1 - Physical quantities & units.

pdf
2 - Measurement techniques.pdf
3 - Kinematics.pdf
4 - Dynamics.pdf
5 - Forces, density and pressure.pdf
6 - Work, energy and power.pdf
9 - Deformation of solids.pdf
14 - Waves.pdf
15 - Superposition.pdf
17 - Electric fields.pdf
19 - Current of electricity.pdf
20 - D.C. circuits.pdf
26 - Particle and nuclear physics.pdf
Practical skills.pdf
General Physics
Physical Quantities & Units
AS level

Marline Kurishingal
Physical Quantities

Quantitative versus qualitative

• Most observation in physics are quantitative
• Descriptive observations (or qualitative) are usually imprecise
Qualitative Observations Quantitative Observations
How do you measure What can be measured with the
artistic beauty? instruments on an aeroplane?
Physical Quantities

• A physical quantity is one that can be measured

and consists of a magnitude and unit.
Measuring length

70 4.5 m
km/h


SI units are
used in
Scientific
works
Physical Quantities

Are classified into two types:

• Base quantities
• Derived quantities Derived quantity
Base quantity For example : is like
For example : is like the house that was
the brick – the basic build up from a collection
building block of a of bricks (basic quantity)
house
 Definitions :-

• Base quantities • The quantities

are the that are
quantities on the expressed in
basis of which terms of base
other quantities quantities are
are expressed. called derived
quantities
 SI Units for Base Quantity

• SI Units – International System of Units

Base Quantities Name of Unit Symbol of Unit

length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
 9

Derived quantity & equations

• A derived quantity has an equation which links to other quantities.

• It enables us to express a derived unit in terms of base-unit
equivalent.
Example: F = ma ; Newton = kg m s-2

P = F/A ; Pascal = kg m s-2/m2 = kg m-1 s-2

 10

Some derived units

Derived quantity Base equivalent units _______
Symbol
 area square meter m²
 volume cubic meter m³
 speed, velocity meter per second m/s or m s-1
 acceleration meter per second squared m/s/s or m s-2
 density kilogram per cubic meter kg m-3
 amount concentration mole per cubic meter mol m-3
 force kg m s-2 Newton
 work/energy kg m2 s-2 Joule
 power kg m2 s-3 Watt
 pressure kg m-1 s-2 Pascal
 frequency s-1 Hertz
 SI Units

1. Equation: area = length × width

In terms of base units: Units of area = m × m = m2
2. Equation: volume = length × width × height
In terms of base units: Units of volume = m × m × m = m3
3. Equation: density = mass ÷ volume
In terms of base units: Units of density = kg m−3
 SI Units

• Work out the derived quantities for:

distance
1. Equation: speed = time
In terms of base units: Units of speed = ms−1
velocity
2. Equation: acceleration = time
In terms of base units: Units of acceleration = ms−2
3. Equation: force = mass × acceleration
In terms of base units: Units of force = kg ms-2
 SI Units

• Work out the derived quantities for:

For ce
1. Equation: Pressure =
Ar ea
In terms of base units: Units of pressure = Kgm−1 s−2
2. Equation: Work = Force × Displacement
In terms of base units: Units of work = Kgm²s−2
Wor k done
3. Equation: Power = Time
In terms of units: Units of power = Kgm²s−3
 SI Units – Fill in…
Relation with Base and Special
Derived Quantity Unit
Derived Quantities Name
Momentum

Electric Charge

Potential
Difference

Resistance
For you to know…
Reference Link – Physical quantities

• http://thinkzone.wlonk.com/Units/PhysQuantit
ies.htm
1. A physical quantity is a quantity that can be
measured and consists of a numerical magnitude
and a unit.
2. The physical quantities can be classified into
base quantities and derived quantities.
3. There are seven base quantities: length, mass,
time, current, temperature, amount of
substance and luminous intensity.
4. The SI units for length, mass, time, temperature
and amount of substance, electric current are
metre, kilogram, second, kelvin, mole and
ampere respectively.
 Homogeneity of an equation
• An equation is homogeneous if quantities
on BOTH sides of the equation has the
same unit.
• E.g. s = ut + ½ at2
• LHS : unit of s = m
• RHS : unit of ut = ms-1xs = m
• unit of at2 = ms-2xs2 = m
• Unit on LHS = unit on RHS
• Hence equation is homogeneous
 Non-homogeneous

• P = ρgh2
• LHS ; unit of P = Nm-2 = kgm-1s-2
• RHS : unit of ρgh2 = kgm-3(ms-2)(m2) = kgs-2
• Unit on LHS = unit on RHS
• Hence equation is not homogeneous
 Homogeneity of an equation

• Note: numbers has no unit

• some constants have no unit.
• e.g. ,

• A homogeneous eqn may not be physically

correct but a physically correct eqn is definitely
homogeneous

• E.g. s = 2ut + at2 (homogenous but not correct)

• F = ma (homogeneous and correct)
 Magnitude

• Prefix : magnitudes of physical quantity range

from very large to very small.

• E.g. mass of sun is 1030 kg and mass of electron

is 10-31 kg.

• Hence, prefix is used to describe these

magnitudes.
 Significant number

• Magnitudes of physical quantities are often

quoted in terms of significant number.
• Can you tell how many sig. fig. in these
numbers?
• 103, 100.0 , 0.030, 0.4004, 200
• If you multiply 2.3 and 1.45, how many sf should
you quote?
• 3.19, 3.335 , 3.48
• 3.312, 3.335, 3.358
 The rules for identifying significant figures

The rules for identifying significant figures when

writing or interpreting numbers are as follows:-

• All non-zero digits are considered significant. For

example, 91 has two significant figures (9 and 1), while
123.45 has five significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
• Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero digits
are significant. Example: 101.1203 has seven significant
figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0 and 3.
• Leading zeros are not significant. For example, 0.00052
has two significant figures: 5 and 2.
The rules for identifying significant figures (cont)

• Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal

point are significant. For example, 12.2300 has
six significant figures: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0 and 0. The
number 0.000122300 still has only six
significant figures (the zeros before the 1 are not
significant). In addition, 120.00 has five
significant figures since it has three trailing
zeros.
• Often you will be asked to estimate some
magnitudes of physical quantities around you.

• E.g. estimate the height of the ceiling, volume of

an apple, mass of an apple, diameter of a strand
of hair,

Reference link :
http://www.xtremepapers.com/revision/a-
level/physics/measurement.php
 Estimates of physical quantities
• When making an estimate, it is only reasonable to give
the figure to 1 or at most 2 significant figures since an
estimate is not very precise.

Physical Quantity Reasonable Estimate

Mass of 3 cans (330 ml) of
1 kg
Pepsi
Mass of a medium-sized car 1000 kg
Length of a football field 100 m
Reaction time of a young man 0.2 s

• Occasionally, students are asked to estimate the area

under a graph. The usual method of counting squares
within the enclosed area is used.
Convention for labelling tables and graphs
• The symbol / unit is indicated
at the italics as indicated in the
data column left.
t/s v/ms−1 • Then fill in the data with pure
0 2.5 numbers.
1.0 4.0 • Then plot the graph after
2.0 5.5 labelling x axis and y axis

[Illustration with sample graph

on left]
Prefixes
• For very large or very small numbers, we can use
standard prefixes with the base units.
• The main prefixes that you need to know are
shown in the table. (next slide)
Prefixes

• Prefixes simplify the writing of very large or very

small quantities
Prefix Abbreviation Power
nano n 10−9
micro  10−6
milli m 10−3
centi c 10−2
deci d 10−1
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
Tera ? ??
Prefixes

• Alternative writing method

• Using standard form
• N × 10n where 1  N < 10 and n is an integer

This galaxy is about 2.5 × 106 The diameter of this atom

light years from the Earth. is about 1 × 10−10 m.
 Scalars and Vectors

• Scalar quantities are quantities that have

magnitude only. Two examples are shown below:

Measuring Mass Measuring Temperature

 Scalars and Vectors

• Scalar quantities are added or subtracted by using

simple arithmetic.
Example: 4 kg plus 6 kg gives the answer 10 kg

6 kg
4 kg

+ =
10 kg
 Scalars and Vectors

• Vector quantities are quantities that have both

magnitude and direction

A Force
Magnitude = 100 N
Direction = Left
 Scalars and Vectors

• Examples of scalars and vectors

Scalars Vectors
distance displacement
speed velocity
mass weight
time acceleration
pressure force
energy momentum
volume
density
Direction of vector
 Scalars and Vectors
Adding/Subtracting Vectors using Graphical
Method
• Parallel vectors can be added arithmetically

4N
6N 4N
2N

2N 2N
Scalars and Vectors
Adding Vectors using Graphical Method
• Non-parallel vectors are added by graphical
means using the parallelogram law
– Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows

5.0 cm  20.0 N
Direction = right
– The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the
vector
– The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the
vector
– The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector can be
found using an accurate scale drawing
Vector addition
 Vector operation

• Vector problem must be solved vectorically

unlike scalar quantity.

