ELECTRICAL

NOISE
Ph.D. ALEXIS BARRIOS U.
PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS

Energy of a signal: an energy signal has

finite energy. In general, every signal in
the practical sense has finite duration, so
the energy is finite.
Energy is defined as:
∞

𝐸 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
where |𝑥 𝑡 |2 is the square of the absolute
value of the signal over time 𝑡.

The signal must be of finite type for the

measurement to be meaningful. A necessary
condition for the signal to be finite is
that its amplitude → 0 when |t|→ ∞. In any
other case the integral does not converge.
PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS

Power signal: If in x(t) the

amplitude does not tend → 0 at
the same time as |t|→ ∞, the
energy of the signal will be
infinite.
A better measure of the signal
in this case is average energy
over the time interval T, if it
is periodic, T exists.
The power signal is defined as:

1 𝑇ൗ2
𝑃𝑥 = lim𝑇 ‫׬‬−𝑇ൗ |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2
PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS
Power spectral density, is a function that
describes how the power of a signal is
distributed as a function of frequency. In
simpler terms, it indicates how much power
a signal has per unit frequency.
1
𝑆𝑥 𝑓 = lim |𝑋𝑇 𝑓 |2
𝑇→∞ 𝑇

Where 𝑆𝑥 𝑓 is the spectral density and 𝑋𝑇 𝑓

is the Fourier transform.

Telecommunications applications:
▪ Signal analysis: to understand the
frequency composition of signals in
communications, audio, and other fields.
▪ Signal processing: in telecommunications
and radar systems, to design filters and
modulation systems.
NOISE - INTRODUCTION

In a schematic of a Tx – Rx system, noise is important at the receiver.

Considerations:

• The signal strength >> much greater than the

noise.
• It is necessary to calculate the total noise of
the reception system.
• The noise in the receiver indicates the lower
limit of power received: SENSITIVITY (ensures
SNR or Eb/No).
• The upper limit is indicated by intermodulation.
NOISE - INTRODUCTION

Noise floor: a measure of the signal created from the sum of all noise sources and unwanted signals within
a system.
ELECTRICAL NOISE
Any random fluctuation of electrical
magnitude (whether current, voltage,
etc.) or interference, affects the
passband of the signal of interest and
tends to distort it.

Considerations:

• The presence of noise in

an electronic system is
inevitable.
• Most noises are non-
deterministic in nature.
ELECTRICAL NOISE

- Atmospheric
noise. - Solar.
- Sources external - Galactic - Cosmic
to the system noise.
- Man-made
noise.
Noise

- Thermal noise.

- Internal system - Shooting noise.

sources - Harmonic distortion.
 EXTERNAL NOISE – ATMOSPHERIC.
It occurs from electrical
disturbances that originate
within the Earth's atmosphere.
It is very high for low
frequencies and decreases when
the frequency increases.
Its effects are negligible above
approximately 30 MHz.

Example of sources:
Lightning products of
thunderstorms.
EXTERNAL NOISE – ATMOSPHERIC.

CCIR 322 atmospheric noise relationship. The standard has tables and maps that determine the noise figure at 1 MHz
according to the season and the time of day. This graph converts that noise figure to other frequencies.
EXTERNAL NOISE – SOLAR.
Fuente: NASA

They are classified with a letter and a number corresponding to their intensity: those of
medium activity are classified with "M", those of low intensity with "C", and "G" for
geomagnetic activity (from G1 to G5, from lower to higher intensity).
EXTERNAL NOISE – SOLAR.

Fuente: https://ei7gl.blogspot.com/2021/05/solar-noise-detected-at-40-mhz-22nd-may.html
EXTERNAL NOISE – CAUSED BY MAN.

Source: https://www.lbagroup.com/blog/emc-test-snapshot/
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)

EMC it is the branch of electronic and

telecommunications technology that
studies the mechanisms to eliminate,
diminish and prevent the effects of
coupling between an electrical or
electronic equipment and its
electromagnetic environment. Even from
its design, based on standards and
regulations, ensuring the reliability and
safety of all types of systems in the
place where they are installed and under
a specific electromagnetic environment.

