves bombarding of the heavy nucleus with a highly
energetic particles such as neutrons, protons, deuterons and alpha particles. The heavy
nucleus splits into lighter nuclei of higher binding energy per nucleon. The mass
deficiency which results is accounted for by the energy released in accordance to
Einstein’s mass-energy relation. In most nuclear fission reactions, neutrons are used to
induce a reaction because of being neutral, they can penetrate the nucleus.
When 235U splits, it produces nuclei that are lighter and hence have higher binding
energy.
Examples of nuclear fission
U + 01n→236
235
92 92 U →38 Sr + 54 Xe + 10 0 n
90 136 1

Find the energy released by 1kg.

Mass of 235U = 235.0439U, Mass of 90Sr = 89.9073U,
Mass of 1n = 1.0087U, Mass of 136Xe = 135.907U
Mass on left hand side = 235.0439+1.0087 = 236.0526U
Mass on right hand side = 89.9073 + 135.907 + 10x1.0087 = 235.9013U
Change of mass, m = 236.0526 - 235.9013 = 0.1513U
Energy released by a nucleon of U235 = 0.1513x931Mev = 140.8603MeV
1000
Energy released by 1kgof 235U =  6.025  10 23  140.8603 = 3.61  10 26 MeV
235
In the above example, when the emitted neutrons encounter with other Uranium
nuclides, they bombard the uranium and more splitting occurs with the release of more
energy. The produced neutrons are called fission neutrons, and when this occurs, the
reaction is called a chain reaction. In a chain reaction, a lot of energy is produced and
unless this energy is controlled, the reactions may cause an explosion. Chain reaction is
applied in making nuclear bombs.
Exercise
238U disintegrates by emission of an α- particle according to the equation
U →234
238
92 90Th+ 2 He
4

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 286

calculate (i) the total energy released in the disintegration (4.2315MeV)

(ii) the kinetic energy of the alpha particles, with the nucleus being at rest before
disintegration. (4.16MeV)
Mass of 238U = 238.1249U, Mass of 4He = 4.00387U,
Mass of 234Th = 234.11650U, 1U = 930MeV
Nuclear fusion
A lot of energy is released when the nuclei of lighter elements fuse together to form a
heavy nucleus. The fusing together of nuclei to form a heavy nucleus is called nuclear
fusion.
Example
Formation of alpha particles when lithium fuses with hydrogen.
7
3 Li+11H →48 Be →2 24 He

Mass of 7Li = 7.0160U, mass of 1H = 1.0078U,

Mass of 4He = 4.0026U, 1U = 931MeV
solution
Mass on left hand side = 7.0160 + 1.0078 = 8.0238U
Mass on right hand side = 2x4.0026 = 8.0052U
Change of mass = 8.0238 – 8.0052 = 0.0186U
Energy released = 0.0186x931MeV = 17.317MeV
Energy released by 1kg of the reactants =
1000
 6.025  10 23  17.317 = 1.304  10 27 MeV
8
Exercise:
Calculate the energy released by the reactant of two deuterium fusing to form helium
according to the equation. 212 H → 23He+ 01n

Mass of 12 H = 2.01421U ,

Mass of 13 He = 3.0160U ,

Mass of 01 n = 1.0087U ,

1U = 931MeV

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 287

The sun contains a considerable amount of hydrogen. It is believed that the energy of
the sun is due to nuclear fusion of the hydrogen atoms. Fusion is capable if the nuclei
concerned are able to approach each other close enough and if the temperatures are
very high. These conditions are achieved in the sun.

Electronic Devices
1. Cathode ray Oscilliscope
Fluorescent screen

C G A1 A2
X2 Y2

X1
Y1

Evacuated glass tube

_- + Graphite coating
R1 R2 E.H.T
E.H.T

Uses of the parts

Evacuated Glass tube: - the glass tube evacuated to prevent scattering of the electron
beam when electrons collide with air molecules.
Indirectly heated Cathode, C: -Emits electrons by thermionic emission.
The grid, G: - it consists of a hollow metal cylinder with a small hole at the end. It is held
at variable negative potential relative to the cathode by means of the potential divider
R1, The grid serves two purposes namely: (i) as a brightness control
(ii) it refocuses the electron beam so that the beam emerges from the hole as a narrow
beam.