• E.g. 3 N + 4 N = 5 N

5N
4N

3N
Addition using drawing method
Reference link : Vector addition
• http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vector
s/u3l1b.cfm
 Subtraction using drawing method

• if D = A – B
 Scalars and Vectors

• The parallelogram law of vector addition states

that if two vectors acting at a point are
represented by the sides of a parallelogram
drawn from that point, their resultant is
represented by the diagonal which passes through
that point of the parallelogram
 44

Coplanar vectors

• When 3 or more vectors need to be added, the

same principles apply, provided the vectors are
all on the same plane i.e. coplanar
• To subtract 2 vectors, reverse the direction i.e.
change the sign of the vector to be subtracted,
and add
 45

Change in a Vector
Case 1
• If an object changes it's direction but not speed, then
velocity vector will only change its direction but not
magnitude.
Case 2
• If an object changes it's direction and also speed, vector
will change its direction as well as magnitude. So the
change in the vector would be final minus initial.
 46

Components of a Vector
• Any vector directed in two dimensions can be thought of
as having an influence in two different directions. That
is, it can be thought of as having two parts. Each part of a
vector is known as a component.

• 2N + 4N = 6N (2N and 4N are the components of 6N)

• The components of a vector depict the influence of that

vector in a given direction. The combined influence of
the two components is equivalent to the influence of the
single vector. The single vector could be replaced by the
two components.
 47

Components of a Vector
• Any vector can be thought of as having two
different components. The component of a
single vector describes the influence of
that vector in a given direction.

• 3N +4N = 7N (3N and 4N are the components of 7N)

 48

Resolution of vectors
• Resolving vectors into two perpendicular components

A vector can be broken down into components, which

are perpendicular to each other, so that the vector sum of
these two components, is equal to the original vector.

Splitting a vector into two components is

called resolving the vector. It is the reverse of using
Pythagoras' theorem to add two perpendicular vectors,
and so adding the two components will give you the
original vector.
 49

Resolution of vectors
• Resolving vectors into two perpendicular components

• Resolving a vector requires some simple trigonometry. In the

diagram, the vector to be resolved is the force, F for angle A;

 the horizontal component of F :

 the vertical component of F :

Note that the two components do not have to be horizontal and

vertical. The angle can be changed to any required direction, and
both components will still be perpendicular to each other
 50

Resolution of vectors
• Resolving vectors into two perpendicular components
 In short…

•Vectors addition and

subtraction can be
performed using diagram
method or the resolve and
recombine method
Reference links – Vector Resolution

• http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vector
s/u3l1d.cfm
• http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vector
s/U3l1e.cfm
1. Scalar quantities are quantities that only have
magnitudes
2. Vector quantities are quantities that have both
magnitude and direction
3. Parallel vectors can be added arithmetically
4. Non-parallel vectors are added by graphical
means using the parallelogram law.
5. Vectors addition and subtraction can be
performed using diagram method or the resolve
and recombine method
Youtube videos links with explanation on :
General Physics - Physical quantities

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuoQUv7bY
2Y
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rmy85_Ew
L0Y&feature=related
General Physics
Measurement Techniques
AS level

Marline Kurishingal
Measurement of Length
Length
• Measuring tape is used to measure relatively long
lengths
• For shorter length, a metre rule or a shorter rule
will be more accurate
 5

Methods of measuring length

The metre rule
• Simplest length-measuring instrument is the metre or half metre
rule (i.e 100 cm or 50 cm)
• Smallest division on the metre rule is 1 mm
• Should be able to take a reading with an uncertainty of 0.5 mm
• Should be aware of 3 possible errors
▫ End of the rule is worn out, giving an end error leading to something
called a systematic error
▫ Calibration of the metre rule i.e. markings on the ruler are not accurate
▫ Parallax error
Measurement of Length

• Correct way to read the scale on a ruler

• Position eye perpendicularly at the mark on the
scale to avoids parallax errors
• Another reason for error: object not align
Measurement of Length
Vernier Calipers
• The object being measured is between 2.4 cm
and 2.5 cm long.
• The second decimal number is the marking on the
vernier scale which coincides with a marking on
the main scale.
Measurement of Length

• Here the eighth marking on the vernier scale

coincides with the marking at C on the main scale
• Therefore the distance AB is 0.08 cm, i.e. the
length of the object is 2.48 cm
Measurement of
Length
Micrometer Screw Gauge
• To measure diameter of fine wires, thickness of
paper and small lengths, a micrometer screw
gauge is used
• The micrometer has two scales:
• Main scale on the sleeve
• Circular scale on the thimble
• There are 50 divisions on the thimble
• One complete turn of the thimble moves the
spindle by 0.50 mm
Measurement of Length
Precautions when using a micrometer
1. Never tighten thimble too much

2. Clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before

making a measurement
– Any dirt on either of surfaces could affect the reading
3. Check for zero error by closing the micrometer
when there is nothing between the anvil and
spindle
– The reading should be zero, but it is common to find a
small zero error
–Correct zero error by adjusting the final measurement
 Measurement an Angle

• To measure and an angle:

• Take the Protractor. Place
protractor's center at a vertex of the
angle (where two lines meet).
• Click to set the vertex of the angle you
will measure.
• Move the pencil in a circle until it is
touching the start of the angle (one of
the lines).
• Click to set the start of the angle.
• Move the pencil in a circle until it is
touching the end of the angle (other
line). Notice that the protractor has
marks, indicating 15 degree
increments, on its edge.
• Click to measure angle.
 12
Measurement of Mass
Top-pan balance , The spring balance , Lever balance,
Triple Beam Balance
 13
Measurement of Mass
• Instruments used are top-pan balance, lever balances and the spring
balance
• Spring balance measures directly both in force units i.e. Newton and
also in kilograms
Top-pan balance
▫ ensure that the initial (unloaded) reading is zero
▫ there is a control for adjusting the zero reading, balance may have a tare facility
i.e. mass of material added to the container is obtained directly
▫ uncertainty will be quoted by manufacturer in the manual, usually as a
percentage of the reading shown on the scale
The spring balance
▫ based on Hooke’s Law which states that extension is proportional to the load;
measurement is made directly by a moving over a circular scale
▫ should be careful of zero error, usually has a zero error adjustment screw
▫ parallax error
Lever/Beam balances
▫ based on principle of moments where unknown mass is balanced by a slider,
calibrated in mass units
▫ should be aware of zero error, parallax error
Measurement of Time
Time
• The oscillation of a simple pendulum is an
example of a regularly repeating motion.
• The time for 1 complete oscillation is referred to
as the period of the oscillation.
Measurement of Time
Stopwatch
• Measure short intervals of time
• Two types: digital stopwatch, analogue stopwatch
• Digital stopwatch more accurate as it can measure
time in intervals of 0.01 seconds.
• Analogue stopwatch measures time in intervals of
0.1 seconds.
Measurement of Time
Errors occur in measuring time
• If digital stopwatch is used to time a race,
should not record time to the nearest 0.01 s.
• reaction time in starting and stopping the watch
will be more than a few hundredths of a second
Measurement of Time

• Many instruments do not read exactly zero when

nothing is being measured.
• Happen because they are out of adjustment or
some minor fault in the instrument.
• Add or subtract the zero error from the reading
shown on the scale to obtain accurate readings.
• Vernier calipers or micrometer screw gauge give
more accurate measurements.
 Application : Measurement of Time

1) Determination of the acceleration of Free Fall

(will study this in detail in chapter : Kinematics)

Reference Notes:
International A level Physics by Chris & Mike
 Methods of Measuring temperature
The Mercury in glass thermometer The thermocouple thermometer
• A thermocouple does not measure
absolute temperature, but rather the
A mercury-in-glass thermometer is difference in temperature between two
a thermometer which provides points. When one end of a conductor,
temperature readings through the such as a metal strip, is hotter than the
expansion and contraction of other, it creates a voltage between the
two ends. The greater the temperature
mercury inside a calibrated tube. difference, the greater the current.
Different metals react at different
rates, and a thermocouple actually
makes use of two metals, joined at the
sensor end. At the circuitry end, they
are attached to a meter that uses the
difference in voltages between the
metals to calculate the temperature
differential.
 Calibration Curves
Calibration curve of a thermometer using a
mercury thermometer as a standard
• An unmarked thermometer (alcohol in this example.) can
be calibrated using a mercury thermometer as a
standard.
• Both thermometers are placed in melting ice (0 degrees
C), the length of the alcohol "thread" is noted. A heater is
switched on causing the water temperature to gradually
increase.
• For at least six temperature values the corresponding
length of the alcohol thread is noted. A graph of length of
alcohol thread against temperature is the required
calibration curve.
 Calibration Curves
Calibration curve of a thermometer using a
mercury thermometer as a standard

• Analysis:
Plot a graph, on graph paper, of length of alcohol thread (y-
axis) against temperature. Any temperature between 0 and
100 degrees can now be measured using the unmarked
thermometer. Place it in a beaker of moderately hot water,
measure the length of the alcohol thread and, from the
calibration curve, read the corresponding temperature.
 Methods of measuring current and
potential difference

• Analogue meters
An analogue meter can display any value
within the range available on its scale.
However, the precision of readings is limited
by our ability to read them. For example the
meter on the right shows 1.25V because the
pointer is estimated to be half way between
1.2 and 1.3. The analogue meter can show any
value between 1.2 and 1.3 but we are unable
to read the scale more precisely than about
half a division.
 Methods of measuring current and
potential difference

A Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a type of sensitive
ammeter: an instrument for detecting
electric current. It is an analog
electromechanical transducer that
produces a rotary deflection of some type
of pointer in response to electric current
flowing through its coil in a magnetic field.
 Galvanometer – Null method

Any method of obtaining measurements or

comparisons, in which the measurement is
correct when the deflection of the galvanometer
or other indicator is zero, nought or null.