Source: https://haitongele.com/how-to-reduce-electromagnetic-
interference/
 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)
The objective of EMC is to keep under reasonable control all secondary
effects produced by electrical devices or installations. EMC designates all
existing and future techniques and technologies to reduce disturbances and
improve immunity.

In Europe:

▪ The EMC Directive 2014/30/ ensures that electrical and electronic equipment
does not generate electromagnetic disturbances and is not affected by them.
▪ The EN 55022/55032 standards complement the EMC directive and specify RF
emission limits and measurement methods for information technology and
multimedia equipment.

In USA:

▪ FCC Rules and Regulations, Title 47, Part 15 specify radiation limits for
both intentional and unintentional radiation sources.
▪ FCC Part 18 regulates emissions from ISM devices that generate
electromagnetic radiation.
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic
EMC = Interference + sensitivity
(EMI) (EMS)
Interference Coupling path Susceptible
source circuit

If any of the three elements is

eliminated, the EMC problem is solved¡
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)
INTERNAL NOISE – THERMAL.
It is produced by the erratic movement of
free electrons in a conductive element.
Thermal energy keeps free electrons in
constant motion, but this movement is
random due to the multiple collisions that
electrons experience within the atomic
lattice (Briceño, 2005).

Considerations:

• It is of Gaussian distribution.
• For normal frequencies in
communications, except for the optical
transmission range, the noise spectral
density can be considered constant and
independent of frequency.
• It increases with temperature. Source: https://www.propatel.com/noise-in-
networking-types-of-noise/
INTERNAL NOISE – THERMAL.
Characteristics:
▪ Fluctuations are Gaussian distributed in
time. In other words, the size of a
fluctuation between two points in time
is Gaussian distributed.

▪ Fluctuations over time are uncorrelated.

If you calculate the autocorrelation of
thermal noise, you should find that the
autocorrelation function is a delta
function.

▪ Flat bandwidth. The frequency content of

the thermal noise is uniformly
distributed over the entire frequency
domain. In other words, the Fourier
Source: https://www.nwengineeringllc.com/article/thermal-noise-in-communication-and-
transform of the thermal noise is a optical-systems.php
straight line with slope 0.
 INTERNAL NOISE – THERMAL.

𝑵=𝑲∗𝑻∗𝑩
Where:
N is the power of noise.
K is Boltzmann's constant of proportionality (1,38 × 10−23 𝐽ൗ°𝐾).
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin.
B is the bandwidth in Hertz.

Room temperature= 17°C or 290°K.

To convert °C to °K: T= °C + 273
INTERNAL NOISE – THERMAL.
White noise: Constant level in the frequency band
considered. The signal contains all frequencies
and all of them have the same strength. As the
PSD is constant, the signal is not limited in the
band and its power is -theoretically- infinite.

Pink noise: level decreasing with

frequency. Its power spectral density is
directly proportional.

Blue noise: level increasing with

frequency. Its PSD is directly proportional
to frequency.
INTERNAL NOISE – THERMAL.

Shannon showed that it is the worst

noise among all possible noises and
that its power at a given bandwidth
is also the highest possible.
The Gaussian white noise power
represents an upper limit that is
used as a reference in the
calculation of Signal-to-Noise
ratios in communication systems.

• The power spectral density of white noise can be expressed as:

𝑵𝒐
𝑺𝒘 𝒇 =
𝟐
The dimensions of No are in Watts/Hertz and almost always correspond to the
input of the receiver. It is also possible to express it as: 𝑁𝑜 = 𝐾𝑇𝑒
INTERNAL NOISE – THERMAL.
Noise voltage:
In the worst case, the noise
resistance Ri is equal to RL,
so the voltage drop is
divided equally.
𝑉𝑁ൗ 2 2
2 𝑉𝑁
𝑁 = 𝐾𝑇𝐵 = =
𝑅 4𝑅

𝑉𝑁2 = 4𝑅𝐾𝑇𝐵
Low noise amplifiers must
minimize the value of their
𝑉𝑁 = 4𝑅𝐾𝑇𝐵 resistors to minimize noise.
INTERNAL NOISE – HARMONIC DISTORTION
Harmonic distortions are common voltage and
current variations due to changes in
frequencies.
Harmonics are mainly caused by nonlinear
loads.

