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 Contents

List of Exercises vii

Contents of Audio CD xi

Preface xiii

UNIT 1 Laying the Foundation 1 10 Diphthongs 77

A Focus on Pronunciation 78
1 Thinking About the English Phonology System: Pronunciation 83
Syllables and Sounds 2
The Syllable 2
11 Rhotic/Controlled /r/
Parts of a Syllable 3
Types of Syllables 10 Diphthongs 84
Phonology and Phonetics 12 Pronunciation 87
Dialects and Accents 15
12 Term Review and
2 English Orthography 17 Practice 89

3 Paying Attention to Sounds 24

UNIT 3 Consonants 99
4 Term Review and Practice 29 13 Overview 100
Consonants and Vowels 102
Classification of Consonants 102
UNIT 2 The Vowel System 39 Voicing 103
Place of Articulation 104
5 Overview 40 Manner of Articulation 105
Characteristics of Vowel Sounds 42
Types of Vowels 44
14 Stop‐Plosives 112
The Vowel Quadrilateral 44
A Focus on Pronunciation 112
Pronunciation Notes 120
6 Monophthongs: Front Vowels 46
15 Fricatives 121
7 Monophthongs: Back Vowels 52 A Focus on Pronunciation 121

8 Monophthongs: Front and Back 58 16 Affricates 131

A Focus on Pronunciation 58 A Focus on Pronunciation 131
Allophonic Variations 59
Practice 61
17 Nasals 139
Pronunciation Notes: Dialectal Variations 67

18 Liquids 147
9 Central Vowels 71
Symbols for the Mid‐Central Vowels in Stressed
Syllables 71 19 Glides 157
Symbols for the Mid‐Central Vowels in Unstressed A Focus on Pronunciation 162
Syllables 74
Pronunciation Variation of Central Vowels 75 20 Term Review and Practice 164

v
vi Contents

UNIT 4 Transcription: The Details 183 Appendix 229

21 Overview of Transcription 184
Transcribing Speech 184 References 233

22 Stress 194
Glossary 235
Vowels in Stressed and Unstressed Syllables 194
Two‐Syllable Words 195
Stress Changes with the Addition of Prefixes and Answer Key 237
Suffixes 197
How to Decide which Syllable has the Primary
Stress? 200 Index 263
Reduction of Vowels to Schwa in Unstressed
Syllables 214
Noticing Vowel Alternations with Changes in Stress
Patterns 216
The Impact of Morphophonemic Changes on Stress and
Vowel/Consonant Changes 218
 List of Exercises
Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

1 1-A Counting Syllables 3 6-C Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:

1-B Distinguishing Consonants in a Words with /i/ 47
Word in Reference to the Vowel 6-D Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Sound 4 with /ɪ/ 48
1-C Focus on Consonants: Identifying 6-E Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Onsets and Codas 5 Words with /ɪ/ 48
1-D Finding Words with the Same Coda 6 6-F Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
1-E Finding Words with the Same Onset 6 with /e/ 49

1-F Creating Syllable Trees 8 6-G Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:

Words with /e/ 49
1-G Finding Words That Rhyme 9
6-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
1-H Identifying Syllable Parts 9 with /ɛ/ 50
1-I Determining Syllable Type: Open 6-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
versus Closed 11 Words with /ɛ/ 50
1-J Determining Syllable Type: Simple 6-J Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
versus Complex 12 with /æ/ 51

2 2-A Finding Consonant Sequences and 6-K Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Digraphs 20 Words with /æ/ 51

3 3-A Counting Sounds in Words 24 7 7-A Sorting by Vowel Sound 52

3-B Making Comparisons: Numbers of 7-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words

Sounds in Words 27 with /u/ 53

3-C Counting Sounds: Find the Errors 27 7-C Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Words with /u/ 53
4 4-A Sorting Words by Number of 7-D Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Syllables 30 with /ʊ/ 54
4-B Manipulating Onsets and Codas 31 7-E Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
4-C Counting Sounds in Words 32 Words with /ʊ/ 54
4-D Making More Comparisons: Number 7-F Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
of Sounds in Words 33 with /o/ 55
4-E Reversing Sounds in Words 34 7-G Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Words with /o/ 55
4-F Sorting Words by Number of
Sounds 34 7-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
with /ɔ/ 56
4-G Applying Terms: Finding Words 35
7-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
4-H Applying Syllable Terms: What’s on
Words with /ɔ/ 56
the Line? 36
7-J Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
4-I Syllable Talk: Matching Terms with
with /ɑ/ 57
Definitions 36
7-K Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
4-J True‐False 36
Words with /ɑ/ 57
4-K Identify the Term 37
8 8-A Common Bonds 61
5 5-A Tuning into the Vowel Sounds in 8-B Identify the Vowel 61
Words 40
8-C Working with the Vowel
6 6-A Sorting by Vowel Sound 46 Quadrilateral 62
6-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 8-D Identifying the Vowel
with /i/ 47 Changes 63
vii
viii List of Exercises

Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

8-E Vowel Classification Practice: 13-C Determining the Voicing of
Creating Words 64 Consonant Sounds 103
8-F Identifying the Vowel in Words 65 13-D Determining Place of
8-G Reading IPA Symbols 66 Articulation 104
13-E Determining Manner of
9 9-A Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words Articulation 108
with /ʌ/ 72
9-B Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
14 14-A Common Bonds 112
Words with /ʌ/ 72 14-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 115
9-C Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 14-C Writing Words with Phonetic
with /ɝ/ 73 Symbols 115
9-D Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: 14-D Solving Word Equations 116
Words with /ɝ/ 73 14-E Writing Word Equations 117
9-E Challenge: Two‐Syllable Words with 14-F State the Change 118
Central Vowels 75 14-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with
Stop‐Plosive Sounds 118
10 10-A Sorting Words with Diphthongs 77
14-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with
10-B Identifying the Correct Symbol for
Stop‐Plosive Sounds 119
Diphthongs 81
14-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
10-C Counting Sounds in Words 81
with Sequences 120
10-D Decoding Phonetic Symbols:
14-J Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Phonemic Diphthongs 82
Words with Sequences 120
10-E Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
Phonemic Diphthongs 82 15 15-A Common Bonds 123
15-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 123
11 11-A Sorting Words by Vowel Sounds 84
15-C Writing Words with Phonetic
11-B Identifying the Correct Symbol for Symbols 124
Controlled /r/ Diphthongs 86
15-D Solving Word Equations 125
11-C Decoding Phonetic Symbols:
15-E Writing Word Equations 126
Controlled /r/ Diphthongs 87
11-D Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: 15-F State the Change 127
Controlled /r/ Diphthongs 87 15-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with
Fricatives 127
12 12-A Find What Is Asked 90 15-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with
12-B Counting Sounds 91 Fricatives 128
12-C Compare/Contrast Phonetic 15-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Characteristics of Vowels and with Sequences 129
Diphthongs 91 15-J Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
12-D Odd One Out 92 Words with Sequences 130
12-E Identifying the Vowel Sound 93
16 16-A Common Bonds 132
12-F Vowel Change‐Up 94 16-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 132
12-G Identifying the Vowel 95 16-C Writing Words with Phonetic
12-H Judge the Transcription 96 Symbols 133
12-I What’s the Word? 96 16-D Solving Word Equations 133
12-J Decode the Symbols 98 16-E Writing Word Equations 134
16-F State the Change 135
13 13-A Onset Comparison 100
16-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with
13-B Coda Comparison 101
Obstruents 136
 List of Exercises ix

Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

16-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with 19-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
Obstruents 137 with Sequences 163
16-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 19-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols:
with Sequences 137 Words with Sequences 163
16-J Writing Words in Phonetic
20 20-A Identifying Common Bonds 165
Symbols: Words with
Sequences 138 20-B Odd One Out 166
20-C Provide the Sounds That Are
17 17-A Common Bonds 139 Requested 166
17-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 139 20-D How Are the Onsets Different? 167
17-C Writing Words with Phonetic 20-E How Are the Codas Different? 168
Symbols 140
20-F Decoding Phonetic Symbols 169
17-D Solving Word Equations 141
20-G Focus on Interdental Fricatives 169
17-E Writing Word Equations 142
20-H Differentiating Between the
17-F State the Change 143 Interdental Fricatives 171
17-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with 20-I Finding the Palatal Glide /j/ 172
Nasals and Obstruents 143
20-J Focus on Nasal Consonants 172
17-H Creating Minimal Pairs (Coda) with
20-K Follow the Clues 174
Nasals and Obstruents 144
20-L Follow More Clues 175
17-I Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words
with Sequences 145 20-M Explain the Changes 175
17-J Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: 20-N Identify More Changes 176
Words with Sequences 146 20-O Counting and Indentifying Sounds in
Words 177
18 18-A Common Bonds 147
20-P Identify the Third Speech Sound in
18-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 147 Words 178
18-C Writing Words with Phonetic 20-Q Find the Words That Are
Symbols 148 Requested 179
18-D Solving Word Equations 149 20-R More or Less 180
18-E Writing Word Equations 151 20-S Mind Your Manners 180
18-F State the Change 153
21 21-A Vowel Sounds with Velar Nasal 186
18-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset)
with Liquids, Nasals, and 21-B Identifying the Velar Nasal in
Obstruents 153 Singleton and Sequence Contexts 186

18-H Decoding Phonetic Symbols: Words 21-C Select the Correct Transcriptions 187
with Sequences 154 21-D Transcription Practice: Velar
18-I Writing Words in Phonetic Symbols: Nasal 187
Words with Sequences 155 21-E Transcribing Words with Bound
Morphemes /s/, /z/, /əz/ or /t/,
19 19-A Common Bonds 157 /d/, /əd/ 188
19-B Decoding Phonetic Symbols 157 21-F Transcription Practice: Velar Nasals
19-C Writing Words with Phonetic and Bound Morphemes 190
Symbols 158 21-G Transcription Practice: Glides 191
19-D Solving Word Equations 158 21-H Determining the Correct
19-E Writing Word Equations 159 Transcription 191
19-F State the Change 160 21-I Judge the Transcription 192

19-G Creating Minimal Pairs (Onset) with 21-J Decode Symbols: What’s the
Sonorants and Obstruents 161 Word? 193
x List of Exercises