Two obvious advantages attach to null methods

in electric galvanometer work - one is that an
uncalibrated galvanometer can be employed,
the other is that a galvanometer of any
high degree of sensitiveness can be employed,
there being no restriction as to its fineness of
winding or highness of resistance.
 Methods of measuring current and
potential difference
• Digital Meters
• A digital meter is a device used by
technicians to test and measure
electronic circuits. Most of them are
portable, battery-powered units. They
show measurements as numbers and
symbols on an electronic display.
• Digital multi-meters measure voltage,
current, resistance and related
electronic parameters. You select the
quantity you want to measure, touch
the meter's probe wires to a circuit,
then read the results on the display.
 Methods of measuring current and
potential difference
• Multimeters
A multimeter measures electrical
properties such as AC or DC voltage,
current, and resistance. Rather than have
separate meters, this device combines a
voltmeter, an ammeter, and an
ohmmeter. Electricians and the general
public might use it on batteries,
components, switches, power sources,
and motors to diagnose electrical
malfunctions and narrow down their
cause.
 Analogue & Digital
• Analogue Scales
Analogue scales have round
dials, where a pointer moves
clockwise according to the
weight applied. Markings are
equally spaced between the
numbers to indicate fractional
amounts
• Digital Scales
Digital scales have LCD or LED
number displays. There are no
pointers on a digital scale.
Accurate Measurement
• Random errors occur in all measurements.
• Arise when observers estimate the last figure of
an instrument reading.
• Called random errors because they are
unpredictable.
• Minimize such errors by averaging a large number
of readings.
Accurate Measurement
• Systematic errors are not random but constant
• Cause an experimenter to consistently
underestimate or overestimate a reading
• Due to the equipment being used – e.g. a ruler
with zero error
• May be due to environmental factors – e.g.
weather conditions on a particular day
• Cannot be reduced by averaging, but they can be
eliminated if the sources of the errors are known
Systematic/random
• Error can be systematic or random
Difference systematic random
between

Direction of --- Both direction

error (plus/minus)

Eliminate/red Can be Can reduce

uce eliminated Cannot
Cannot reduce eliminate

What type of error is a) reaction time?

b) Parallax error?
Systematic Errors

• These are errors in the experimental method or

equipment where readings are either always too
big or always too small compared to the actual
value.
• For example, if your newton-meter reads 0.2 N
with no weights on it, then your measurements
of force will always be 0.2 N too large.
Systematic Errors
• What are zero errors?
• Remember to check for any zero errors for your
measuring instruments before you start.
• Another example is if you get parallax when
reading scales with your eye in the wrong
position, as shown in the diagram.
reading will be
too small

Correct position

Reading will be
too large
Systematic Errors
• If you heat some water to measure its specific
heat capacity, there will always be thermal
energy lost to the surroundings.
• So how will that affect your temperature rise
reading in this process?
• Measurement of the temperature rise of the
water would always be too small. This is another
systematic error.
 Systematic Errors
• Therefore, you will need to design your
experiment carefully to correct for errors like
this thermal energy loss.
• You will also need to take certain precautions for
different types of experiments.
 36

Systematic Errors
• Are TYPICALLY • Sources:
present. ▫ Instrumental, physical and
human limitations.
• Measurements are given  Example: Device is out-of
calibration.
as:
• How to minimize them?
▫ Careful calibration.
▫ Best possible techniques.

Measurement + Systematic Error

OR
Measurement - Systematic Error
Random Errors

• These are errors which sometimes mean that

readings are too big, and sometimes too small
compared to the actual value.
• For example, when you are timing oscillations,
what is the common error here?
• Error in your timing because of your reactions.
Random Errors
• There are also random errors when reading
ammeters or voltmeters.
• For example, a reading of 1.0 V means that the
voltage is between 0.95 V and 1.05 V, and we are
not sure if the reading is too high or too low.
 39

Random Errors
• ALWAYS present. • Sources:
▫ Operator errors
• Measurements are often ▫ Changes in experimental
shown as: conditions

• How to minimize them?

▫ Take repeated measurements
and calculate their average.

Measurement ± Random Error

Accuracy and
Precision
Precision
• Precision is the degree of exactness to which a
measurement can be reproduced.
• The precision of an instrument is limited by the
smallest division on the measurement scale.
• It also means, how close the readings are to each
other.
Accuracy
• The accuracy of a measurement describes how
well the result agrees with an accepted value.
• It is taken as the difference between the
measured value and accepted value.
 An analogy
• The dots represent bullet holes in the target.

• Draw an analogy between accuracy and

precision using the above 3 diagrams.
 An analogy
• The first target shows moderate accuracy
and poor precision;

• the second shows good precision and

poor accuracy.
An analogy
• The third represents good accuracy and good
precision.
Precision/accuracy
precision Accuracy
meaning Spreading about average Nearness to actual value
values
Affected by random error systematic error
To improve Repeat and average/plot Technique, accurate
graph instrument,
Graph feature Scattering about straight line Straight line parallel to best fit
• No measurement is absolute
• Therefore measurements must be written
together with uncertainty

• E.g. L = 2.5 + 0.1 cm

Youtube reference
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QruAxiYSIA
Y
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dTn2pt5Pu
A
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F2pVw5FOi
yA
Limit of Reading and Uncertainty
• The Limit of Reading of a measurement is
equal to the smallest graduation of the scale of
an instrument.
• The Degree of Uncertainty of a reading (end
reading) is equal to half the smallest graduation
of the scale of an instrument.
• e.g. If the limit of reading is 0.1cm then the
uncertainty range is 0.05cm
• This is the absolute uncertainty
Reducing the Effects of Random
Uncertainties
• Take multiple readings
• When a series of readings are taken for a
measurement, then the arithmetic mean of the
reading is taken as the most probable answer
• The greatest deviation from the mean is taken as
the absolute error.
Absolute/fractional errors and
percentage errors
• We use ± to show an error in a measurement
• (208 ± 1) mm is a fairly precise measurement
• (2 ± 1) mm is highly inaccurate
• In order to compare uncertainties, use is made
of absolute, fractional and percentage
uncertainties.
• 1 mm is the absolute uncertainty
• 1/208 is the fractional uncertainty (0.0048)
• 0.48 % is the percentage uncertainty.
 Uncertainties
Every measurement has an uncertainty or error.

e.g. time = 5 seconds ± 1 second

The ± 1 second is called

the absolute uncertainty
There are three main types of uncertainty.
 Random Uncertainties
 Systematic Errors
 Reading Uncertainties
Random Uncertainties
Repeated measurements of the same quantity, gives a
range of readings.
The random uncertainty is found using:

max reading  min reading

random uncertaint y 
number of readings

Taking more measurements will help eliminate (or

reduce) random uncertainties.
The mean is the best estimate of the true value.
Example 1
Five measurements are taken to determine the length of a
card.
209mm, 210mm, 209mm, 210mm, 200mm
(a) Calculate the mean length of card.
(b) Find the random uncertainty in the measurements.
(c) Express mean length including the absolute
uncertainty.
(a) 209  210  209  210  200
mean length 
5
1038

5
mean length  208 mm

give the mean to same number of significant figures as

measurements
(b) max reading  min reading
random uncertaint y 
number of readings

210  200

5
 2 mm

(c) length of card  208 mm  2 mm

The “± 2mm” is the absolute uncertainty.

Question
Repeated measurements of speed give the following results:
9.87 ms-1, 9.80 ms-1, 9.81 ms-1, 9.85 ms-1
(a) Calculate the mean speed.
(b) Find the random uncertainty.
(c) Express mean speed including the absolute
uncertainty.
Answer key
Repeated measurements of speed give the following results:
9.87 ms-1, 9.80 ms-1, 9.81 ms-1, 9.85 ms-1
(a) Calculate the mean speed.
9.83 ms-1
(b) Find the random uncertainty. 0.02 ms-1
(c) Express mean speed including the absolute
uncertainty. 9.83 ms-1 ± 0.02 ms-1
Reading Uncertainties
A reading uncertainty is how accurately an instruments
scale can be read.
Analogue Scales
Where the divisions are fairly
large, the uncertainty is taken
as:
half the smallest scale
division
Where the divisions are small,
the uncertainty is taken as:

the smallest scale

division
Digital Scale (example 1)
For a digital scale, the
uncertainty is taken as:
the smallest scale
reading

e.g. voltage = 29.7 mV ± 0.1

mV
This means the actual reading
could be anywhere from
.....??
Percentage Uncertainty
The percentage uncertainty is calculated as follows:

absolute uncertaint y
% uncertaint y   100
reading
Example 1
Calculate the percentage uncertainty of the measurement:
d = 8cm ± 0.5cm

absolute uncertaint y
% uncertaint y   100
reading
0.5
  100
8

 0.0625  100
 6.25 %

(d = 8cm ± 6.25%)
Question 1

Calculate the % uncertainty of the following:

a) I = 5A ± 0.5A

b) t = 20s ± 1s

c) m = 1000g ± 1g

d) E = 500J ± 25J

e) F = 6N ± 0.5N
Answer key

Calculate the % uncertainty of the following:

a) I = 5A ± 0.5A 10 %
b) t = 20s ± 1s 5%

c) m = 1000g ± 1g 0.1 %
5%
d) E = 500J ± 25J
8.3 %
e) F = 6N ± 0.5N
Combining uncertainties
• For addition, add absolute uncertainties
• y = b+c, then y ± dy = (b+c) ± (db + dc)
Example :
Two volumes of water were added to a beaker.
The volumes measured are as follow:
Volume A = 15.0 + 0.1 m3
Volume B = 25.0 + 0.1 m3
Determine the final volume together with its
Uncertainty
Ans: 40.0 + 0.2 m3
Combining uncertainties
• For subtraction, add absolute uncertainties
• y = b-c, then y ± dy = (b-c) ± (db + dc)
Example :
• A student measured the temperature of a beaker of water
before and after heating. The readings are as follow:
Initial temperature = 25.0 + 0.5o C.
Final temperature = 40.0 + 0.5o C.
• Determine the temperature rise together with its
uncertainty
• Ans: 15 + 1 o C (final value rounded up to nearest 1o C)
Combining uncertainties
• For multiplication and division add percentage /
fractional uncertainties
• x = b x c, then dx = db + dc
x b c

For finding percentage, we have multiply fractional error

by 100.