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 288

Anodes A1 and A2:- These are held at a positive potential relative to the cathode. The
anode accelerates the electron beam along the tube and also focuses the electron beam
by means of the potential divider R2.
X-plates, X1 and X2: -these are vertical plates but they deflect the beam horizontally
when a p.d is applied across them.
Y-Plates, Y1 and Y2: - These are horizontal pates but deflect the beam vertically when a
p.d is applied across them.
Fluorescent Screen:- This is coated with fluorescent material such as ZnS. It enters light
when struck by electron beam.
Graphite Coating:- Enables light to be seen only on the screen as the graphite coating
absorbs the electron’s kinetic energy.
Power supply:-This is a smoothened rectified a.c, fed through a chain of resistors.
Operation of the CRO
Suppose the X- plates were shunted and a d.c voltage was applied to the Y- plates. The
electron spot would be deflected vertically.

If the X- plates are shunted and an a.c is applied to Y-plates, the electron beam is drawn
into a vertical line.
Screen

To observe the waveform of the a.c signal applied to the Y-plates, a special voltage
called time base connected to the X- plates. The time base has a saw-tooth waveform
and is generated by a special in the CRO. The saw tooth voltage which sweeps the
electron beam from left to right at a constant speed.
Fly back
P.d Sweep A

B
O
Time

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 289

The time taken for p.d to fall from A to B known as the fly back time, is extremely small
compared to the time taken to rise from O to A. Hence the time taken by return of the
electron beam to the original position at the other end of the screen is small.
When no signal is applied to the Y- plates, the voltage V, causes the electron beam to
sweep horizontally to and fro on the screen as shown.
Screen

To observe the wave form of the applied voltage to Y-plates, the frequency of the time
base is synchronised with the frequency of the signal applied to Y-plates. For an a.c
signal applied across the Y- plates and time base on the X-plates, one observes the
waveform shown below;

Uses of a CRO
a) Displaying of waveforms: the amplitude and frequency of the wave can be
obtained.
b) Measurement of Voltage: An unknown voltage is applied across the Y- plates. If
the time base is switched off, a vertical line is obtained on the screen. This can
be centred and its length measured. This is proportional to twice to the
amplitude or peak voltage, V0.
c) Comparison of frequencies of two waveforms: suppose two waveforms of
frequency f1 and frequency f2 appear on the screen of the CRO having two Y-
inputs or are displayed at a time on the CRO with a single Y-input. If x1 and x2 are
distances occupied by one cycle for two waveforms, then the ratio

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 290

f1 T2 x2
= = , where T1 and T2 are the periodic times of the two waves
f 2 T1 x1
respectively.
d) Measurement of phase difference using a double beam CRO: the two waveforms
to be compared have the same frequency. Suppose they are displayed
simultaneously by applying them to the two Y-input.
Comparison of CRO with a moving coil Voltmeter.
a) The CRO has very high impedance. It gives accurate voltages than a moving coil
voltmeter.
b) A CRO can measure both d.c and a.c voltage. A moving coil voltmeter measures
only D.C voltages unless a rectifier is used. The CRO gives a peak to peak values
of a.c.
c) A CRO has negligible inertia as compared to a moving coil voltmeter. The CRO
respond almost instantaneously.
d) CRO doesn’t give direct voltage readings.