Chapter Exercise Name Chapter Exercise Name

22-N Identifying Stress Patterns In

22 22-A Odd One Out: Stress Patterns 196
Two‐Syllable Words 209
22-B Transcribing The Suffix –ing /ɪŋ/ 198
22-O Identify the Correct
22-C Identifying –y and –ly Suffixes That Transcription 210
Would Use /ɪ/ 199
22-P Identifying the Syllable That Is Not
22-D Transcription Practice: –y and –ly Stressed 211
Suffixes 199
22-Q Sorting U.S. States by Stress
22-E Sorting Words by Stress Patterns 201 Patterns 212
22-F Transcription Practice: /ɚ/ in Final 22-R Determining Which Syllable
Unstressed Syllables 202 Receives Primary Stress 213
22-G Transcription Practice: Schwa in 22-S Transcribing Stress Changes 220
Suffixes 202
22-T Select the Most Reasonable
22-H Transcription Practice: Unstressed Transcription from the Choices
First Syllables 203 Provided 221
22-I Transcription Practice: Syllabic 22-U Sorting Words by Stress
/l/ 204 Pattern 223
22-J Two Syllable Central Vowel Sort 204 22-V Determining Which
22-K Sorting Words by Stress Syllable Receives Primary
Pattern 206 Stress 224
22-L Where’s the Stress? 208 22-W Transcription Practice: Schwa in
22-M Judge the Accuracy of the Unstressed Syllables 225
Transcription 208 22-X What’s the Word? 227
 Contents of Audio CD
41 Tracks; Total play time 56 minutes, 42 seconds
Track Contents Time
1 Transcription practice set 1: Front/back monophthongs in isolation 1:24
2 Transcription practice set 2: Front/back monophthongs in CV/VC syllables 1:26
3 Transcription practice set 3: Front/back monophthongs in CV/VC syllables 1:25
4 Transcription practice set 4: All monophthongs in CVC syllables 1:26
5 Transcription practice set 5: Phonemic diphthongs in simple syllables 1:28
6 Transcription practice set 6: All monophthongs and phonemic diphthongs in simple syllables 1:24
7 Transcription practice set 7: Controlled /r/ diphthongs in simple syllables 1:28
8 Transcription practice set 8: All vowels in simple syllables 1:23
9 Transcription practice set 9: Stop‐plosives in simple syllables 1:22
10 Transcription practice set 10: Fricatives/affricates in simple syllables 1:25
11 Transcription practice set 11: All obstruents in simple syllables 1:22
12 Transcription practice set 12: All sonorants in simple syllables 1:20
13 Transcription practice set 13: Prevocalic sequences 1:19
14 Transcription practice set 14: Postvocalic sequences 1:19
15 Transcription practice set 15: Pre‐ and postvocalic sequences 1:23
16 Examples of coarticulation 1:00
17 Examples of alveolar flap/tap :37
18 Examples of glottal stop for intervocalic /t/ :28
19 Examples of /l/ productions 1:15
20 Examples of velar nasal with and without /g / :41
21 Introduction to stress: Vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables 1:26
22 Compound words :31
23 Stress patterns in nouns and verbs 1:04
24 Sample sentences with nouns and verbs :49
25 Exercise 22‐A 1:57
26 Exercise 22‐E 1:14
27 Exercise 22‐F :47
28 Exercise 22‐G :41
29 Exercise 22‐H :51
30 Exercise 22‐I :40
31 Exercise 22‐J 1:29
32 Exercise 22‐K 2:39
33 Exercise 22‐L 1:29
34 Exercise 22‐N 1:53
35 Exercise 22‐P :52
36 Exercise 22‐R 1:43
37 Reduction of vowels to schwa in unstressed syllables 1:32
38 Exercise 22‐S 2:15
39 Exercise 22‐U 1:35
40 Exercise 22‐V 1:24
41 Exercise 22‐W 4:33

xi
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface
About This Workbook etc., we give minimal attention to the particular sounds in
the overall message because our ability to process speech
If 10 professors who taught the undergraduate phonetics and print is very rapid and automatic. This automaticity,
courses at their respective universities came together, each however, can disrupt adult students from attending to the
of them would approach the acquisition of phonetics and sound system of their language as they are faced with the
subsequent transcription skills differently. I recall my own task of learning a symbol system that is based solely on
phonetics course, taken more than 30 years ago, taught what sounds are heard. Since becoming competent in lit-
by a professor in broadcasting (although I was majoring eracy, we have learned to bypass the auditory channel and
in communication disorders). We spent 50 minutes, three solely focus our attention on the visual forms of words.
times per week, transcribing words spoken by the profes- Van Riper and Smith (1979) refer to this as being “eye-
sor. Pianissimo is one such word that has not left my mem- minded” rather than “ear-minded.” For adult students,
ory bank! who are about to learn about the English sound system and
My background in language and phonology, and my acquire a new symbol system (IPA), attention needs to shift
research in phonological awareness and early literacy back to the auditory and kinesthetic characteristics of those
skills, have informed the way I teach my own phonetics sounds (i.e., return to being ear-minded). Learning to apply
course. I treat learning the International Phonetic Alphabet the IPA when transcribing speech will eventually require a
(IPA) in much the same way as children learn to read. balance of being both ear-minded and eye minded.
Awareness of sounds needs to be addressed prior to learn- I have learned a great deal from my students over the
ing which symbols are used to represent those sounds. past 15 years. My students have taught me that they need
Additionally, conventions of the written symbol system repeated exposure to the symbols in order to use them
need attention. Because the foundation for the IPA is accurately and efficiently. Some students encounter diffi-
sounds, it is imperative that the nuances in the pronuncia- culty isolating sounds and matching them to a new sym-
tion of sounds also are emphasized. bol. Without a solid foundation, these students encounter
The primary focus of this workbook is to prepare difficulty with subsequent transcription skills and clinical
students to be able to transcribe speech phonetically by application remains problematic. Other students seem to
increasing their awareness and knowledge about the be able to match sounds to the IPA symbols with ease, yet
English sound system, their knowledge of how individual they do not always have a solid understanding of articu-
sounds are formed, and their understanding of how sounds latory phonetics for efficient and effective application in
combine to form words. This workbook presents an active clinical situations. In order to be able to accurately tran-
learning tool for individuals studying articulatory phonet- scribe the speech of others, students need to learn about
ics and English pronunciation skills. Its goal is to provide how sounds are formed, how those sounds change in dif-
a “sound” foundation from which transcription skills can ferent contexts, what symbols represent those sounds, and
develop. This workbook is not the “typical” phonetics what rules guide the use of those symbols.
workbook. Using this workbook will provide students with Because of these issues, this workbook is based on a
a sufficient foundation needed to learn to attend to sounds “meta” approach to learning. Meta skills require that con-
in words so that learning and applying a new symbol sys- scious attention be given to a specific entity apart from
tem will be a successful experience for them. Because one understanding the meaning. To be meta requires knowl-
of its goals is to provide a sound foundation from which edge to become explicit, rather than implicit. Becoming
transcription can build, this workbook slows down the explicitly aware of the phonological structure of our lan-
learning process so that students have an opportunity to guage is a cognitive task and one that requires focused
develop the skills and strategies they need before they are attention, active learning, a great deal of practice, and a fair
required to use them. amount of reflection. Additionally, increasing awareness
In order to learn and use the IPA for transcribing of the orthographic system is needed in order to effectively
speech, students must attend to the sound structure of the shift our attention to the sounds on which that system is
language. Becoming aware of the sounds of English pho- based. The content in this workbook is presented in such a
nology can be challenging because a typical student has not way that students have to think about sounds in an explicit
paid attention to individual sounds since mastering reading manner. Information is presented in order to create cogni-
and spelling. Although we hear language on a daily basis in tive dissonance in students so that they are encouraged to
the form of conversation, television programs, music, etc., make sense from what is presented to them. My goal is to
and encounter print on a daily basis by reading, texting, have the individuals who use this workbook think about

xiii
xiv Preface

the sounds of the English language as they never have in perception. This unit lays the foundation for the informa-
the past. My primary aim throughout this workbook is to tion and exercises that will be introduced in Units 2 and 3.
design exercises for students to become reacquainted with The focus then moves to the production of individual
the English sound system through discovery. As they com- sounds (articulatory phonetics) and the IPA symbols that
plete the exercises, I would like for them to experience represent them. The second unit focuses on the vowel sys-
“ah-ha” moments as they make sense of the phonological tem of the English language. Vowels are presented first
system of English. because, in my experience, students are challenged more
by vowels than consonants. Because the symbols for 16
consonant sounds are the same in the IPA and the Roman
Explanation of Organizational alphabet, students can immediately be exposed to the vowel
Framework symbols in the context of words. Unit 2 provides exercises
for the learner to focus on the specific characteristics that
The overall presentation of information is deliberate, help to distinguish vowels from each other. It details the
explicit, and systematic to promote successful learning. individual vowels in the vowel system: 14 monophthongs
The first challenge it presents to students is to think about (Chapters 6, 7, and 9), diphthongs (Chapter 10), and rhotic/
sounds in the face of orthography (Unit 1). It then intro- controlled-r diphthongs and triphthongs (Chapter 11).
duces the vowels (Unit 2) and consonants (Unit 3) of the Understanding the specific vowel characteristics within
English phonology system. Pronunciation information, the context of the vowel quadrilateral is emphasized in the
including allophonic, dialectal, and accent variations, are exercises presented in Chapter 8 so that students under-
included within each of these units. Lastly, the topics of stand the classification of monophthongs and come to
broad transcription and word stress are introduced (Unit view the vowel quadrilateral as a useful tool in future clini-
4). Most published texts provide these three levels (i.e., cal decision making.
awareness, IPA symbols and articulatory phonetics infor- Unit 3 concentrates on the 25 consonant sounds in
mation, transcription) simultaneously, despite the fact that the English language. How consonants are classified is
most students do not learn these skills in that way. Most addressed first, and the introduction of voicing, place,
instructors supplement existing phonetics workbooks with and manner of articulation is introduced through expe-
additional practice material to insure student learning. It is riential sorting exercises (Chapter 13). The six manner
the aim of this workbook to systematically lead students classes serve as the organizational framework when indi-
through each level separately so they are able to learn new vidual sounds are described and detailed (Chapters 14–19).
information on a firmer foundation. Each chapter presents the sounds within a specific man-
The chapters within each unit lay the foundation, ner class, along with their characteristics. Once students
provide the pertinent content, and then provide ample learn the characteristics of each sound, they will be able to
practice for students to adequately learn the specifics compare and contrast sounds with each other. For speech–
and meet the established goals. The exercises build upon language pathology students, this will serve as a foundation
each other so that each student can learn solidly by taking for understanding development, phonological patterns and
from what they have previously learned and applying the processes, and articulation errors. Included in each chapter
knowledge to new material. This systematic approach to in this unit is pronunciation information (in the form of
learning provides a layering of information to scaffold stu- allowable differences) that will help students understand
dent learning. Along with a variety of practice exercises, their own and others’ sound production in words. This will
questions are posed to students to encourage them to think be followed by exercises to practice the information for
about their sound system and reflect upon specific areas. consonant singletons. Students will be asked to (1) “read”
The final chapter in each unit provides a review of terms phonetic symbols to create a familiar word, (2) translate
(Units 1–3), a focus on pronunciation (Units 2 and 3), and the sounds in a word into phonetic symbols, (3) use an
additional practice that elaborates and extends previous “equation” of phonetic information to make words, and
exercises. (4) write a phonetic equation for presented words. The
The first unit focuses on phonological awareness (i.e., consonant sounds in each manner class will then be intro-
awareness of syllables, onsets, rimes, and sounds) as well duced in the context of consonant sequences. Two familiar
as orthographic knowledge (i.e., knowledge about how exercises (reading phonetic symbols to make words and
spoken language is represented in print) and introduces writing a word in phonetic symbols) will assist students in
students to basic terminology. It briefly presents the con- focusing on the consonant sounds in sequences. Additional
cepts of phonology, phonemes, allophones, coarticulation, exercises are included in the final chapter to provide addi-
assimilation, dialects, and accents and alerts students to tional exposure to sounds that are frequently problematic
the impact these concepts may have on pronunciation and for students.
 Preface xv