Examples in next slide >>>>

Combining Uncertainties (Example for multiplication & Division)

• Multiplication • Division
Determine the momentum together Determine the density of water
with uncertainty given that given the measurements below
mass of object = 1.50 + 0.01 kg Mass, m = 50 + 1 g
Velocity of object = 2.0 + 0.2 ms-1 Volume, V = 52 + 5 cm-3 .
ans: uncertainty = 0.32 Ans: density = 1.0 + 0.1 gcm-3
But final answer = 3.0 + 0.3 kgms-1
Working: :
Working

P = mv D = m/V
dP = dm + dv dD = dm + dV
P m v D m V
dP = 0.01 + 0.2 dD = 1 + 5
3 1.5 2 0.96 50 52
Combining uncertainties
• When using powers, multiply the percentage uncertainty
by the power
• z = bª then dz = a db
z b
Example :
• Determine the density of iron given the measurements below
Mass, m = 37.8 + 0.1 g
Diameter of sphere, d = 2.10 + 0.01 cm .
Ans: density = 7.8 + 0.1 gcm-3

Working in next slide >>>

Detailed explanation on Slide no 71 (continued)
Detailed explanation on Slide no 71
Significant Figures and Calculations

• What is the difference between lengths of 4 m,

4.0 m and 4.00 m?
• Writing 5.00 m implies that we have measured
the length more precisely than if we write 5 m.
• Writing 5.00 m tells us that the length is
accurate to the nearest centimetre.
Significant Figures and Calculations
(First alternative)

• How many significant figures should you give in

your answers to calculations?
• This depends on the precision of the raw
numbers you use in the calculation.
• Your answer cannot be any more precise than
the data you use.
Significant Figures and Calculations
(Second alternative)

• This means that you should round your answer

to the same number of significant figures as
those used in the calculation.
• If some of the figures are given less precisely
than others, then round up to the lowest
number of significant figures.
Example
• The swimmer covers a distance of 100.0 m
in 68 s. Calculate her average speed.

• Our final answer should be stated as:

1.5 m s-1 (2 s.f.)
1.47 m s-1 (3 s.f.)
Example : Combining Uncertainties

Use the following data to calculate the speed, and the

uncertainty in speed, of a moving object.

Calculation of Speed d
v
d  16 cm  0.5 cm t
t  2 s  0.5 s 16

v? 2
v  8 cm s 1
Calculation of Uncertainty

absolute uncertaint y
% error in d   100
reading

0.5
  100
16
 3.1 %

absolute uncertaint y
% error in t   100
reading

0.5
  100
2

 25 %
Uncertainty in Speed
The biggest uncertainty is used, so get: v  8 cm s -1
 25%

v  25% of 8 cm s-1
The absolute uncertainty in the speed:  0.25%  8
 2 cm s 1

Answer v  8 cm s-1  2 cm s-1 OR v  8 cm s-1  25%

 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
• Reference Link
http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/cro.htm
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

• An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to

look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by displaying a
graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a
voltmeter with the valuable extra function of showing
how the voltage varies with time. The 1cm grid enables
you to take measurements of voltage and time from the
screen.
• The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam
of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen
making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar
to the way a television picture is produced.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

• Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode

(negative electrode) at one end to emit electrons and an
anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they
move rapidly down the tube to the screen. This
arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also
contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam up/down
and left/right.
• The electrons are called cathode rays because they are
emitted by the cathode and this gives the oscilloscope its
full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

• Obtaining a clear and stable trace

• Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the circuit you wish to
test you will need to adjust the controls to obtain a clear and
stable trace on the screen: The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM)
control determines the height of the trace. Choose a setting so the
trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not disappear
off the screen.
• The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which
the dot sweeps across the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows
at least one cycle of the signal across the screen.

• The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Measuring voltage and time period

• The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against
time. The shape of this graph is determined by the nature of the
input signal. In addition to the properties labelled on the graph,
there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second.
 Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope

• Measuring voltage and time period

 Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.
It is measured in volts, V.
 Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
 Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
 Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so
milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s
and 1µs = 0.000001s.
 Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz
(kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz =
1000000Hz.
 Frequency = 1/time period and vice versa
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

• Calculating Voltage
• Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is
determined by the Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control.
Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it can
be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known.
The amplitude is half the peak-peak voltage.
• Voltage = distance in cm × volts/cm
Example: peak-peak voltage = 4.2cm × 2V/cm = 8.4V
amplitude (peak voltage) = ½ × peak-peak voltage =
4.2V
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Calculating Time period

• Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is
determined by the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The
time period (often just called period) is the time for
one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of
cyles per second, frequency = 1/time period.

• Time period = distance in cm × time/cm

Given time/cm as 5ms/cm
Example: time period = 4.0cm × 5ms/cm = 20ms
Youtube links to explanation on :
General Physics – Measurement techniques

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F2pVw5FOi
yA
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIyGPV06Mf
4
Any questions?
Newtonian Mechanics
Kinematics

Marline Kurishingal
 Mechanics
The study of Physics begins with mechanics.
Mechanics is the branch of physics that focuses on the motion
of objects and the forces that cause the motion to change.
There are two parts to mechanics: Kinematics and Dynamics.
Kinematics deals with the concepts that are needed to describe
motion, without any reference to forces.

Dynamics deals with the effect that forces have on motion.

Introduction
Kinematics is the science of describing the
motion of objects using words, diagrams,
graphs, and equations.

The goal of kinematics is to develop mental models

to describe the motion of real-world objects.

We will learn to describe motion using:

1. Words
2. Diagrams
3. Graphs
4. Equations
 Describing Motion with words
The motion of objects can be described by words.

Even a person without a background in physics has a collection

of words, which can be used to describe moving objects. For
example, going faster, stopped, slowing down, speeding up, and
turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for describing the
motion of objects.

In physics, we use these words as the language of kinematics.

1. Distance and Displacement
2. Speed and Velocity
3. Acceleration
These words which are used to describe the
motion of objects can be divided into two
categories.

The quantity is either a vector or scalar.

1. Scalars are quantities which are described

by a magnitude only.

2. Vectors are quantities which are described

by both a magnitude and a direction.
 Distance Displacement

Distance refers to the total Displacement refers to the

length of travel distance moved in a
irrespective of the particular direction.
direction of the motion. It is the object's overall
change in position.

It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.

SI unit: metre (m) SI unit: metre (m)
Other common units: Other common units:
kilometre (km), centimetre kilometre (km), centimetre
(cm) (cm)
 Distance vs. Displacement
• You drive the path, and your odometer goes up (your
distance).
• Your displacement is the shorter directed distance
from start to stop (green arrow).

start

stop
Example 1
A student walks 4 m East, 2 m South, 4 m West, and finally 2 m
North.

Total distance = 12 m

During the course of his motion, the total length of travel is 12 m.

Total displacement = 0 m

When he is finished walking, there is no change in his position.

The 4 m east is “canceled by” the 4 m west; and the 2 m south is
“canceled by” the 2 m north.
 Speed Velocity

Speed is the rate of change Velocity is the distance

of distance. travelled in a specific
direction.
It is a scalar quantity.
It is also defined as the rate of
change of displacement.

It is a vector quantity.

distance travelled change in displaceme nt

Speed  Velocity 
time taken time taken
When evaluating the velocity of an object, one must keep
track of direction.

The direction of the velocity vector is the same as the

direction which an object is moving. (It would not matter
whether the object is speeding up or slowing down.)

For example:

If an object is moving rightwards, then its velocity is

described as being rightwards.

Boeing 747 moving towards the west with a speed of

260m/s has a velocity of 260m/s, west.
Note that speed has no direction (it is a scalar) and velocity
at any instant is simply the speed with a direction.
Instantaneous Speed and Average Speed

As an object moves, it often

undergoes changes in speed.

The speed at any instant is known

as the instantaneous speed.
(From the value of the
speedometer)

The average speed of the entire journey can be calculated:

Total distance travelled

Average Speed 
Total time taken
 Speed Vs Velocity

An object is moving in a circle at a constant speed of 10 m s-1.

We say that it has a constant speed but its velocity is not constant.
Why?

Direction of Motion

The direction of the object keeps changing.

 Acceleration

• An object whose velocity is changing is said to accelerate.

• If the direction and / or speed of a moving object changes, the
object is accelerating
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
 Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity

SI unit: ms-2

Acceleration = change in velocity

time taken

where a = acceleration, v =final velocity, u = initial

velocity and t = time.

v-u
a 
t
 Describing Motion with Graphs
1.Plot and interpret a distance-time graph and a speed-time graph.