Question
A CRO has its Y- sensitivity set to 10Vcm-1. A sinusoidal input is suitably applied to give a
steady trace with the time base set so that the electron beam takes 0.01s so traverse
the screen. If the trace seen has a total peak to peak height of 4cm and contains two
complete cycles, what is the r.m.s voltage and frequency of the input? (14.1V, 200Hz)
2. Thermionic Diode
Structure
It consists of an anode usually in form of a nickel cylinder which surrounds the cathode
in an evacuated glass bulb. In the indirectly heated cathode type, the cathode is a nickel
tube with a tungsten filament (or heater) inside it. The heater is insulated electrically
from the cathode by packing alumina inside the nickel tube. The outside of the tube is
coated with a mixture of Barium and Strontium oxides. The mixture has a low work
function (about 1.8eV) and emits electrons at relatively low temperatures (about 1100K)

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Symbol of a diode
Anode

Cathode
heater

Thermionic Characteristics Ia
mA

H.T 200V
Va

mA
If

6V

Keeping the filament current If constant, the p.d Va between the cathode and the anode
is varied. The corresponding anode current Ia is measured. A graph of Ia against Va
constitutes the anode – current anode voltage characteristics. By setting the filament
current to other constant values, the corresponding Ia-Va characteristics can be
obtained. These features can be shown below

Ia

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For Va = 0, electrons are emitted by the cathode with a range of speeds. A few of the
electrons are emitted with sufficient kinetic energy to be able to reach the anode. This
leads to a small current. If the anode is made negative relative to the cathode, a reverse
current exists for negative potentials up to about 0.5V and then decreases to zero.
Region AB: Here Va is small. Only those electrons emitted with high speeds will be able
to reach the anode. The majority of the electrons are emitted with low kinetic energies
and are repelled back towards the cathode. The electron distribution around the
cathode constitutes a negative space charge. The current Ia is small.
Region BC: as Va increases the attraction of the space charge by the anode increases.
This results in a larger anode current. This region is called space charge limited region.
Region CD: the anode voltage Va is so large that all the electrons emitted per second by
the cathode reach the anode. The space charge is overcome. A constant current, called
saturation current flows. Region CD is also called the temperature limited region
because when the temperature of the cathode increases, more electrons are emitted
per second by the cathode. A higher saturation current therefore flows.

Applications of the thermionic diode

(a) Half- wave rectification
Suppose a thermionic diode is connected in series with a source of alternating voltageV i
and a load RL

c A

Vi RL VR

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During the half cycles when A is positive relative to C the diode conducts and a p.d V R
appears across the load RL. During the half cycles when A is at a negative potential
relative to C, the diode does not conduct and no p.d appears across RL. The a.c is half-
wave rectified.
The input and output voltage wave forms are compared in the diagram below.

Vi

t
VR

(b) Full wave rectification

(i) Using two diodes
D1
P
RL VR
Vi

Q
D2

When P is at negative potential relative to Q, diode D1 conducts whereas D2 doesn’t.

When P is at a positive potential relative to Q, diode D2 conducts whereas D1 does not.
Current flows in the same direction through the load RL during both positive and
negative cycles of the input voltage Vi.

Vi

t
VD1

t
VD2
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t
VR
 294

VD1 and VD2 is output pd due to conduction of diode D1 and D2 respectively.

VR is the output voltage across load RL.

(ii) Using four diodes

The following rectifier symbols will be used.
Flow of current Flow of current

Forward bias (diode conducts) Reverse bias (diode does not conducts)

D1
D2

D3 C P
Vi

D4 R VR
B

During the half cycles when A is at positive potential relative to B, diodes D2 and D3 are
forward biased hence they conduct and current flows through the resistor R in the
direction P to Q. Diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased and they do not conduct.
During the half cycles when B is at positive potential relative to A, diodes D1 and D4 are
forward biased and they conduct. Currents flows through resistor R in the direction P to
Q. Diodes D2 and D3 are reverse biased and don’t conduct.
The voltage cross R will have the form:

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VR

The output voltage can be smoothened by using filter circuits of the form shown below:

L
V0 R
C VR

The back emf induced in the inductor by the fluctuating voltage opposes the voltage
fluctuations. The capacitor acts as a reservoir to steady the remaining voltage
fluctuations.
The voltage across the resistor R has the form shown:
Smoothened p.d
Ripple A
VR

At points such as A, the p.d across the load has just reached its maximum value. If the
capacitor was not present, the p.d would start to fall to zero along the broken curve.
However, as soon as the p.d across the load starts to fall, it becomes less than that
across the capacitor and the capacitor starts to discharge through the load.

Physics: Imagine, invent and inspire G.U