Up until this point in the workbook, individual sounds Acknowledgments

in single-syllable words were emphasized using broad pho-
nemic transcription. Unit 4 discusses phonetic transcription The exercises for this workbook grew out teaching CSD
and the role it plays in clinical application. Specific rules 215, “Clinical Phonetics” at Illinois State University. I
when transcribing consonants and vowels are presented. thank the approximately 100 students each year who chal-
The role of stress in pronunciation and transcription is lenge me to do my best work. I am grateful to my past
introduced and elaborated. Exercises in reading phonetic teaching assistants Beth Maher, Renee Moore, Kandace
symbols as well as in transcribing words into symbols are Davis, and Melissa Griffin who helped me creatively
included to achieve the automaticity required for clinical find ways for students to learn and practice the symbols
application. This unit serves as the basis for transcription needed for transcription. A special thank you goes to my
exercises that occur next in the training of speech–language present teaching assistant, Ashley Ciecko, who was a
pathologists; that is, word productions are presented live or constant in assisting me when this workbook was taking
via tape presentation, and students translate what they hear shape over the past several semesters. Gratitude also goes
into phonetic symbols. Practicing transcription in this way to Sarah Huey, Christi Patterson, Maggie O’Shea, and
is outside the scope of this workbook. Jessica Uhlir, who assisted in providing their viewpoints
The supplemental audio CD that accompanies this and ideas as well as researching specific areas. Thanks
workbook serves several purposes. Fifteen practice tran- to the Pearson reviewers, Jean Andruski, Wayne State
scription sets are provided to assist the retrieval of the IPA University; Raymond Dalfonso, Kutztown University;
symbols upon hearing a nonsense syllable. Five tracks are and Laureen O’Hanlon, California State University of
provided that demonstrate pronunciation notes. Half of Sacramento. I am grateful to Elizabeth Harbers Warden
the content of the CD provides auditory models of content and Clare Maksimovich who knew nothing about pho-
and exercises from Chapter 22: Stress. Although listen- netics but were careful proofreaders. A special thank you
ing to the CD is not required to complete the exercises in also goes to Aaron Paolucci who recorded and produced
Chapter 22, it will be helpful to students because stress is the audio CD and Connie de Veer, Mark de Veer, Gwen
difficult to detect when listening to one’s own speech. de Veer, and Jeb Burris for their voices. This workbook
Most of the pronunciations used in this book reflect would not have been possible without the efforts of the
the author’s Midwestern (central Illinois) dialect. When Pearson “team.” Many thanks to Steve Dragin and Karen
transcribing a word that is not presented orally, your pro- Mason for their leadership and support, and Carrie Fox and
nunciation patterns may differ. Be assured that differences Shylaja Gattupalli and their teams for their work with the
are not errors. Based on your own dialect, how you pro- final production.
nounce specific sounds (especially vowels) may be dif-
ferent from those presented in the exercises. Please check
with your instructor for explanations of differences. To the Student About to Embark
on This Sound Journey
I hope these exercises increase your awareness of how
New! CourseSmart eTextbook Available complex and amazing speech sound perception and pro-
duction can be. Because this workbook is about sounds, it
CourseSmart is an exciting new choice for students look- is important for you to listen and feel your own pronuncia-
ing to save money. As an alternative to purchasing the tions and listen and watch how others produce their sounds
printed textbook, students can purchase an electronic ver- in words, phrases, and sentences. The sounds in the words
sion of the same content. With a CourseSmart eTextbook, used in the exercises, especially the vowel sounds, may
students can search the text, make notes online, print out not reflect your own pronunciation. There is a great deal
reading assignments that incorporate lecture notes, and of variability in how the vowels, and sometimes the con-
bookmark important passages for later review. For more sonants, in words are produced. Be patient with yourself
information, or to purchase access to the CourseSmart as you learn to train your mind to focus on sounds. May
eTextbook, visit www.coursesmart.com. your travels be filled with many insights into what most
speakers take for granted!
Van Riper, C., & Smith, D. (1979). An introduction to General
American phonetics. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
This page intentionally left blank
UNIT

1 Laying the Foundation

Read the following groups of words aloud:
fear gear wear
meat sweat great
tough cough dough
perk cork work
chef shoe sure
who whoa white
While reading these words, you soon realize that the spellings you see do not
always reflect the sounds you hear.
As a student about to learn the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), you
must think more about the sounds in the words you use than about their spellings.
To do this, you need to become reacquainted with the sounds of the English lan-
guage. Van Riper and Smith (1979) refer to this as becoming “ear-minded” rather
than “eye-minded.”
The goals for the first unit include:
● To reacquaint you with the sound make-up of words in the English language
● To assist you in differentiating between the sounds you hear and the letters
you see when looking at a word
● To introduce you to basic terminology that will be used throughout the
workbook
● To provide you with exercises to improve your attention to sounds in words
in order to prepare you to learn a new symbol system—the IPA
● To introduce you to the concept of coarticulation and how it influences your
perception and production of sounds in words and connected speech
● To introduce you to the concept of dialects and accents and how these influ-
ence your perception and production of sounds

1
CHAPTER
Thinking About the
English Phonology System:
1 Syllables and Sounds

P
honology refers to the sound system of a language. The phonological sys-
tem of a language consists of (1) the group of specific sounds used in that
language, (2) the permissible variations of those sounds when produced,
and (3) the particular rules for combining those sounds.
Two groups of sounds make up a phonology system: consonants and vowels.
Consonants are speech sounds produced as a result of air moving through the
vocal tract encountering some constriction or obstruction. The articulators (i.e.,
lips, front teeth, lower jaw, tongue, or the velum) close the vocal tract in some
way by interfering with, obstructing, or modifying the outgoing breath stream to
produce these types of sounds. As a result, consonants are referred to as closed
sounds. The consonants in a word can be by themselves (singleton) or in a series
(sequence). An example of a word with consonant singletons is bat; an example
of a word with consonant sequences is stops. When consonants are in a sequence,
each consonant sound retains its identity during pronunciation. Sequences can
occur within a syllable (cluster) or across syllables. Both sequences in the earlier
example of stops can be referred to as a cluster; however, the sequences in the
words basket and husband fall across syllables.
Vowels are speech sounds produced as a result of air moving through a rela-
tively open vocal tract. Although movement of the articulators (i.e., lips, tongue,
and jaw) changes the shape of the mouth, producing different vowel sounds, the
breath stream remains unimpeded. Vowels contain the most acoustic energy and
therefore are perceived as stronger sounds (as compared with consonants).
Consonants and vowels serve different functions in our sound system. Both con-
tribute to the clearness and intelligibility of speech. Because they are the most prom-
inent, vowels carry the intonation and prosody of our language. Consonants act as
dividing units, assisting in creating boundaries in words. Think about talking while
yawning or saying something with a pen in your mouth. Depending on the context,
the listener may still understand your message because of the intonation. What is
lacking, however, is the finer distinctions and clarity made by the consonants.

The Syllable
A syllable is a unit of pronunciation consisting of a vowel sound alone or a vowel
sound with the consonants that precede or follow it. There is only one vowel sound
in a syllable. When adjacent vowels are produced as separate sounds, separate
syllables are formed (e.g., helium, rodeo). An exception to this definition is when
a consonant can serve as the nucleus of a syllable. Only three consonants (i.e., m,
n, and l) can serve this role. This special circumstance will be explained in Unit 4.
2
 Thinking About the English Phonology System: Syllables and Sounds 3

Parts of a Syllable
Vowels
Vowels are essential to syllable formation. A syllable must contain a vowel sound.
Each vowel serves as the nucleus of the syllable. Because a vowel sound has the
strongest acoustic energy, they are often referred to as the peak of the syllable.
Vowel = peak/nucleus

EXERCISE 1-A: COUNTING SYLLABLES

Say each word aloud and count the number of syllables you hear in the following words. Write the
correct number of the line that follows each word.

happy ________ catastrophe ________ sequential ________

alphabet ________ alligator ________ boys ________

retroactive ________ appropriate ________ introduce ________

imagination ________ ditches ________ oncoming ________

psychological ________ include ________ overwhelming ________

grounded ________ computer ________ spindle ________

unspeakable ________ spilled ________ unilateral ________

Return to your answers. The number of syllables = the number of vowel sounds you hear in each word.
Think of 20 more words. Say each word aloud and count the number of syllables in each.

SOMETHING TO There are many words that may be pronounced with different syllable
CONSIDER counts. Consider the following words: every, boundary, usually. Can you
say them two different ways? Think of other words that can be pronounced
Pronunciation with different syllable counts.
Variance

Consonants
Because the vowel sound is the nucleus of the syllable, consonants are described by
their relationship to the vowel. Prevocalic consonants (singleton or sequence) are
those consonants that come before the vowel. Postvocalic consonants (singleton or
sequence) are those consonants that come after the vowel. These two terms refer to
4 Chapter 1

the consonant placement within a syllable. When the word (rather than the syllable)
is the unit of pronunciation, the term intervocalic may be included. Intervocalic
consonants (singletons or sequences) are those consonants that are between vowels
in a word with two or more syllables.

EXERCISE 1-B: DISTINGUISHING CONSONANTS IN A WORD IN REFERENCE TO THE VOWEL SOUND

Say each word aloud. Classify the consonant sounds in each word in terms of their relationship to the
vowel.