2. Deduce from the shape of a distance-time graph when a body is:

(a) at rest
(b) moving with uniform speed
(c) moving with non-uniform speed

3. Deduce from the shape of a Velocity-time graph when a body is:

(a) at rest
(b) moving with uniform speed
(c) moving with uniform acceleration
(d) moving with non-uniform acceleration

4. Calculate the area under a speed-time graph to determine the distance

travelled for motion with uniform speed or uniform acceleration.
 Key Concepts
Distance-time Graph
Gradient of the Distance-time Graph is the speed of the
moving object

Speed-time Graph
Gradient of the Speed-time Graph is the acceleration of
the moving object.
Area under the Speed-time Graph is the distance
travelled.
 Distance-time Graph
A car has travelled past a lamp post on the road and the distance of the
car from the lamp post is measured every second. The distance and the
time readings are recorded and a graph is plotted using the data. The
following pages are the results for four possible journeys. The steeper
the line, the greater the speed.
The gradient of the distance-time graph gives the speed
of the moving object.
 Velocity - Time Graph
• The gradient of the
velocity-time gradient
gives a value of the
changing rate in velocity,
which is the acceleration
of the object.
• The area below the
velocity-time graph gives
a value of the object's
displacement.
 Analysing Velocity - Time Graph

• Uniform Velocity • Uniform Acceleration

 Analysing Velocity - Time Graph
• Uniform deceleration • Increasing acceleration
 Analysing Velocity - Time Graph

Decreasing acceleration
 How do you find the gradient of velocity-time graph?

You need to select two points on the graph,

for example (x1,y1) and (x2,y2).
Once you have selected the points you put
then into the equation m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
 m = the gradient
• The gradient represents the acceleration.
• In other words, We take the vertical reading from the
graph where the acceleration finishes and divide it by
the horizontal reading where the acceleration finishes.
Example 1
Example 2
Area under a speed-time graph
The figure below shows the speed-time graph of a car travelling with a
uniform speed of 20 ms-1. The distance travelled by the car is given by:
Distance = speed x time = 20 x 5
= 100 m
The same information of distance travelled can also be obtained by
calculating the area under the speed-time graph.
The area under a speed-time graph gives the distance travelled.
Example 3 - Question
Example 3 - Solution
 Fall freely…..

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=go9uekKOcK
M
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHtvDA0W34
I
 Uniformly accelerated motion

•Free fall is motion with

no acceleration other
than that provided by
gravity.
In other words………
• A free-falling object is an object
which is falling under the sole
influence of gravity.
• Any object which is being acted
upon only be the force of gravity is
said to be in a state of free fall.
 Free Fall
Any object which is moving and being acted upon only be
the force of gravity is said to be "in a state of free fall.“
 all objects fall freely at g  10 m s-2 when near the earth
and air resistance is negligible.
 speed of a free-falling body increases by 9.8 m s-1 every
second or when a body is thrown up, its speed decreases
by 9.8 m s-1 every second.

Although the acceleration due to gravity is considered

constant, it tends to vary slightly over the earth since the
earth is not a perfect sphere.
 Examples
• Examples of objects in Free fall
 A spacecraft (in space) with its rockets off (e.g. in a
continuous orbit, or going up for some minutes, and
then down)
 The Moon orbiting around the Earth.

• Examples of objects not in Free fall

 Standing on the ground: the gravitational acceleration
is counteracted by the normal force from the ground.
 Flying horizontally in an airplane: the wings' lift is also
providing an acceleration.
Representing Free Fall by Graphs
Free fall graphs shows :

 The line on the graph curves.

 A curved line on a position versus
time graph signifies an accelerated motion.
 The position-time graph reveals that the
object starts with a small velocity (slow) and
finishes with a large velocity (fast).
 Check your
Understanding !!
 Questions to answer !

• “Doesn't a more massive

object accelerate at a greater
rate than a less massive
object?" "Wouldn't an
elephant free-fall faster than
a mouse?"
• The answer to the question
(doesn't a more massive object
accelerate at a greater rate than
a less massive object?) is
absolutely NOT!
That is, absolutely not if we are considering the
specific type of falling motion known as free-fall.
Free-fall is the motion of objects which move under
the sole influence of gravity; free-falling objects do
not encounter air resistance.
More massive objects will only fall faster if there is
an appreciable amount of air resistance present.
 Force of gravity means the dog accelerates

To start, the dog is falling slowly (it has not had

time to speed up).

gravity

There is really only one force acting on the dog,

the force of gravity.

The dog falls faster (accelerates) due to this

force.
 Gravity is still bigger than air resistance

As the dog falls faster, another force becomes

Air resistance
bigger – air resistance.

The force of gravity on the dog of course stays the

same
gravity

The force of gravity is still bigger than the air

resistance, so the dog continues to accelerate (get
faster)
 Gravity = air resistance
Terminal Velocity
As the dog falls faster and air resistance
increases, eventually the air resistance
Air resistance
becomes as big as (equal to) the force of
gravity.

The dog stops getting faster (accelerating) and

falls at constant speed.
gravity

This velocity is called the terminal Velocity

 Terminal Speed
The dog will continue to fall at constant speed (called the
terminal speed) until………….

Air resistance

air resistance = gravity

gravity
 Uniformly Accelerated Motion
• Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity
with respect to time, in a given direction. The SI units of
acceleration are ms-2.

• This would mean that if an object has an acceleration of 1

ms-2 it will increase its velocity (in a given direction) 1 ms-1
every second that it accelerates.

It means that acceleration is constant.

This meaning that velocity is varying with respect to time,
we see this by this formula (v - u) / t (Time).
 It means….
• If an object is held stationary in a uniform
gravitational field and when it is released, it
will fall. It will do so with uniform
acceleration.
• Near the surface of the earth the
acceleration is approximately 9.8 ms-2.
• This means that every second that the object
falls its velocity will increase by 9.8 ms-1 .
Check your understanding !

•What happens if
an object is
thrown up?
What happens if an object is thrown up?

• The acceleration is still downward. If an

object is thrown up with an initial velocity of
30 ms-1, after one second it will only be going
20 ms-1 up, after 2 seconds it will only be
going 10 ms-1, after 3 seconds the object will
have zero velocity!
• Even if the objects velocity is zero the
acceleration is not zero.
 An experiment with „g‟.
• College building
• Stop watch
• A group of students on top floor
• A group of students on ground floor
• Need to check the distance between top floor and
ground, time to calculate velocity.
• (This experiment will be carried out during next
lesson)
• Upon investigation, g constant is found with one of
the equations we have derived and it is as follows :
 Remember (will study in Ch.4 Dynamics)
• The actual explanation of why all objects
accelerate at the same rate involves the
concepts of force and mass.
Graph of free falling :
1. Dropping an object from high place

• Velocity - Time Graph

• Acceleration - Time
Graph
Graph of free falling :
2. Launching Object Upward

• Velocity - Time Graph

• Acceleration - Time
Graph
Graph of free falling :
3 . Object moving upward and fall back
to the ground

• Velocity - Time Graph

• Acceleration - Time Graph
Note : The graph here
is to show that the
acceleration remains
same. The following
slides will give a
detailed explanation on
directions / both
regions.
Graph of free falling :
4. Object falling and bounces back

• Velocity - Time Graph

• Acceleration - Time
Graph
At the point when the air resistance equals to the
weight, there is no acceleration and the object will fall
with “terminal velocity”.
A small dense object, like a steel ball bearing, has a
high terminal velocity. A light object, like a raindrop, or
an object with large surface area like a piece of paper,
has a low terminal velocity.
 Positive Velocity & Negative Velocity
• How can one tell whether the object is
moving in the positive direction (i.e.,
positive velocity) or in the negative
direction (i.e., negative velocity)?
• And how can one tell if the object is
speeding up or slowing down?
 Positive Velocity & Negative Velocity
• Since the graph is a velocity-time graph, the velocity would be positive
whenever the line lies in the positive region (above the x-axis) of the
graph.
• Similarly, the velocity would be negative whenever the line lies in the
negative region (below the x-axis) of the graph.
• A positive velocity means the object is moving in the positive direction;
and a negative velocity means the object is moving in the negative
direction.
• So one knows an object is moving in the positive direction if the line is
located in the positive region of the graph (whether it is sloping up or
sloping down). And one knows that an object is moving in the negative
direction if the line is located in the negative region of the graph (whether
it is sloping up or sloping down).
• And finally, if a line crosses over the x-axis from the positive region to the
negative region of the graph (or vice versa), then the object has changed
directions.
Positive Velocity & Negative Velocity
 Positive Velocity & Negative Velocity
• Now how can one tell if the object is speeding up or slowing
down?
• Speeding up means that the magnitude of the velocity is
getting large. For instance, an object with a velocity changing
from +3 m/s to + 9 m/s is speeding up. Similarly, an object
with a velocity changing from -3 m/s to -9 m/s is also speeding
up.
• In each case, the magnitude of the velocity is increasing; the
speed is getting bigger.
• Given this fact, one would believe that an object is speeding up if the line
on a velocity-time graph is changing from near the 0-velocity point to a
location further away from the 0-velocity point. That is, if the line is
getting further away from the x-axis (the 0-velocity point), then the object
is speeding up. And conversely, if the line is approaching the x-axis, then
the object is slowing down.
Positive Velocity & Negative Velocity
Equations of Motion
There are 4 equations that you can use whenever an object moves
with constant, uniform acceleration in a straight line. The equations
are written in terms of the 5 symbols in the box:

s = displacement (m)
u = initial velocity (ms-1)
v = final velocity (ms-1)
a = constant acceleration (ms-2)
t = time interval (s)
Since a = (v - u) / t
v = u + at … (1)
If acceleration is constant, the average velocity during the
motion will be half way between v and u. This is equal to ½(u
+ v).
½(u + v) = s/t
s = ½(u + v)t … (2)
Using equation (1) to replace v in equation (2):
s = ½(u + u + at)t
s = ½(2u + at)t
s = ut + ½at2 … (3)
From equation (1), t = (v – u)/a
Using this to replace t in equation (2):
s = ½(u + v)[(v - u)/a]
2as = (u + v) (v – u)
2as = v2 – u2
v2 = u2 + 2as … (4)