Considerations:

• It is a measure of how much the voltage or

current waveform is distorted or changed from
its conventional sine waveform.
• IEEE 519 recommends not exceeding 5% total
harmonic distortion of the voltage, with the
largest harmonic not exceeding 3% of the
fundamental voltage.

Source: SEENCO Group.

INTERNAL NOISE – HARMONIC DISTORTION

Source: https://www.hioki.com/in-en/learning/electricity/thd.html
INTERNAL NOISE – HARMONIC DISTORTION

Source: SEENCO Group.

INTERNAL NOISE – HARMONIC DISTORTION

Source: https://www.uaudio.jp/blog/total-harmonic-distortion/
INTERFERENCE
Recommendation ITU-R V.573-5 defines radio
interference as "degradation in the
reception of a useful signal caused by
radio disturbance".

Parameters to be taken into account to avoid

interference:
• Center frequency. height.
• Canalization. • Antenna directivity.
• Frequency stability. • Radiation pattern.
• Transmitter power. • Antenna polarization.
• Out-of-band emission • Half-power beam
levels. width.
• Effective antenna

Source: https://www.kebamerica.com/blog/electromagnetic-
interference-vfds/
 CARRIER-TO-INTERFERENCE (C/I) RATIO
According to NSMA Is the ratio, expressed in
dB, between a desired carrier (C) and an
interfering carrier (1) received by the same
receiver, which is called the "victim"
receiver.
For convenience, the C/I ratio is normally
used to determine whether an interference case
is acceptable or not.

Considerations:

• Device location.
• Local geography.
• Antenna type.
• Antenna elevation.
CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
According to ITU, it is caused by the
presence of interfering and wanted signals
operating in the same bandwidth as the
channel on which the receiver is operating.
▪ Unexpected legal signals.

▪ Illegal (unlicensed) signals.

▪ Unexpected (illegal) sidebands from licensed

signal.

Considerations: Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235450789_A_Useful_Metaheuristic_for_Dynamic_Channel_Assig
nment_in_Mobile_Cellular_Systems/

• Center frequency. • Effective antenna Factors that increase the probability of

height. occurrence of co-channel interference:
• Canalization.
• Antenna directivity.
• Frequency stability. • Adverse weather • Saturated spectrum.
• Radiation pattern.
• Transmitter power. conditions.
• Antenna polarization.
• Hours of the day.
• Out-of-band emission • Poor frequency
levels. • Half-power beam width. planning. • Signal cancellation.

In wireless networks, co-channel interference is caused by the necessary frequency re-

use.
CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
INTERFERENCE – ADJACENT CHANNEL
According to ITU, it is caused by an
interfering signal operating in the adjacent
channel, and its level depends on the
filtering characteristics of the receiver.

Considerations:

• Selectivity of filters.
• Spectrum management.

Factors that increase the likelihood of

adjacent interference:

• Roll-off in • Intermodulation.
filters.

Source: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/10/3876
 BLOCKING INTERFERENCE
It is a special case of adjacent channel interference
that can occur when an interfering transmitter
operates physically close to the receiver, if the
interfering signal is strong enough the receiver can
go into saturation (ITU, 2015).
When this phenomenon occurs, the receiver is not able
to receive the radio signal that it could receive
because there are no spurious signals with a power
level lower than that of thermal noise.

Considerations:

• Appropriate selection of receivers with

selectivity characteristics that allow this Source: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-
981-15-1468-5_85
interference to be adequately rejected.
• Installation of suitable filters.
• Relocation of transmitters.
• Excessive power reduction in transmitters.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (S/N)
Difference in dB between the useful signal
level and the noise level. It is used to
quantify the effect of noise on the
intelligibility of a message.