Word Prevocalic Consonants Intervocalic Consonants Postvocalic Consonants

me
up
not
vase
skip
bend
helps
wagon
basket
consonants

Although the vowel is essential to syllable for-

REMINDER mation, consonants are not necessary. When con-
Consonants within a syllable unit: Onsets are sonants are present in a syllable, they are defined
prevocalic consonants; codas are postvocalic. by their relationship to the vowel nucleus. The
consonant(s) that precede the vowel in a syllable
Singleton: consonant sound by itself is/are termed the onset; the consonant(s) that fol-
Sequence: two or more adjacent consonant low the vowel in a syllable is/are termed the coda.
sounds; each consonant sound retains its Remember, consonant sounds can be alone before
identity during pronunciation. or after a vowel (singleton), or two or more conso-
nant sounds can be adjacent to each other before or
after a vowel (sequence).
 Thinking About the English Phonology System: Syllables and Sounds 5

EXERCISE 1-C: FOCUS ON CONSONANTS: IDENTIFYING ONSETS AND CODAS

Say each of the following words aloud. Identify which consonant sounds/let-
ters make up the onset and which sounds/letters make up the coda. Be care-
ful—not all of the words will have an onset; not all of the words will have a
coda. Remember to focus on the sounds you hear when you pronounce each
word rather than the letters you see. Try not to be tricked by the spelling!

goat onset ________ coda ________

path onset ________ coda ________

snake onset ________ coda ________

try onset ________ coda ________

word onset ________ coda ________

bulb onset ________ coda ________

eight onset ________ coda ________

rips onset ________ coda ________

frost onset ________ coda ________

book onset ________ coda ________

own onset ________ coda ________

thread onset ________ coda ________

left onset ________ coda ________

if onset ________ coda ________

be onset ________ coda ________

6 Chapter 1

EXERCISE 1-D: FINDING WORDS WITH THE SAME CODA

Read the words in each row aloud; focus on the ending consonant sounds. Find
the two words in the row with the same coda. Cross out the word that does not
share the same coda with the other two. Remember to focus on the sounds you
hear when you pronounce each word rather than the letters you see.

picks fox cups

noise nose voice
bathe mouth bath
comb tub some
eyes less cheese
cape help deep
feud mud hoped
beige vague dog
sponge wrong arrange
slept hoped robbed
laugh stove leaf
licorice mustache research
box hunks sphinx
talked strict tagged
whisk wax flask

EXERCISE 1-E: FINDING WORDS WITH THE SAME ONSET

Read the words in each row aloud; focus on the beginning consonant sounds.
Find the two words in the row with the same onset. Cross out the word that does
not share the same onset with the other two. Remember to focus on the sounds
you hear when you pronounce each word rather than the letters you see.