Note:
• You can only use these equations only if the acceleration is
constant.
• Notice that each equation contains only 4 of our 5 “s, u, v,
a, t” variables. So if know any 3 of the variables, we can use
these equations to find the other 2.
Example 4
A cheetah starts from rest and accelerates at 2.0 ms-2 due east for 10 s.
Calculate (a) the cheetah’s final velocity, (b) the distance the cheetah
covers in this 10 s.
Solution:
(a) Using equation (1): v = u + at
v = 0 + (2.0 ms-2 x 10 s) = 20 ms-1 due east
(b) Using equation (2): s = ½(u + v)t
s = ½(0 + 20 ms-1) x 10 s = 100 m due east

You could also find the displacement by plotting a velocity-time graph

for this motion. The magnitude of the displacement is equal to the area
under the graph.
Example 5
An athlete accelerates out of her blocks at 5.0 ms-2. (a) How long does it
take her to run the first 10 m? (b) What is her velocity at this point?
Solution:
(a) Using equation (3): s = ut + ½at2
10 m = 0 + (1/2 x 5.0 ms-2 x t2)
t2 = 4.0 s2
t = 2.0 s
(b) Using equation (1): v = u + at
v = 0 + (5.0 ms-2 x 2.0 s)
v = 10 ms-1
Example 6
A bicycle’s brakes can produce a deceleration of 2.5 ms-2. How far will
the bicycle travel before stopping, if it is moving at 10 ms-1 when the
brakes are applied?
Solution:
Using equation (4): v2 = u2 +2as
0 = (10 ms-1)2 + (2 x (-2.5 ms-2) x s)
0 = 100 m2s-2 – (5.0 ms-2 x s)
s = 20 m
Example 7
A student flips a coin into the air. Its initial velocity is 8.0 ms-1. Taking g = 10 ms-2 and
ignoring air resistance, calculate: (a) the maximum height, h, the coin reaches, (b) the
velocity of the coin on returning to his hand, (c) the time that the coin is in the air.
Solution: (upward motion to be negative)
(a) v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = (8.0 ms-1)2 +(2 x (-10ms-2) x h)
h = 3.2 m
(b) The acceleration is the same going up and coming down. If the coin decelerates
from 8.0 ms-1 to 0 ms-1 on the way up, it will accelerate from 0 ms-1 to 8 ms-1 on the
way down. The motion is symmetrical. So the velocity on returning to his hand is 8.0
ms-1 downwards.
(c) v = u + at
0 = 8.0 ms-1 + (-10 ms-2 x t)
t = 0.8 s
The coin will take the same time between moving up and coming down. So total
time in the air = 1.6 s.
 You-tube videos links with explanation on :
Newtonian Mechanism - Kinematics
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=go9uekKO
cKM
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xE71aKXjs
s0&feature=related
 Last sub topic of Chapter 3

The projectile Motion

PROJECTILE is a body which is thrown horizontally
or at an angle relative to the horizontal which
follows a curved path called trajectory.

A projectile is an object moving in two dimensions

under the influence of Earth's gravity; its path is a
parabola

Examples:
Ball being thrown, water coming out of the hose, a
bullet fired from a gun, arrow shot from a bow,
fountains.
What is projectile motion?

*Made up of horizontal and vertical components

*Movement wherein an object is acted upon by

gravity and air resistance

*Motion of a body following a curved path

PARABOLIC
MOTION OF
PROJECTILE
It can be understood by
analyzing the horizontal
and vertical motions
separately.
The speed in the x-direction is
constant; in the y-direction the
object moves with constant
acceleration g.
This photograph shows two balls
that start to fall at the same time.
The one on the right has an initial
speed in the x-direction. It can be
seen that vertical positions of the
two balls are identical at identical
times, while the horizontal position
of the yellow ball increases linearly.
 REMEMBER:
1. The horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant
(never changing in value),

2. There is uniform vertical acceleration caused by

gravity; its value is 9.8 m/s2

3. The vertical velocity of a projectile changes by

~10 m/s each second,
the horizontal motion of a projectile is independent
of its vertical motion.
 PROJECTILE I
( SIMPLE PROJECTILE)
PROJECTILE II ( WITH ANGLE)
*All vertical components have y subscripts :
vy, dy, ty,
*All horizontal components have x subscripts:
vx, dx

RANGE is the horizontal displacement of the

projectile (dx)

MAXIMUM HEIGHT is the vertical

displacement of the projectile (dy)
How to calculate – Projectile Motion
(From your reference book)
 (Not in syllabus, only just for your info)

If an object is launched at an initial angle of θ0 with the

horizontal, the analysis is similar except that the initial velocity
has a vertical component.

Path of a projectile fired with initial velocity v0 at angle θ0 to the horizontal.

Path is shown dashed in black, the velocity vectors are green arrows, and
velocity components are dashed. The acceleration a = dv/dt is downward.
That is, a = g.
(Not in syllabus, only for your info)
Sample Problem – Projectile Motion
Any Questions?
Newtonian Mechanics
Dynamics

Marline Kurishingal
 Newton’s laws of Motion
• Newton's laws of motion are three
physical laws which provide
relationships between the forces
acting on a body and the motion of
the body.
 Newton’s Laws: Force and Motion

• The First Law: Force and Inertia

• The Second Law: Force, Mass and Acceleration
• The Third Law: Action and Reaction
Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law of
motion…..

An object at rest tends to stay

at rest and object in motion
tends to stay in motion unless
acted upon by an external
force.
 What does this mean ?
Basically, an object will keep doing what it was
doing, unless acted on by an external force.
If the object was sitting still, it will remain
stationary. If it was moving at a constant
velocity, it will keep moving at a constant
velocity.
It takes force to change the motion of an object.
 The definition of force

• The simplest concept of force is a push or a pull.

• In other words, force is the action that has the
ability to create or change motion.
 Force
• Force is an action that can change motion.
– A force is what we call a push or a pull, or any action
that has the ability to change an object’s motion.
– Forces can be used to increase the speed of an object,
decrease the speed of an object, or change the
direction in which an object is moving.

– Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to a change in its state of motion or rest, or the
tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion.
Balanced force
 Balanced & Unbalanced
If the forces on an object are equal and
opposite or if the total force is zero they are
said to be balanced, and the object
experiences no change in motion.
If they are not equal and opposite or if the
total forces is not zero, then the forces are
unbalanced and the motion of the object
changes.
These are some examples from real life

A soccer ball is sitting at rest. It takes

an unbalanced force of a kick to change
its motion.
Newton’s First Law is also called
the Law of Inertia
Inertia: the tendency of an object to
resist changes in its state of motion

The First Law states that all objects

have inertia. The more mass an object
has, the more inertia it has (and the
harder it is to change its motion).
 Inertia
• Inertia is a term used to measure the ability of an object to
resist a change in its state of motion.
• An object with a lot of inertia takes a lot of force to start or
stop; an object with a small amount of inertia requires a
small amount of force to start or stop.
• The word “inertia” comes from the Latin word inertus, which
can be translated to mean “lazy.”
 Examples from Real Life
A powerful locomotive begins to pull a long
line of boxcars that were sitting at rest. Since
the boxcars are so massive, they have a great
deal of inertia and it takes a large force to
change their motion. Once they are moving, it
takes a large force to stop them.
If objects in motion tend to
stay in motion, why don’t
moving objects keep moving
forever?
Things don’t keep moving forever because
there’s almost always an unbalanced force
acting upon it.

Example : A book sliding across a table

slows down and stops because of the
force of friction.
 Forces Don't Keep Objects Moving

Newton's first law of motion declares that a force is not needed to •

keep an object in Motion.

For example : Slide a book across a table and watch it slide to a rest •
position. The book in motion on the table top does not come to a
rest position because of the absence of a force; rather it is the
presence of a force - that force being the force of friction - that
brings the book to a rest position.
In the absence of a force of friction, the book would continue in •
motion with the same speed and direction - forever! (Or at least to
the end of the table top.
 If you throw a ball upwards it will
eventually slow down and fall
because of the force of gravity.
 How do these systems in a car
overcome the law of inertia?
• The engine
– supplies force that allows you to change motion by pressing the pedal.
• The brake system
– is designed to help you change your motion by slowing down.
• The steering wheel and steering system
– is designed to help you change your motion by changing your direction.
 There are many more applications of Newton's first law of motion.
Several applications are listed below. Perhaps you could think about
the law of inertia and provide explanations for each application.

• Blood rushes from your head to your feet while quickly stopping
when riding on a descending elevator.

• The head of a hammer can be tightened onto the wooden handle

by banging the bottom of the handle against a hard surface.

• To dislodge ketchup from the bottom of a ketchup bottle, it is often

turned upside down and thrusted downward at high speeds and
then abruptly halted.

• While riding a skateboard (or wagon or bicycle), you fly forward off
the board when hitting a curb or rock or other object that abruptly
halts the motion of the skateboard.
Check your understanding !
Question 1

• Luke drops an approximately 5.0 kg fat cat (weight = 50.0 N)

off the roof of his house into the swimming pool below. Upon
encountering the pool, the cat encounters a 50.0 N upward
resistance force (assumed to be constant).

a) Which one of the velocity-time graphs best describes the motion of the
cat? Support your answer with sound reasoning.
Answer
• Graph B is correct. The cat first accelerates with a
negative (downward) acceleration until it hits the
water. Upon hitting the water, the cat experiences a
balance of forces (50 N downwards due to gravity
and 50 N upwards due to the water).
• Thus, the cat will finish its motion moving with a
constant velocity. Graph B depicts both the initial
negative acceleration and the final constant velocity.
Newton’s Second Law
 Newton’s second law of motion…..