𝑆 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑊) Wanted

=
𝑁 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑊)
Unwanted Source: https://documentation.meraki.com/MR/Wi-
Fi_Basics_and_Best_Practices/Signal-to-
Noise_Ratio_%28SNR%29_and_Wireless_Signal_Strength

𝑆 𝑃𝑆
𝑑𝐵 = 10 log
𝑁 𝑃𝑁

• It is important to know the noise power to

determine its effects on the useful signal.
• As far as possible, high S/N values are
desired.
• It is one of the most important parameters
in communications systems.
Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2304-
6732/1/1/33
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (S/N)
The margin (SNR) required between the signal and the noise
floor depends on several factors, including:

▪ Modulation type: different modulation schemes have

different SNR requirements. Analog modulation (AM or FM),
typically require an SNR of at least 10-15 dB for
acceptable. Quality digital modulation much as QAM, PSK,
or FSK, typically require an SNR of 20-30 dB or more,
depending on the acceptable bit error rate (BER).

▪ Propagation conditions: in wireless systems, channel

conditions (such as the presence of fading or
interference) may require a higher SNR to compensate for
adverse effects.

▪ Quality of Service (QoS): depending on the application,

the required quality may vary. Voice, typically requires
Source: https://www.cdt21.com/design_guide/signal-
an SNR of around 20 dB for clear communication. High- to-noise-ratio/
quality video transmission may require a higher SNR,
around 30 dB or more. Data transmission, especially at
high speeds, generally needs a high SNR to minimize
errors.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (S/N)
NOISE FACTOR
It is the ratio of the total average noise power
No at the output of a system, concerning the
average noise power Ni due to the system input
noise, and determined at the normalized reference
temperature To = 290 kelvins (Briceño, 2015).

𝑺𝒊
𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕. ൗ𝑵
𝒊
𝑭= =
𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕. 𝑺𝒐ൗ
𝑵𝒐

The noise figure is nothing more than the noise

factor expressed in dB and is a parameter widely
used to measure the quality of a receiver.

𝑁𝐹 dB = 10LogF
NOISE FACTOR
NOISE FACTOR
When two or more amplifiers are cascaded,
the noise figure is the sum of the
individual noise figures. The Friis
formula is used to calculate the total
noise figure of several cascaded
amplifiers.
𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏 𝑭𝟑 − 𝟏 𝑭𝒏 − 𝟏
𝑭𝑻 = 𝑭𝟏 + + + ⋯+
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 … 𝑨𝒏−𝟏

Considerations:

• In cascaded amplifiers, the first stage contributes

most to both total Te and total noise figures.
• A good practice in cascaded amplifier design is to
design the first stage with the lowest possible Te
(or F) and the highest possible power gain.
NOISE FACTOR
NOISE-EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE

Temperature at which an ideal resistor

would generate the same amount of
noise as a real system or device. In
other words, it measures how much
noise power a device generates in
addition to the surrounding thermal
noise.

𝑇𝑒2 𝑇𝑒3 𝑇𝑒4

𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑒1 + + + +⋯
𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
NOISE-EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE

Thus, the noise power at the output of this amplifier is:

𝑷𝑵𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑮 × 𝒌 × 𝑻𝒊𝒏 + 𝑻𝒆 × 𝑩
NOISE-EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE
Cannot be directly measured in a simple way, as it is not a physical quantity like
ambient temperature or electric current. Instead, it is calculated from measurements
of the noise factor (𝐹) or the noise power. Normal Te values range from 20° K for
cold receivers to 1000° K for noisy receivers.

𝑻𝒆 = 𝑻𝟎 𝑭 − 𝟏
Where To is the reference ambient temperature (290°K).
REFERENCIAS
▪ Briceño, J. (2005). Principios de las Comunicaciones.
Publicaciones de la Facultad de Ingeniería de la Universidad de
los Andes. Mérida, Vevezuela.
▪ Couch, L. (2008). Sistemas de Comunicación Digitales y
Analógicos. Séptima edición. Pearson. México.
▪ Haykin, S. (2001). Sistemas de Comunicación. Cuarta edición.
Limusa Wiley. México.
▪ ITU-R. (2015). Handbook on National Spectrum Management.
▪ Tomasi, W. (2003). Sistemas de Comunicaciones Electrónicas.
Cuarta edición. México. Editorial Pearson.
▪ NSMA. (1992). Report & tutorial Carrier to interference
objectives. Consultado (19/08/2023) en: https://nsma.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/05/wg5-92-08.pdf