the thaw thumb

chorus chore kite
honor horse who
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Norris thought, that in order to obtain the Bill he must not give the
least satisfaction on any question. Accordingly, when questioned if
he knew anything that would show the sentence to be unjust? he
replied, “No.” If he knew anything of undue practices? still he
answered “No.” Yet when Lord Halifax asked him, whether he was
desirous the Bill should pass? he replied, “Yes.” Lord Halifax—“If he
knew anything that was necessary for the King to know, and that
would incline him to mercy?” He begged leave not to answer, and
withdrew. The contradiction in this behaviour must be left to the
comment of the reader. The only observation I would make, not only
on Norris, but on his associates, (I speak not of those who evidently
were influenced,) is this. If, as they all said, they knew nothing
unjust, why did they solicit to be released from an oath of secrecy,
under the lock of which they had no secret? Is it not more probable
that they were ashamed of what they had done, and neither knew
how to bear or avow it?
Admiral Broderick was short and steady in negatives to all the
questions. Holmes as explicit, saying he knew nothing to incline the
King to mercy but the sentence and their letter. Lord Halifax then
informed the Lords, that Norris had recollected himself, and desired
to return to the bar. Lord Cholmondeley and Lord Stamford objected
to it, but even Lord Hardwicke could not close with such rigour,
though he declared against repeating the like indulgence. Norris
returning, and being asked if he knew anything proper for his
Majesty to know, and that might incline him to mercy, replied, “At
the time that I said I desired the Act might pass, I thought we
should have an opportunity of explaining our reasons for signing the
sentence.” These words, though obscure, and by no means
adequate to what was expected from his desire of being reheard,
seemed to imply that he had been drawn into the harshness of the
sentence from some arguments of the improbability that it would be
carried into execution. This in the utmost candour I own; it was
what all the advocates for rigour insisted was the case: though the
defence in truth is but a sorry one, for what can exceed the
weakness of condemning a man, whom one thinks innocent, upon
the supposition that he will afterwards escape?
Geary, the accommodating Geary, the repenter of his repentance,
came next; answered No, to Lord Mansfield’s questions, like the rest:
to Lord Halifax’s, whether desirous of the Bill, replied No, but have
no objections to it, if it will be to the satisfaction of anybody; and
that he knew nothing for mercy but the sentence and letter. “Could
you,” said Lord Fortescue, “if the Act should pass, explain the
sentence better?” “My oath of secrecy,” said Geary, “will not let me
say more.” Captain Boyce gave his three noes to the questions. So
did Moore to Lord Mansfield’s. When asked by Lord Halifax, if
desirous of the Bill? he said, “I am very desirous of it, that I may be
absolved from my oath; I have been under concern when I took it—I
don’t mean on this point.” To the other question relative to the King
and mercy, he said, “I don’t think myself at liberty to answer while
bound by my oath.” To Lord Fortescue, whether, if absolved, he
could better explain the sentence and letter? he replied in these
equivocal words, “I could give better reasons for my signing.” Simko,
Douglas, and Bentley, were unanimous in negatives to all the
questions. Then Keppel appeared. Being asked if he knew anything
unjust?—after long silence and consideration, he replied, No.
Whether the sentence was obtained through undue practices? No.
Whether desirous of the Bill? “Yes, undoubtedly.” Whether he knew
anything necessary for the knowledge of the King, and conducive to
mercy? Keppel: “I cannot answer that, without particularizing my
vote and opinion.” Lord Halifax asked him whether he thought his
particular reasons had been asked now? He replied, No. He retired.
If Keppel had had no more to tell, than that he had been drawn into
the harsher measure by the probability of the gentler preponderating
at last, he had in truth been much misunderstood: his regret had
worn all the appearance of remorse. How he came to appear so
calm and so indifferent at the last moment, in which either regret or
remorse could hope to have any effect, I pretend not to decide.
Such as showed any compunction of any sort I would excuse to the
utmost. Those who determined no compunction should operate, and
those who, like Moore and Geary, abandoned their contrition to
make their court, I desire not to absolve. The former were gratified,
the latter were rewarded. Dennis was the last who appeared, and
took care to have no more tenderness before the Lords than he had
exerted in the House of Commons.
Lord Temple then desired that the Court-Martial might be absolved
from their attendance; and that the depositions might be read over.
When finished, he said (what indeed in his situation he could not
well help saying, considering how few questions had been put,
except the captious ones of Lord Mansfield, and how little
satisfaction had been obtained, and that even Keppel himself had
not said half so much as he had said in the House of Commons,)
Lord Temple, I say, after congratulating the King and nation on the
temper that had been observed, said, the discussion might produce
an opinion that the sentence was just: he had had doubts, but now
they were all removed: yet he would ask, whether still it were not
better to indulge the conscientious with the Bill, especially as it
would clear all doubts in others?
Lord Marchmont and Lord Hardwicke objected warmly to that
proposal, and treated the House of Commons with the highest scorn.
The former said, he had the utmost contempt for the Bill, and hoped
their Lordships would set their mark on all who had traduced the
Court-Martial, whose very countenances had shown their breasts. He
begged the House no further to load his Majesty, but to reject the
Bill. Lord Halifax acknowledged, that all who read the preamble,
must have concluded that they had something material to divulge:
yet not one had produced any one circumstance. For himself, he was
never ashamed to retract, when the ground had gone from him. Yet
he thought they still must have had reasons for their extraordinary
behaviour, and wished for the Bill to clear up that wonderful
sentence and letter. But Lord Hardwicke authoritatively put an end to
the Debate; said the recital to the preamble had been false; that
they had sworn there had been no undue practice, and that it
appeared upon what no grounds the House of Commons had
proceeded; which he hoped would tend to ease the mind of his
Majesty. He proposed, and it was ordered, that the whole
examination should be printed.
The affair having concluded in this extraordinary manner, the
friends of Mr. Byng could no longer expect any mercy. If he could be
brought to the verge of death after such a sentence and such a
recommendation from his Judges; if the remorse of those Judges
could only interpose; undoubtedly their retracting all distress of
conscience, and upholding their sentence in a firmer manner than
when they first pronounced it, could neither give the King a new
handle to pardon, nor any hopes to the Admiral’s well-wishers. They
despaired, though they ceased not to solicit. Of the Court-Martial,[83]
it must be remembered, that Norris, who had faltered, was never
after employed—that Keppel was—that Moore had immediately
assigned to him the most profitable station during the war.
I hasten to the conclusion of the tragedy: a few intervening
incidents I shall resume afterwards.
The 14th of March was appointed for execution. Yet one more
unexpected event seemed to promise another interruption. The city
of London had all along assumed that unamiable department of a
free government, inconsiderate clamour for punishment. But as a
mob is always the first engine of severity, so it is generally the
foremost, often the sole body, that melts and feels compassion when
it is too late. Their favourite spectacle is a brave sufferer. This time
they anticipated tenderness. On the 9th, at eleven at night, four Tory
Aldermen went to Dickinson, the Lord Mayor, to desire he would
summon a Common Council, intending to promote a petition to the
King to spare the Admiral. The motion was imputed to Mr. Pitt. The
magistrate, as unfeelingly formal as if he had been the first
magistrate in the kingdom, replied, it was too late; he would be at
home till noon of the next day. On the morrow they sent to him not
to dismiss his officers, but he heard no more, though they continued
squabbling among themselves till two in the morning. Thus the last
chance was lost. Had the first midnight emotion been seized, it
might have spread happily—at least the King could not have pleaded
his promise of severity pledged to the city. I hesitate even to
mention what I will not explain, as I cannot prove my suspicion: but
I was eye-witness to a secret and particular conference between
Dickinson and another man, who, I have but too much reason to
think, had a black commission.
The fatal morning arrived, but was by no means met by the
Admiral with reluctance. The whole tenour of his behaviour had been
cheerful, steady, dignified, sensible. While he felt like a victim, he
acted like a hero. Indeed, he was the only man whom his enemies
had had no power to bend to their purposes. He always received
with indignation any proposal from his friends of practising an
escape; an advantage he scorned to lend to clamour. Of his fate he
talked with indifference; and neither shunned to hear the requisite
dispositions, nor affected parade in them. For the last fortnight he
constantly declared that he would not suffer a handkerchief over his
face, that it might be seen whether he betrayed the least symptom
of fear; and when the minute arrived, adhered to his purpose. He
took an easy leave of his friends, detained the officers not a
moment, went directly to the deck, and placed himself in a chair
with neither ceremony nor lightness. Some of the more humane
officers represented to him, that his face being uncovered, might
throw reluctance into the executioners; and besought him to suffer a
handkerchief. He replied, with the same unconcern, “If it will frighten
them, let it be done: they would not frighten me.” His eyes were
bound; they shot, and he fell at once.[84]
It has often been remarked that whoever dies in public, dies well.
Perhaps those, who, trembling most, maintain a dignity in their fate,
are the bravest: resolution on reflection is real courage. It is less
condemnable, than a melancholy vain-glory, when some men are
ostentatious at their death. But surely a man who can adjust the
circumstances of his execution beforehand; who can say, “Thus I will
do, and thus;” who can sustain the determined part, and throws in
no unnecessary pomp, that man does not fear—can it be probable
he ever did fear? I say nothing of Mr. Byng’s duels; cowards have
ventured life for reputation: I say nothing of his having been a warm
persecutor of Admiral Matthews: cowards, like other guilty persons,
are often severe against failings, which they hope to conceal in
themselves by condemning in others: it was the uniformity of Mr.
Byng’s behaviour from the outset of his persecution to his
catastrophe, from whence I conclude that he was aspersed as
unjustly, as I am sure that he was devoted maliciously, and put to
death contrary to all equity and precedent.[85]
I have perhaps dwelt too long on his story—let me be excused: I
could not say too much in behalf of a man, whose sufferings, with
whatever kind intention, I unhappily protracted!
The cousinhood intended to supply Byng’s seat at Rochester, with
Dr. Hay of their own Admiralty, whom Fox had jostled out of
Parliament. The King, by suggestion from the same quarter, told
Lord Temple, “That Rochester was a borough of the Crown, not of
the Admiralty; nor did he like Hay or any of their Admiralty; they had
endeavoured to represent his justice as cruelty; he would have
Admiral Smith chosen there.” The subject was artfully selected, a
relation of their own. Lord Temple, with more calmness and decency
than he often condescended to employ in the Cabinet, contested it
long: and at last said, he would not obstruct his Majesty’s service
and commands—but he would be no borough-jobber, he would have
nothing to do with it, nor would he pay the price of blood by
bringing into Parliament the President of that Court that had
condemned Admiral Byng. As the measure was taken to get rid of
Mr. Pitt and his friends, it was hoped they would resign on this
obstacle, which might pass for a private affair: but they were too
wise to be the dupes. The Duke of Devonshire was ordered to
recommend Admiral Smith to Rochester, but the poor man was
shocked both at succeeding a person he had sentenced, and at
being chosen for a stumbling-block to his friends. He said he had not
sufficient estate for a qualification; and declined. Admiral
Townshend, the gaoler of Byng, had no scruples, and was elected.
 On the 8th of this month, advice was received that a French army
of one hundred and four thousand men, commanded by the Comte
de Clermont and Marshal D’Etrées, were marched to the Lower
Rhine.
A slight event that, by displaying the Duke’s moderation, indicated
his having views at that time which it was worth his while, by
curbing his natural temper, to gratify, may be fitly mentioned.
Colonel Forbes, a man of parts and spirit, had long lain under his
displeasure, being suspected of having writ some severe pamphlets
against him. They were, in truth, the compositions of one Douglas.
Forbes, during the preceding summer, had ingratiated himself with
the Duke of Bedford in the camp at Blandford, where his Grace had
been reading Bladen’s Cæsar and Bland’s Military Discipline, and
playing at being a General, for he was always eager about what he
was least fit for. He immediately undertook to reconcile Forbes to the
Duke,[86] who would not listen to him. Richbell’s regiment falling
vacant in Ireland, the Lord-Lieutenant gave himself no farther
trouble to obtain the favour of the Duke for Forbes, but carried a
warrant ready drawn to the King, who signed it, and Forbes had the
regiment. The Duke bore it without a murmur.
On the 13th, died Dr. Herring, Archbishop of Canterbury, a very
amiable man, to whom no fault was objected; though perhaps the
gentleness of his principles, his great merit, was thought one. During
the Rebellion he had taken up arms to defend from oppression that
religion, which he abhorred making an instrument of oppression. He
was succeeded by Dr. Hutton, Archbishop of York, a finer gentleman,
except where money was in question. The Duke of Newcastle, to pay
court to Leicester-house, had promised York to Dr. Thomas, of
Peterborough, the Prince’s Preceptor: but though he had been raised
by the King himself, his Majesty (to thwart the Princess, who had
indulged the Bishop in no weight with her son, and was
consequently indifferent about him) refused to confirm the grant,
and bestowed the Archbishopric on Gilbert of Salisbury, who had
formerly shed courtly tears in a sermon on the Queen. Gilbert was
composed of that common mixture, ignorance, meanness, and
arrogance. Having once pronounced that Dr. King ought to be
expelled from Oxford for disaffection, the latter said he would
consent to expulsion, provided Gilbert would propose it in
convocation—the motion must have been in Latin. Thomas was
permitted to succeed to Salisbury. On the news of Gilbert’s
promotion, they rung the bells at York backwards, in detestation of
him. He opened a great table there, and in six months they thought
him the most Christian Prelate that had ever sat in that see.
18th.—Legge opened the new taxes, and particularly proposed to
abolish the Commissioners of Wine-Licences, which office he would
incorporate with that of the Stamps. Among those Commissioners
was one Harris, a dependent and intimate of Fox, who broke out on
this occasion in the most imprudent manner—“Was this the
beginning of reformation? why was it not carried farther? why not
abolish one of the Secretaries of the Treasury? why did Mr. Legge
himself receive double salary as Lord of the Treasury?” He himself
would have been content with half the pay of Secretary of State. Sir
Robert Walpole had never destroyed the offices and influence of the
Crown. He taxed Hardinge with being author of this scheme. Legge
replied, yes, it was the beginning of reformation; and if others
would, he himself would serve for nothing. Beckford said principiis
obsta; he liked better to begin with small things than great, because
from the former there might be hopes—but he knew, he saw, why
Mr. Fox was averse from demolishing the influence of the Crown. Of
all things he should disapprove any diminution of the salaries of
great officers, in order to carry on the war, for then he was sure
there would soon be a peace. Pitt was very ill, and could not attend.
I hinted that it was determined to dismiss Mr. Pitt and his friends,
or provoke them to resign. I shall now explain that measure, which
opens a new scene.
The French had made an irruption into Germany with a mighty
Army, and threatened Hanover. The King had neither able Generals
there nor Ministers on whom he could rely. The latter were Austrians
in their hearts, with the additional incumbrance of possessing
estates in the countries of the Empress. The Duke, since the
accession of Mr. Pitt to the Administration, was become a favourite.
The King readily vented his mortifications to his son, whom he knew
would cheerfully be a confidant, of his aversion to the Princess and
her faction. By the channel of the Duke and Princess Emily, Fox had
insinuated innumerable prejudices and obstructions to the new
Ministers. At this juncture the King cast his eyes on the Duke, as the
sole resource for Hanover. His son had saved his Crown: he wished
to owe the preservation of the dearer Electorate to him. The Duke
was very averse to the charge. War with all its charms could not
tempt him now. His many defeats by the French still ached. If to be
clogged with orders from Pitt,—if to be obliged to communicate with
him, and depend on him for supplies, command itself would lose its
lustre. Even if successful, the popularity of Pitt would ravish half his
laurels; should he miscarry, his misfortunes would all be imputed to
himself. Fox snatched at this dilemma: he knew the King would pay
any price to rescue Hanover, and suggested to the Duke to demand
as a previous condition the dismission of Pitt;—could his Majesty
hesitate between an unwelcome servant and a favourite dominion?
The terms were granted, but were too soon performed. The King
hurried away the Duke. His Royal Highness would not endure even
for a fortnight to be accountable to Pitt; yet there had been no time
to settle a new Administration. The inquiries still hung over the
heads of the old Ministers, and though a whole Parliament of his
own interposed their bucklers, Newcastle shuddered at the glimpse
of an axe in the faint hand of a wearied rabble. Fox wished for
power without the name of it; Newcastle for both. If his Grace would
have united with him, Fox would have taken the Paymastership, with
a Peerage for his wife, and a pension of 2000l. a year on Ireland for
himself. But Newcastle could be pinned down to no terms: he
advanced to Fox, retreated farther from him, would mention no
conditions, nor agree to any. Lord Mansfield had early gone to
Claremont and endeavoured to fix him to Fox; but as that Lord
himself told the latter, Newcastle was governed by Lord Hardwicke,
even by a letter. Fox would then have assumed the Government
himself, could he have conjured together the slightest vision of a
Ministry. He tried Lord Granville, he courted Devonshire, he offered
the Treasury to Bedford; but, though nobody was more sanguine in
the cause than the latter, yet as it was not easy to give Rigby an
equivalent for Ireland, he took care to regulate his patron’s warmth
within the pale of his own advantage.
In this strange uncertainty the day of the Duke’s departure was
fixed; and fixed it was that Pitt and Lord Temple should be thrust out
by any means. Pitt had behaved with as much veneration as his
Majesty could expect; with as much as he was fond himself of
receiving: surely he had even shown that German measures were
not beyond the compass of his homage. But he had introduced
eloquence into the closet. The King was a man of plain sense, and
neither used ornament in discourse nor admired it; sometimes too
the drift of his royal pleasure was too delicate to be conveyed but in
hints. He liked to be served in essentials; it was better not to
expatiate on them. Lord Temple was still more tiresome; and when
his verboseness did not persuade, he quickened it with
impertinence. On the affair of Mr. Byng he had even gone so far as
to sketch out some parallel between the Monarch himself and the
Admiral, in which the advantage did not lie on the side of the battle
of Oudenarde.
The King resenting this and other instances in the strongest
manner, Lord Temple sent him word by the Duke of Devonshire, that
he could not serve him more, though he should not resign till a
convenient opportunity; that he would not even have come out of
his Majesty’s closet as a Minister, if it would not have distressed
those with whom he was connected. Pitt himself kept in the outward
room, saying, he no longer looked upon himself as a Minister; and
attributing this storm solely to Fox, he bade Lord George Sackville,
who was feeling about for a reconciliation between him and
Newcastle, tell that Duke, that he was not so averse to him as his
Grace had been told: let him judge by my actions, added he, if I
have been averse to him.
 The idea of the approaching change no sooner spread than it
occasioned the greatest astonishment: indignation followed; ridicule
kept up the indignation. The first jealousy was, that British troops
would attend the Duke to Germany. Fox called on Legge in the
House to disavow this, which he did; and the former declared that it
had never existed even in the wish of his Royal Highness—(that
measure indeed was reserved for Pitt!) George Townshend, to
prevent the change by intimidating, called for more papers; but as
Fox wished for nothing more than to dispatch the inquiries, after
which he would be at liberty to appear again on the scene, he
pressed to have them begin; and Townshend was forced to yield
that they should commence on the 19th of April, the first day after
the recess of Easter. Sir Francis Dashwood said, that day would
interfere with the meeting at Newmarket, and proposed a later time.
Fox said there would be a second meeting, with which a later day
would equally clash. I blush to repeat these circumstances—was it a
greater proof of the levity of our character, or of the little that was to
be expected from the inquiries, when a senate sat weighing horse
races against national resentment and justice—Newmarket against
the fate of Minorca![87] George Townshend added some sharp words
on the abuse published against Pitt. Fox said, he desired the liberty
of the press might continue: nobody had suffered more from it than
himself, yet he would not be for restraining it. Did Mr. Townshend
object to cards and pictures?[88] George Grenville said, he knew
when he accepted a place what tax he was to pay for it; yet said
Fox, “I have been most abused since out of place.”