Force equals
mass times acceleration
F = ma

Acceleration: a measurement of how

quickly an object is changing speed.
 From 1st law...
when forces are balanced.....
When forces are unbalanced...
 What does F = ma mean?
Force is directly proportional to
mass and acceleration.
Imagine a ball of a certain mass
moving at a certain acceleration.
This ball has a certain force.
Now imagine we make the ball twice as big
(double the mass) but keep the acceleration
constant. F = ma says that this new ball has
twice the force of the old ball.

Now imagine the original ball moving at twice

the original acceleration. F = ma says that the
ball will again have twice the force of the ball
at the original acceleration.
 Newton's Second Law

• If you apply
more force to
an object, it
accelerates at
a higher rate.
 Newton's Second Law

• If the same force is

applied to an object
with greater mass,
the object
accelerates at a
slower rate because
mass adds inertia.
 Mass will resist changes in motion
• When you are standing on a bus, and the bus starts
very quickly, your body seems to be pushed backward,
and if the bus stops suddenly, then your body seems to
be pushed forwards. Notice that when the bus turns
left, you will seem to be pushed to the right, and when
the bus turns right, you will seem to be pushed to the
left.
• Also consider a full shopping cart. If you try to push it
from a stationary position, it will take some effort to
get it moving. The same is true if you try to stop it
when it is moving at a high speed, or try to turn it left
or right.
Mass will resist changes in motion (continued)

• In both cases, an object with mass is opposing a

change in motion. In the first case, it is your body that
tries to stay moving as it was before the change. Your
body also tries to stay in a straight line when the bus
turns, although it appears to be moving to the side.
• What is really happening is that your body is still
moving straight and the bus turns in the opposite
direction. The shopping cart exhibits the same
behavior. When it is stationary, it tries to stay
stationary, and when you try to stop it moving, it will
try to continue. Your body and the cart both have
mass.
Mass will resist changes in motion (continued)

From this, we can define a property of mass:

Mass will resist changes in motion.
• This says that any object with mass will resist
any change in motion.
• Objects with greater mass will resist change in
motion more than objects with less mass.
• In the SI system, the unit of mass is the
kilogram (kg).
 Unit of Force

• A force of one Newton is exactly the amount

of force needed to cause a mass of one
kilogram to accelerate at one m/s².
• We call the unit of force the Newton (N).
 Units

Force (newtons, N)
Acceleration (m/s2) a=F
m
Mass (kg)
 More about F = ma
If you double the mass, you double the force. If you
double the acceleration, you double the force.

What if you double the mass and the acceleration?

(2m)(2a) = 4F

Doubling the mass and the acceleration quadruples

the force.
 What does F = ma say?

F = ma
basically means that the force of an object
comes from its mass and its acceleration.
Weight as the effect of a gravitational field
on a mass
• In everyday usage the term "weight" is commonly
used to mean mass, which scientifically is an
entirely different concept.
• On the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due
to gravity (the "strength of gravity") is
approximately constant; this means that the ratio
of the weight force of a motionless object on the
surface of the Earth to its mass is almost
independent of its location, so that an object's
weight force can stand as a proxy for its mass,
and vice versa.
Definition of Weight
• The word weight denotes a quantity of the
same nature as a force.
• The weight of a body is the product of its
mass and the acceleration due to gravity.
 Using the second law of motion
• The force F that appears in the second law is the net
force.
• There are often many forces acting on the same
object.
• Acceleration results from the combined action of all
the forces that act on an object.
• When used this way, the word net means “total.”
 Using the second law of motion
• To solve problems with multiple forces, you
have to add up all the forces to get a single net
force before you can calculate any resulting
acceleration.
Calculating acceleration
A cart rolls down a ramp. Using a
spring scale, you measure a net
force of 2 newtons pulling the car
down. The cart has a mass of 500
grams (0.5 kg). Calculate the
acceleration of the cart.
1. You are asked for the acceleration (a).
2. You are given mass (m) and force (F).
3. Newton’s second law applies: a = F ÷ m
4. Plug in numbers. (Remember: 1 N = 1 kg·m/s2)
Three forms of the second law
 Finding the acceleration
of moving objects
• The word dynamics refers to problems
involving motion.
• In dynamics problems, the second law is often
used to calculate the acceleration of an object
when you know the force and mass.
 Direction of acceleration

• Speed increases when

the net force is in the
same direction as the
motion.
• Speed decreases when
the net force is in the
opposite direction as
the motion.
 Positive and negative acceleration

• We often use positive and negative numbers to show

the direction of force and acceleration.
• A common choice is to make velocity, force, and
acceleration positive when they point to the right.
Acceleration from multiple forces
Three people are pulling on a
wagon applying forces of 100 N,
150 N, and 200 N. Determine the
acceleration and the direction
the wagon moves. The wagon
has a mass of 25 kilograms.
1. You are asked for the acceleration (a) and direction
2. You are given the forces (F) and mass (m).

3. The second law relates acceleration to force and mass: a = F ÷ m

4. Assign positive and negative directions. Calculate the net force then use
the second law to determine the acceleration from the net force and the
mass.
 Finding force from acceleration
• Wherever there is acceleration there must
also be force.
• Any change in the motion of an object results
from acceleration.
• Therefore, any change in motion must be
caused by force.
 Coming back to...Free Fall Motion
• As learned in an earlier chapter, free fall is a special
type of motion in which the only force acting upon an
object is gravity. Objects that are said to be undergoing
free fall, are not encountering a significant force of air
resistance; they are falling under the sole influence of
gravity.
• Under such conditions, all objects will fall with the
same rate of acceleration, regardless of their mass. But
why?
• Consider the free-falling motion of a 1000-kg baby
elephant and a 1-kg overgrown mouse.
 Explanation on free fall....based on previous diagram
• If Newton's second law were applied to their falling motion, and if a free-body diagram
were constructed, then it would be seen that the 1000-kg baby elephant would
experiences a greater force of gravity. This greater force of gravity would have a direct
affect upon the elephant's acceleration; thus, based on force alone, it might be thought
that the 1000-kg baby elephant would accelerate faster. But acceleration depends upon
two factors: force and mass. The 1000-kg baby elephant obviously has more mass (or
inertia). This increased mass has an inverse affect upon the elephant's acceleration. And
thus, the direct affect of greater force on the 1000-kg elephant is offset by the inverse
affect of the greater mass of the 1000-kg elephant; and so each object accelerates at
the same rate - approximately 10 m/s/s. The ratio of force to mass (Fnet/m) is the same
for the elephant and the mouse under situations involving free fall.
• This ratio (Fnet/m) is sometimes called the gravitational field strength and is expressed
as 9.8 N/kg (for a location upon Earth's surface). The gravitational field strength is a
property of the location within Earth's gravitational field and not a property of the baby
elephant nor the mouse. All objects placed upon Earth's surface will experience this
amount of force (9.8 N) upon every 1 kilogram of mass within the object. Being a
property of the location within Earth's gravitational field and not a property of the free
falling object itself, all objects on Earth's surface will experience this amount of force
per mass. As such, all objects free fall at the same rate regardless of their mass. Because
the 9.8 N/kg gravitational field at Earth's surface causes a 9.8 m/s² acceleration of any
object placed there, we often call this ratio the acceleration of gravity
Check your understanding!
Question 1
• Determine the accelerations that result when
a 12-N net force is applied to a 3-kg object and
then to a 6-kg object.
Answer 1
• Determine the accelerations that result when
a 12-N net force is applied to a 3-kg object and
then to a 6-kg object.
• Answer : A 3-kg object experiences an
acceleration of4 m/s². A 6-kg object
experiences an acceleration of 2 m/s²
Question 2
• Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of
2 m/s2. If the net force is tripled and the mass
is doubled, then what is the new acceleration
of the sled?
Answer 2
• Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of
2 m/s2. If the net force is tripled and the mass
is doubled, then what is the new acceleration
of the sled?
• Answer: 3 m/s²
• The original value of 2 m/s² must be
multiplied by 3 (since a and F are directly
proportional) and divided by 2 (since a and m
are inversely proportional)
Question 3
• An applied force of 50 N is
used to accelerate an
object to the right across a
frictional surface. The
object encounters 10 N of
friction. Use the diagram
to determine the normal
force, the net force, the
mass, and the acceleration
of the object. (Neglect air
resistance.)
Answer 3

• Note: To simplify calculations, an approximated value of g is often used

as 10 m/s²
• Fnorm = 80 N; m = 8.16 kg; Fnet = 40 N, right; a = 4.9 m/s², right
• (If you are using g = 10, Fnorm = 80 N; m = 8 kg; Fnet = 40 N, right; a = 5
m/s², right )

• Since there is no vertical acceleration, normal force = gravity force. The

mass can be found using the equation Fgrav = m g

• The Fnet is the vector sum of all the forces: 80 N, up plus 80 N, down
equals 0 N. And 50 N, right plus 10 N, left = 40 N, right.

• Finally, a = Fnet / m = (40 N) / (8.16 kg) = 4.9 m/s².