F O OT N OT E S :
[81] A lawyer, it seems, would establish prescription even against
conscience!
[82] I say, power: Lord Hardwicke and Lord Anson were out of
place—but were they out of power? Without hinting how soon
they remounted to formal power, let it be remembered that at
that moment, they commanded the House of Lords, and had a
vast majority in the House of Commons.
[83] As some of them said in plain terms that they were satisfied
with the sentence, in how many contradictions were they
involved! By the very wording of the sentence, which expressed
dissatisfaction; by the letter that accompanied it; by Admiral
Smith’s letter to Sir R. Lyttelton, which said that they were all
willing to appear before the Privy Council or the Parliament to
explain their reasons!
[84] [The following extract from our Author’s Private
Correspondence in MS. corroborates the account given in the
text, and as it contains some further particulars, may be
acceptable to the reader.—E.]
“March 17, 1757.—Admiral Byng’s tragedy was completed on
Monday—a perfect tragedy—for there were variety of incidents,
villainy, murder, and a hero. His sufferings, persecutions,
aspersions, disturbances, nay, the revolutions of his fate, had not
in the least unhinged his mind; his whole behaviour was natural
and firm. A few days before, one of his friends standing by him,
said, ‘Which of us is tallest?’ He replied, ‘Why this ceremony? I
know what it means; let the man come and measure me for my
coffin.’ He said, that being acquitted of cowardice, and being
persuaded, on the coolest reflection, that he had acted for the
best, and should act so again, he was not unwilling to suffer. He
desired to be shot on the quarter-deck, not where common
malefactors are:—came out at twelve—sat down in a chair, for he
would not kneel, and refused to have his face covered, that his
countenance might show whether he feared death; but being told
that it might frighten his executioners, he submitted; gave the
signal at once; received one shot through the head, another
through the heart, and fell.”
[85] Many years after that tragedy was acted, I received a most
authentic and shocking confirmation of the justice of my
suspicions. October 21, 1783, being with her Royal Highness
Princess Amelia at her villa at Gunnersbury, among many
interesting anecdotes which I have set down in another place,
she told me, that while Admiral Byng’s affair was depending, the
Duchess of Newcastle sent Lady Sophia Egerton to her the
Princess, to beg her to be for the execution of Admiral Byng.
“They thought,” added the Princess, “that unless he was put to
death, Lord Anson could not be at the head of the Admiralty.
Indeed,” continued the Princess, “I was already for it; the officers
would never have fought, if he had not been executed.” I replied,
that I thought his death most unjust, and the sentence a most
absurd contradiction.
Lady Sophia Egerton was wife of a clergyman, afterwards Bishop
of Durham. What a complication of horrors! women employed on
a job for blood!
[As the author calls this accidental conversation at Gunnersbury,
“a most authentic confirmation of his suspicions,” the Editor was
not at liberty to omit any part of the story; though the reader will
probably think with him, that more importance is ascribed to
mere gossip than it deserves.—E.]
[86] [The Duke of Cumberland.—E.]
[87] Indeed there was so little intended by the inquiries, that
Legge himself, one of the new tribunes of the people, said, “Both
sides will be trying which shall fling most dust in the eyes of the
nation.”
[88] Townshend had been author of the first political caricatura
card, with portraits of Newcastle and Fox.
APPENDIX.
 APPENDIX.

A.
(Vide page 147.)
These Armenian letters are apparently written in humble imitation
of the Persian, but greatly inferior to them; they are calculated solely
for the meridian of Ireland, and contain little else besides a few
severe strictures on the politics and government of that kingdom,
with a particular account of the late divisions there, and the persons
chiefly concerned in them. As these are topics, which, however well
treated, would scarce afford our readers any entertainment, an
extract from this part of the performance would be unnecessary. The
affairs of England are, however, now and then, introduced, and
treated in these letters with the same freedom as those of Ireland.
The following characters of two or three of our most celebrated
orators are not ill drawn.
“When I was last in England,” says our Armenian, “curiosity led me
to hear the Judicial, Parliamentary, and Ecclesiastical eloquence of
that kingdom, in all which there are men very eminent. Among the
foremost was a native of North Britain; he excelled in order and
ornament, yet his ornaments were never studied, they flowed from
his matter, and with such ease, that, though no man could speak
more elegantly, it seemed that he could not speak less so. He was
quick in distinguishing, of memory so tenacious that he could range
the testimonies of thirty persons in different cells, and immediately
call them forth with the same ease as if he took them from paper. As
a judicial speaker, he seemed but little inferior in subtlety and
elegance to the celebrated Greeks; in decency he was superior; in
his narrations plain; in ranging his arguments, concealing his
weakness, and displaying his strength, he had no rival; he concluded
always strongly, sometimes with his best argument; with a short and
weighty enumeration, when many arguments had been lightly
dispersed through his oration; he could mix raillery, but seemed to
avoid it, and hasten to serious arguments, as if he blamed himself
for using others. His voice was clear and musical, to some it was too
acute.”
“Charles Townshend, a young man, was at the same time in
Parliamentary debate nervous, copious, and vehement; in order not
most exact, but in sentiment strong, in expression animated; his
figures were glaring, and his illustrations grand; a tide of matter and
words bore his hearers with him, even when he digressed; and
though there was something in his eloquence which calm judgment
might prune, there was nothing which a warmed audience would not
admire.”
“There is an Ecclesiastic,[89] who was Preacher to an Academy of
Law, whom I have heard with delight. He was grave, dignified, and
elegant; his subjects, whether of things human or divine, he treated
with becoming majesty. Thou hast seen him, Aza; he is a great and
a good man, and true eloquence comes from such only; look
through all experience, virtue produces eloquence, and adversity
calls forth virtue.”

B.
[In a note to page 41 a reference is made to the correspondence of
Mr. Fox with Lord Hartington, as printed in the Appendix to Lord
Waldegrave’s Memoirs. The part, however, of the
correspondence which is at variance with the statement in Lord
Oxford’s text is not to be found in the extracts there printed;
and it is therefore here subjoined, with some additional extracts
from unpublished letters of the Duke of Newcastle and Mr. Fox,
illustrative of the views of parties at that time.]
Extract of a Letter from Mr. Fox (Secretary at War) to the Marquis of Hartington
(Lord Lieutenant of Ireland), August 10, 1755.
... We have made a treaty with Hesse and another with Russia, to
be followed with other subsidies, or these will be useless; and if
followed by other subsidies, how can we find money to pay or place
to assemble these troops? And, perhaps, I may add, members to
vote them? For the Duke of Devonshire is so determinately against
them, that I believe he will think it his duty to declare his opinion,
and how far that may operate (most people, I find, being in their
own minds of the same opinion) there is no saying. Legge did not
sign the order for the Hessian money at the Treasury, and, I believe,
makes no scruple of declaring his opinion. I have been more
cautious in giving, I may say, in forming mine; but have, by not
signing it at the Cockpit, kept myself at liberty. Pitt’s and Egmont’s
opinions, in this regard, I don’t know.

Extract of a Letter from Ditto to Ditto, August 29, 1755.

... Your father is certainly against subsidies, and will, I think, be
hardly kept from making his opinion, by some method or other,
public, which will the less embarrass your Lordship, as I suppose
whatever passes of this kind will be over before you can come here,
make what haste you will. Lord Granville has had a conversation
with the Duke of Newcastle, in which his Grace told him his scheme,
which the other says is no scheme at all. You know Lord Granville
talks the language Stone talked. It was one of my crimes,[90] in Lord
Hillsborough’s garden, that Lord Granville was my friend, who was so
much his, (that is) Pitt’s enemy. Well, the scheme is this: to gain
Lord Egmont with Yonge’s place; to try, by Lord Chancellor, to gain
Pitt; to trust to my acquiescence, from the influence H. R. H. has
over me, and to carry every thing through, without parting (as Lord
Granville expresses it) with the least emanation of his power to any
body.

Extract of a Letter from the Duke of Newcastle to the Marquis of

Hartington, August 30, 1755.
 ... I took this opportunity, in concert with my Lord Chancellor, to
lay before the King, in a very strong letter to my Lord Holderness,
the necessity of forming forthwith a system for the House of
Commons; that Mr. Pitt must make a material part of it; that if he
would take a cordial and an active part, with other arrangements
proposed, the King’s business might be done with ease; that
otherwise we could not answer for it. We therefore proposed to be
authorized to assure Mr. Pitt of his Majesty’s countenance and
gracious acceptance of his service, and that Mr. Pitt might be called
to the Cabinet Council if he desired it. This authority we have,
though with evident marks of reluctance and resentment to Mr. Pitt.
My Lord Chancellor has seen Mr. Pitt, and I am to have that honour
next Tuesday. If nothing but the Secretary’s office will do, I am
persuaded nothing will induce the King to consent to it; but if proper
regard and confidence with his rank of the Cabinet Council, and I
hope a proper, or at least a better, behaviour from the King towards
him will do, that I should think might be brought about, and I dare
say your Lordship thinks Mr. Pitt ought to be satisfied. We also
advised the getting of Sir William Yonge’s place (which indeed is now
vacant) for my Lord Egmont; that was most readily consented to,
and I hope and believe my Lord Egmont will do well; and upon these
conditions he will have it. Nothing is determined about the
Chancellor of the Exchequer; your friend Legge would not
countersign the Lords Justices’ warrant for the Hessian levy money.
That is a new symptom of the Treasury Board, and not very
complaisant for the First Commissioner. I wish your Lordship would
find out some expedient for Legge: I would not willingly do anything
to disoblige him, but his continuance at the Treasury cannot be
agreeable to either of us. As Mr. Fox is already in the Cabinet
Council, which was what he desired, and is now, in consequence of
it, one of the Lords Justices; if Mr. Pitt will be satisfied with these
marks of distinction, and some other arrangements can be made,
which I hope will not create much difficulty, when the great ones are
over, I should hope things might go on well in the House of
Commons. Your Lordship sees I do not suffer my private
resentments to have any effect on the public service: I must,
however, be entire master at the Board where I am, and not put
myself under the tutelage of anybody. I can go out, and easily; but
not be a cipher in office.

Extract of a Letter from Mr. Fox to the Marquis of Hartington, Sept. 1,

1755.
... The Duke of Newcastle has seen Egmont, who at first talked
very high; but at length, “such was his submission to the Princess
and duty to the King, that he believed he should accede to what was
proposed;” but dropped that he should be unwilling to act
offensively to Mr. Pitt. The Duke then asked if he might write to
Hanover: Lord Egmont said he could not quite authorize his Grace to
go so far yet, but desired a few days; which the Duke of Newcastle
interprets to be to consult Pitt. His Grace is to see Pitt, but Legge
says Pitt is in no disposition to be paid with such counters as his
Grace has to give him. The Chancellor, too, has told him, as he did
your father, though not so positively, that he knew of no subsidy but
that of Hesse. I think he told your father that the Russian was not
done yet, (he must mean ratified, which is an equivocation;) but he
told Pitt absolutely that he knew of no other but the Hessian, which
was, to my knowledge, an absolute falsehood. The Duke of
Newcastle told a friend of mine that he had an overture from me by
Lord Granville, which is not true; but his Grace might, perhaps, from
what Lord Granville said, conclude it came from me. My friend asked
him why he did not close with me then? He answered, the Duke
would govern them; and likewise talked of his own family, as he calls
it, (Lady C. Pelham and Lord Lincoln,) and he might have added, his
expectations through Egmont, &c., at Leicester House. But all or
either of them show how sincere at any time his professions have
been.

Extract of a Letter from Ditto to Ditto, Sept. 11, 1755.

... I hear Pitt declares against the Russian subsidy, which, I am
told, is growing as unpopular as the excise.
 Extract of a Letter from Ditto to Ditto, Sept. 23, 1755.
... I have never declared my opinion of the subsidies till this
morning to the King. His Majesty is in great distress: they have been
obliged to tell him that the House of Commons could not go on
without some authority within it; that almost every principal person
there had declared against subsidies, and they could not name one
who had declared for them. They had tried Pitt, Sir George Lee, and
Egmont: that the two first and Legge had declared against them;
that Egmont doubted and declined accepting the place; that in this
situation they had spoken to me. Lord Grenville had spoke of me to
him, but could not tell him my opinion.
I told his Majesty that he should, on this occasion, have my best
service as a private soldier or as an officer, but I could not be both. I
had a great deal of discourse, but he entered into no particular
destination of me. He lamented the harm the Duke of Devonshire’s
opinion would do him, and commended your Lordship exceedingly. I
told the Duke of Newcastle (whom I saw by appointment with Lord
Waldegrave, Saturday) that this was the last time I would ever come
to see if we could agree. And so it is. Lord Granville says, if Legge
won’t keep it (and to be sure he will not) I must be Chancellor of the
Exchequer. The Duke of Newcastle says, that in that case we shall
not agree a fortnight, and that it must not be. They quarrelled about
it. I give readily into the Duke of Newcastle’s opinion. Nothing then
remains but Secretary of State. How to make a vacancy I can’t tell,
but there is nothing else. If this be done, I shall behave just as both
you and they would have me; if not, I shall still be for the subsidies.
It is my opinion. But I will be for them out of place; and in the act of
vindicating the measure, declare war with the Minister. So you see
that instead of the quiet state I thought of, I am brought, and
indeed without my seeking, into such a one that I must (I hope you
see with me the necessity) be within this week more, or within these
six weeks less, than Secretary at War.
I forgot to tell you that Lincoln advises the Duke of Newcastle to
agree with me, and even prefers me to the others, or to any
measure but that of his uncle’s retiring quite, which he thinks best.
The Attorney and Stone are of the same mind. I am sorry to tell you
that it is certain the latter has lost his credit at Kew for being my
friend. You know where that must point; to the Duke, who has not
been once mentioned in the negotiation. I think he must have been
Pitt’s reason for discarding me, and yet that does not quite solve it.

Extract of a Letter from Ditto to Ditto, Sept. 25, 1755.

... If you have not yet received my letter by last Tuesday’s post, it
is not now worth reading. The matter is settled, and I am to be
Secretary of State in the room of Sir Thomas Robinson, and in order
to have the conduct of the House of Commons.

C.
(Vide page 234.)
[As our author derived his information on Northern and German
Courts, especially Dresden, from Sir Charles Hanbury Williams,
of whose letters from abroad he speaks (p. 205, vol. i.) in terms
of such high commendation, and has already given extracts in
the Appendix, vol. i., a short account of that lively writer’s
Embassies, taken in substance from the same author’s MS.
notes, together with a farther specimen of his correspondence
concerning the Court of Saxony, will not be misplaced here; at
least they will afford some entertainment to the reader.]
Sir Charles Hanbury Williams was appointed envoy to Dresden in
1747, was commissioned in July, 1749, along with Mr. Anstis, Garter
at Arms, to carry the Blue Riband to the Margrave of Anspach; and
on Mr. Fox waving, at the request of the King, his pretensions to the
Treasurership of the Navy, was, with a view of gratifying that
gentleman, who was his intimate friend, named Envoy Extraordinary
at Berlin. He set out for that Court in May, 1750, and passed through
Hanover when the King was there. From thence he was sent to the
King of Poland, who was holding the Diet at Warsaw, to engage his
vote for the Archduke Joseph to be King of the Romans. On this
progress he wrote a celebrated letter to the Duke of Newcastle at
Hanover, which was sent over to England and much admired, as his
ministerial letters generally were. About this time he met the
Ministers of the two Empresses of Germany and Russia; reconciled
these two Princesses, and set out for Berlin, where he was very
coldly received, and soon grew so offensive to the King, that he was,
as he had predicted, recalled at his request, and sent back to
Dresden in February, 1751. Sir Charles had detected the Saxon
Minister at Berlin, in betraying his master’s and Russia’s secrets to
the Court of Prussia; and had also exposed an artifice of the King of
Prussia in making a Tartar, sent to release a countryman who had
enlisted in the Prussian Army, pass for a Deputy or Minister for the
disaffected in Russian Tartary. These circumstances, and his satirical
tongue, and yet more[91] satirical pen, combined to exasperate the
King of Prussia. It was, he said in his private letters, “in vain to
contend with so mighty a Prince, and he became the sacrifice.”
However, in 1753, he was sent to Vienna to demand the assistance
of that Court in case Prussia should proceed to extremities after
stopping the Silesian loan; and in his triple capacity of Minister,
Courtier, and Poet, he composed the following distich on the
Empress-Queen:
“Oh Regina orbis prima et pulcherrima! ridens
Es Venus, incedens Juno, Minerva loquens.”
The general style of his poetry was far from being so
complimentary; and that of his prose, though not so well known,
and often too licentious for publication, was to the full as easy, lively,
and humorous as his verse. After returning to England he was again
appointed to Dresden, and attended the King of Poland to Warsaw,
in 1754, where, upon espousing very warmly the interests of the
Poniatowskys in an affair called the disposition of the Ostrog, he
came to an open rupture with Count Bruhl. He shortly afterwards
concluded a subsidiary treaty with Russia, and was named
Ambassador to Petersburg in 1755. He returned to England in 1758,
and died in 1759.
The following letter was written on his first arrival at Dresden, and
before any quarrel with Count Bruhl. Though addressed to a private
friend, it seems nearly a duplicate of his public dispatch. It is no
unfavourable specimen of his correspondence, but is perhaps less
enlivened by anecdote, as well as less disfigured by indecencies,
than many of his epistolary compositions from Germany.

Dear Sir,
The short time that I have been abroad, would, in any
other Court, have hardly been sufficient to have formed a
judgment, or given a description of it; but this, where I am, is
so easy to be understood, that an understanding as mean as
mine may see into it as clearly in a month’s time as in ten
years.
The King’s absolute and avowed hatred to all business, and
his known love for idleness and low pleasures, such as
operas, plays, masquerades, tilts and tournaments, balls,
hunting, and shooting, prevent both him and his country from
making that figure in Europe which this noble Electorate
ought to do, and often has done. As to the King himself, he is
very polite and well-bred, and his natural abilities far from
bad ones. I have very often (much oftener than any Minister
here) the honour of conversing with him, and I must say, that
he talks better, and makes juster judgments on affairs than
any other person I have met with in this Court: but he wont
dwell long upon politics. ’Tis visible that he soon grows
uneasy, and then you must change the discourse to the last
stag that he hunted, the last opera that was acted, or the last
picture that he has bought. Immediately, you perceive that
his countenance clears up, and he talks on with pleasure.
From these subjects ’tis easy to lead him back to any other
you please, always taking care to observe his countenance,
which is a very speaking one. He is seldom seen, when at
Dresden, but at dinner. He always dines with company, and
his buffoons make a great noise, and fight with one another
during the whole repast, which is quite over by two o’clock;
and then his Majesty retires to his own apartments, undresses
totally, and then puts on his night-gown, in which he sits the
rest of the day. Nobody must come to him at that time but
Count Bruhl, Father Guerini, and the buffoon. He has had a
great loss in the Electress of Bavaria being married, for she
often came to him in the afternoon, and they have been
surprised together in very indecent postures. The Queen
knew this, and was furious about it. She complained of it to
her Confessor; but the good Jesuit told her, that since things
were so, it was much better that the King’s affections should
remain in his own family, than be fixed upon a stranger, who
might be a Lutheran, and do prejudice to their holy religion;
and by this these holy casuists appeased her angry Majesty.
The whole Court is now gaping to see who will succeed the
Electress, for his Majesty’s constitution requires somebody
besides the Queen. The King is excessively fond of hunting,
and ’tis reckoned that the game of all sorts (which is strictly
preserved for him) do 50,000l. per annum of damage to this
country. I have myself seen fifty stags a feeding in one corn-
field; and to take care of all his game and forests, there are
no less than 4000 persons in constant pay.
The expenses of this Court of every sort are in proportion
with that of the chase. After this, Sir, you will not be surprised
when I tell you, that the debts of this Electorate (all incurred
since this King came into possession of it) are near four
millions sterling, and that their credit is quite ruined; but the
King will not hear of the expenses of the Court being
lessened. He has no idea of the state of his country; but as
he finds himself easy, he thinks and wishes his people to be
so too. He is not beloved nor respected. His never heading his
Army, and his precipitate flight from Dresden at the King of
Prussia’s approach, did him more injury in the minds of the
Saxons, than he will ever be able to retrieve.
Her Majesty the Queen is very devout, but not a bit the
better for her devotions: she does nothing but commit small
sins, and beg forgiveness for them. She is ugly beyond
painting, and malicious beyond expression. Her violent hatred
to the Empress-Queen, and her great love to all her enemies,
make me rejoice that she has not the least influence at this
Court. She has much impotent aversion to Count Bruhl: he
hates her Majesty in return, but then he makes her feel his
power. She meddles much in the lowest things, such as
disgracing or restoring a buffoon to favour; disposing the
parts of an opera, and giving the preference to such and such
a dancer; and even this she never does by merit, but he or
she that comes oftenest to mass has the best parts and the
first rank. The Italians are much favoured here. They are
divided into two parties, one of which is headed by Father
Guerini, who first placed the colony here; the other, which is
the most powerful, has the Faustina for its leader; and the
two chiefs have by turns vented their complaints against each
other to me, till I could hardly keep my countenance. But to
return to her Majesty: I look upon her to be thoroughly in the
French interests. She is not at all beloved, nor does she
deserve it, for she does no good to anybody but converts,
and very little to them.
I am next to speak of the Electoral Prince. You know, Sir,
his person is bad, and his backbone so disjointed, that he
cannot stand without two people to support him. The
weakness of his body has hurt his mind. His parts, if he ever
had any, are much decayed; but he is civil, good, and well-
tempered. His education has been extremely bad; he knows
nothing. He asked ’tother day at table, whether, though
England were an island, one could not go there by land?
Judge of the rest by this. When he walks, supported or rather
dragged along by two people, his knees almost touch his
stomach; and the Duchess of Courland (who is our good
friend at this Court) told me that she saw him in bed on his
wedding-night, and that he lay in the same posture there; so
that she did not comprehend how matters could be
accomplished. The Court, however, swear that (the marriage
was then consummated). He is at present wholly devoted to
his new bride, about whom I must say a little, having the
happiness, by her permission, to see her very often.
She is far from being handsome or well made; but then she
is infinitely agreeable in her manner, and very well-bred. She
talks much, and is very entertaining. When she first came,
she had flattered herself with hopes of succeeding the
Electress, and attacked the King the first night, but without
success. He seemed rather disgusted with her advances, and
since that time she has not recovered the ground she then
lost. All[92] this I have also from the Duchess of Courland.
Before she came here she was reckoned to meddle much in
politics, and to be in the French interests. She denies all this
herself, and declares against women’s meddling in state
affairs; but I will venture to prophesy, that if ever the Prince
Electoral should outlive his father, she will govern this country
most absolutely. Hitherto she is much liked and admired by all
who come near her, for her address is very engaging, and not
at all like the Queen’s.
The King has four younger sons, and three unmarried
daughters. As to the Princesses I can say nothing of them,
but that they are very young and very plain.
Prince Xavier is next to the Prince Royal, and has always
been the Queen’s favourite, and she tried every way to
persuade the Prince Electoral to go into orders that this Prince
might succeed his father. His person is good, and I believe his
natural parts are so too, but his education has been very
unfortunate. He is sixteen years of age, and has hitherto been
taught nothing but bodily exercises; and they do not seem to
think in this country that a Prince wants any accomplishments
who can dance, fence, ride at the ring, and shoot at the
mark. This Prince has not yet learned common good
manners, and is almost a stranger to common decency. The
French Ambassador and I dined with him the other day, and
the whole time we were at table he talked to the Pages
behind him, and what he said to them was in German.
Monsieur des Issarts was quite out of humour at the
treatment he met with: I was only sorry for the Prince. But to
end his character, those who are best acquainted with him tell
me he is very proud and very malicious. ’Tis publicly known
that he hates his elder brother; but his pride is much abated,
and his spirits much sunk since the Electoral Prince’s
marriage, which was a thing that he had been taught to
believe never would happen. Still he flatters himself with the
hope that if the King his father should die, he should succeed
him in the Throne of Poland.
Prince Charles is next; he is a fine youth about thirteen; his
person is good, and he has great quickness of parts; but as
he labours under the misfortune of having the same wretched
education as his brothers have had, ’tis impossible to say how
he will turn out; and here I must observe, that the scarcity of
men of ability is so great in this country, that out of four
governors employed in the education of these Princes, there
is not one who is a Saxon.
The two other Princes, Albert and Clement, are both so
young, that I can say nothing about them.
Having now, Sir, gone through the Royal Family, I shall
speak of their fine country, which I believe produces more to
its sovereign than any other district of land of the same size
in Europe. The last grant of the Diet of Saxony was between
eight and nine millions of dollars (each dollar exactly three
shillings and sixpence English money) per annum for nine
years; yet ’tis likely that the whole may be anticipated and
spent in five, and then the King calls a new Diet, and gets
fresh supplies, so that ’tis not possible to say exactly what the
King’s revenues are; but everybody must see that they are
very large, and how the people will continue such payments
begins to be a question. It is certain this country grows daily
poorer, which is very visible by the decay of Leipsick fair.
Everybody agrees that the last Easter fair was not half so
good as it used to be; and this fair is the touchstone of the
trade and money in this Electorate. The loss and expenses
their own bad politics have drawn them into during this war
have been very great; and the visit the King of Prussia made
to Dresden was very expensive to this country; but above all,
the visible decay of their linens and tinned iron manufactures
(which England has been wise enough not to want any longer
in such great quantities from foreign countries,) is a blow that
is felt more severely than can be expressed. The Stier Bills,
which are the funds here, and which always used to bear a
premium, are now at 5 and 6 per cent. discount, and ’tis very
difficult to negotiate them even at that price, though they
carry 5 per cent. interest. I have been offered some, whose
principal is due at Michaelmas, 1748, at 7 per cent. discount.
This being so, you see that their credit is exhausted, and that
they would hardly be able to borrow under 10 per cent.; and
yet they must take up money, or their Army will mutiny, for
their officers are most of ’em twelve or fifteen months in
arrear. In the midst of all these difficulties the Court has
squandered away above 200,000l. sterling at the late double
marriages; given 100,000l. sterling for the Duke of Modena’s
gallery of pictures; and Count Bruhl alone cannot spend so
little as 60,000l. sterling a year. The pensions also that the
King gives in Poland exceed the revenues he receives from
thence by full 50,000l. per annum.
It is now necessary I should say something of the person to
whom the King commits the entire care of this country. Count
Bruhl is originally of a good family, but as he was a Page to
the late King, so he had the education of a Page. His natural
parts, without being very good, are certainly better than any
other person’s I have hitherto conversed with at this Court.
He was employed by the late King in high employments, but
never touched the zenith of power till after the fall of
Monsieur Sulkowsky, who was his predecessor in the present
King’s favour. Sulkowsky lost it by absenting himself from the
King’s person to make campaigns in Hungary and upon the
Rhine. As Count Bruhl profited by this false step of Sulkowsky,
he is resolved no person shall ever have such an advantage
over him. He is never absent from the King’s person, and he
pays the closest attention to every thing his Majesty says or
does, though he himself is naturally very idle. His every day is
passed in the following manner: he rises before six in the
morning, then Father Guerini comes to him to talk upon
business, and to read over whatever letters they receive, and
then they send such of them as they please to the Privy
Council; but if anybody comes in, business is laid aside, and
he is very ready to talk upon indifferent matters. Afterwards
he dresses, which takes up above an hour, and he is obliged
to be with the King before nine. He stays with him till his
Majesty goes to mass, which he does exactly at eleven; and
then Count Bruhl goes to the Countess Moyenska, where he
stays till twelve; from thence he goes either to dinner with
the King, or to his own house, with a few of the lowest and
worst people of this Court.
After dinner he undresses and goes to sleep till five, when
Father Guerini comes and sits with him while he dresses, and
at six he goes again to the King, with whom he stays till after
seven; from thence he goes to some assembly, where he
plays at cards very deep, the Countess Moyenska being
always of the party, who plays very well, and wins
considerable sums of the Count; rather before ten he sits
down to supper, and from thence he goes to bed about
twelve.
 Now as everything of the kind, from the highest affairs of
state down to operas and hunting, are all in Count Bruhl’s
immediate care, I leave you to judge how his post is
executed, by the time he takes to do business in. His
expenses are immense. He keeps three hundred servants and
as many horses. His house is in extreme bad taste and
extravagance. He has, at least, a dozen country seats, where
he is always building and altering, but which he never sees. It
is said, and I believe it, that he takes money for everything
the King disposes of in Poland, where they frequently have
very great employments to bestow. Everybody here reckons
that he is not sincere, but for my own part I have as yet no
great reason to think so. He is very communicative to me,
and very patient to hear whatever I have to say. He is
certainly not an ill-natured man, having never done a hard or
cruel thing to any person that I heard of since he has been in
power. He is very vain, and a little flattery is absolutely
necessary for those who intend being well with him; and my
notion of the duty of a Foreign Minister is, that after serving
his master to the utmost of his power and ability, he ought to
make himself as agreeable as possible at the Court he is sent
to. From this way of thinking, I have endeavoured to cultivate
the King of Poland and his Minister as much as possible,
because a time may come when my being well with this Court
may be of some small service to the King my master.
Count Bruhl is polite, civil, and very ready to oblige, and,
after the first ceremonies are over, without any forms. If he
has any principle in politics, ’tis certainly favourable to the
House of Austria. That, indeed, is not much, but it is more
than any other person has that belongs to this Court, and
whenever he falls we shall fall into worse hands. He has been
very negligent of support at Court, having never, during his
long Administration, made himself one friend of any great
consequence. The clamours now against him are very high,
for the two reasons of the fall of the Stier Bills, and the non-
payment of the Army. The man that heads these complaints,
and whom ’tis possible his Majesty may remember to have
seen at Hanover, is one Count Linard, a Saxon, whom I take
to be thoroughly in the French interests. He has but moderate
parts, and very little literature, but in Saxon learning he is
very deep. He rides, shoots, and dances better than anybody
here, and by these accomplishments he has got himself into a
good degree of the King’s favour, and flatters himself that
whenever the Minister falls, he is the man that is to succeed
him. I know he has been contriving to get a body of officers
to throw themselves at the King’s feet to complain of Count
Bruhl, and to demand their pay. By means of a spy that I had
at Court I discovered this affair, and told Count Bruhl of it. He
owned things were as I said, and added, that he did not
expect nor deserve such usage from Count Linard; but two
days afterwards he told me that my information was very
true, and that he had taken such measures upon it as would
perfectly secure him. I have since had the misfortune to lose
my spy, who is fled for having got a woman with child, he
being a married man, and adultery in this country is punished
with death.
The next person I shall speak of is father Guerini, a Jesuit,
who is more in the King’s favour than in any credit. He has
been long in the service, and is now kept, like an old horse,
for what he has formerly done. He is Count Bruhl’s absolute
creature, and has his confidence. He is perpetually with the
King and Queen, and constantly employed in making up some
quarrel among the singers and dancers. If he ever had any
parts, they were gone before I came; but he is a good, trifling
old man, and, though a priest, has no ambition. He has twice
refused a Cardinal’s hat; and the last time, which was not
above half a year ago, the King pressed him to it very much,
but in vain. I go to him very often; for he often comes out
with things that he is trusted with, and which I am sure he
ought not to tell.