Question 4

• An applied force of 20 N is used to accelerate an object

to the right across a frictional surface. The object
encounters 10 N of friction. Use the diagram to
determine the normal force, the net force, the
coefficient of friction (μ) between the object and the
surface, the mass, and the acceleration of the object.
(Neglect air resistance.)
• The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is
a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction
between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of
friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low
coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of
friction.
Answer 4

• Fnorm = 100 N; m = 10.2 kg; Fnet = 10 N, right; "mu" = 0.1; a =0.980

m/s², right
• ( If you are using g=10, Fnorm = 100 N; m = 10 kg; Fnet = 10 N, right;
"mu" = 0.1; a =1 m/s², right )
• Since there is no vertical acceleration, the normal force is equal to
the gravity force. The mass can be found using the equation Fgrav =
m g.
• Using "mu" = Ffrict / Fnorm, "mu" = (10 N) / (100 N) = 0.1.
• The Fnet is the vector sum of all the forces: 100 N, up plus 100 N,
down equals 0 N. And 20 N, right plus 10 N, left = 10 N, right.
• Finally, a = Fnet / m = (10 N) / (10.2 kg) = 0.980 m/s².
 Equilibrium

• The condition of zero acceleration is called

equilibrium.
• In equilibrium, all forces cancel out leaving
zero net force.
• Objects that are standing still are in
equilibrium because their acceleration is
zero.
 Equilibrium
• Objects that are moving at
constant speed and direction
are also in equilibrium.
• A static problem usually
means there is no motion.
Calculating force
A woman is holding two dogs on a leash.
If each dog pulls with a force of 80
Newtons, how much force does the
woman have to exert to keep the dogs
from moving?
1. You are asked for force (F).
2. You are given two 80 N forces and the fact that the dogs are
not moving (a = 0).
3. Newton’s second law says the net force must be zero if the
acceleration is zero.
4. The woman must exert a force equal and opposite to the sum
of the forces from the two dogs.
Check your understanding on
balanced forces!!
Who is wrong here? Anna or Noah?
• Two students are discussing on an object that is being acted upon
by two individual forces (both in a vertical direction). During the
discussion, Anna suggests to Noah that the object under
discussion could be moving. In fact, Anna suggests that if
friction and air resistance could be ignored (because of their
negligible size), the object could be moving in a horizontal
direction. According to Anna, an object experiencing forces as
described at the right could be experiencing a horizontal motion.
• Noah objects, arguing that the object could not have any
horizontal motion if there are only vertical forces acting upon it.
Noah claims that the object must be at rest, perhaps on a table or
floor. After all, says Noah, an object experiencing a balance of
forces will be at rest. Who do you agree with?
Answer
• Anna is correct.
• Noah may know the formulas but he does not
know (or does not believe) Newton's laws. If
the forces acting on an object are balanced
and the object is in motion, then it will
continue in motion with the same velocity.
• Remember: forces do not cause motion. Forces cause accelerations.
Newton’s Third Law
 Newton’s third law of motion…..

• For every action there is

an equal and opposite
reaction.
 What does this mean?

For every force acting on an object, there is an equal force

acting in the opposite direction.
Right now, gravity is pulling you down in your seat, but
Newton’s Third Law says your seat is pushing up against you
with equal force. This is why you are not moving. There is a
balanced force acting on you– gravity pulling down, your seat
pushing up.
 What happens if….
What happens if you are standing on a
skateboard or a slippery floor and push
against a wall?
You slide in the opposite direction (away from
the wall), because you pushed on the wall but
the wall pushed back on you with equal and
opposite force.
 Newton’s 3rd Law Demo
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQh8ji_4f
Zs
The Third Law: Action and Reaction
• “For every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.”
• This statement is known as
Newton’s third law of motion.
• Newton’s third law discusses pairs
of objects and the interactions
between them.
 Forces occur in pairs

• The astronauts working on the space station have a serious

problem when they need to move around in space: There is
nothing to push on.
• One solution is to throw something opposite the direction you
want to move.
 Forces occur in pairs

• The two forces in a pair are

called action and reaction.
• Anytime you have one, you
also have the other.
• If you know the strength of
one you also know the
strength of the other since
both forces are always equal.
Third Law…

• Action and reaction forces act on

different objects, not on the same
object.
• The forces cannot cancel because
they act on different objects.
 Action & Reaction
• The act of moving or the ability to move from one
place to another is called locomotion.
• Any animal or machine that moves depends on
Newton’s third law to get around.
• When we walk, we push off the ground and move
forward because of the ground pushing back on us
in the opposite direction.
Action & Reaction
• Jets, planes, and
helicopters push air.
• In a helicopter, the
blades of the
propeller are angled
such that when they
spin, they push the
air molecules down.

The rotor blades of an helicopter are just like the wings of an airplane or a bird. As
they move through the air, they pull the air above them downwards. That's the
"action" part of the action-reaction. When the blades push the air downward, the
helicopter is lifted. The air has considerable mass and inertia, and resists being pulled
down—it tries to push the wings up instead. That's the "reaction" part, and that's
also aerodynamic lift. The blades pull air downwards, and the reaction to this pushes
the helicopter upwards.
 Momentum as the product of mass and velocity
Momentum or Linear momentum or translational
momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an
object.
Momentum = mass x velocity
For example, a heavy truck moving fast has a large
momentum—it takes a large and prolonged force to get the
truck up to this speed, and it takes a large and prolonged force
to bring it to a stop afterwards. If the truck were lighter, or
moving slower, then it would have less momentum.
• Like velocity, linear momentum is a vector quantity,
possessing a direction as well as a magnitude:
• Units: kgms-1 or Ns
 Force as a rate of change of Momentum
• Consider a body of mass m, initially moving with a velocity of magnitude
u. A force F acts on the body and causes it to accelerate to a final velocity
of magnitude v.
• We can write Newton’s second law in the form

• and a simple rearrangement shows the relation between force and

momentum Remember, momentum = mass x velocity.

• Now, mv is the final momentum of the body and mu is the initial

momentum of the body. Therefore, we have
Force = rate of change of momentum
 Principle of Conservation of Momentum
• The Principle of the Conservation of Momentum
states that: if objects collide, the total momentum
before the collision is the same as the total
momentum after the collision (provided that no
external forces - for example, friction - act on the
system).
• Of course, energy is also conserved in any collision,
but it isn't always conserved in the form of kinetic
energy.
Case 1
• To do any calculations for momentum, there are some simple rules to follow to make it easy:
• Always decide which direction is positive and which is negative, then stick to it.
• Always remember that the total momentum before the collision will be the same as the total
momentum after the collision.
• So,

• The conservation of momentum states:

• Momentumbefore = Momentumafter
• So, (P1 + P2) before= (P1 + P2) after
• Or, m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
• But notice that in this example, v1 = 0. So that term cancels and makes finding an answer
much easier.
Case 2
• If the objects change direction in the collision or are going in different directions
before the collision, make sure that you have got the signs for the velocities and
therefore the momentums correct.

• Example 1 Example 2

1
Case 3
• When objects bounce back after a collision, be careful about
the change in momentum.

Example

So change in momentum = final P - initial P

= -mu - (+ mu)
= - 2mu
Explosions

• Explosions are a special type of collision.

Momentum is conserved in an explosion. This
is made easier by the fact that usually, the
momentum before an explosion is zero. The
Principle of the Conservation of Momentum
states that the momentum after the explosion
must therefore be zero as well.

• What's the momentum of the universe?

What is the momentum of the Universe?

• If the universe began with a Big Bang

(for instance - an explosion), the
momentum of the universe before
the explosion was zero.
So what is its momentum ?

Force can be defined as the rate of change of momentum as:

 Principle of Conservation of Momentum
Elastic and Inelastic collisions

• Perfectly Elastic collisions

• All momentum is conserved
• Kinetic energy is conserved as well.
• Relative speed of approach = relative speed of
separation.
• (So if one is catching the other at 10m/s before the
collision, it will be moving apart from it at 10m/s after
the collision)
• Perfectly Elastic collisions are surprisingly common. All
collisions between atoms are Perfectly Elastic
according to the Kinetic Theory of Gases.
 Principle of Conservation of Momentum
Elastic and Inelastic collisions

• Perfectly Inelastic collisions

• All momentum is conserved (as always).
• Kinetic energy is not conserved.
• The relative speed of separation is zero.
• (In other words, that means the objects stick together
after the collision, they will move together, so just
consider them as one object whose mass is the same
as that of the two original masses combined).
 Why is kinetic energy not conserved while momentum is
conserved in a perfectly inelastic collision?
• It goes into heat, sound, work done to deform the colliding
bodies etc. Other forms of energy, in other words.
• Momentum is not a type of energy. Momentum and energy
are totally different physical quantities with different physical
dimensions. (Energy is the capacity to do work)
Conservation of momentum in a system occurs provided that
there are no external forces acting on a system. This is a
consequence of Newton's 2nd law and Newton's 3rd law.
Newton's 2nd law says that the net force acting on a body is
equal to the rate of change of its momentum.
This is the full, general statement of the 2nd law. F = Δp/Δt.
If the mass of the body is constant, this reduces to F =
m(Δv/Δt) = ma. Therefore, if a net force acts on an object, its
momentum will change with time. If there is no net force,
then its momentum will not change.
 How and when momentum is conserved ?
• Now, consider a system of interacting particles. The particles are moving
around randomly. Every once in a while, two particles (1 and 2) may
collide. While this is happening, particle 1 exerts a force on particle 2.
However, Newton's 3rd law says that particle 2 must therefore, at the
same time, exert a force on particle 1 of equal strength and opposite
direction. These forces are also exerted over the same time interval (while
the particles are in contact). Therefore, the change in momentum of
particle 1 will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
change in momentum of particle 2.
• These two momentum changes therefore cancel each other out. Each
particle may individually change its momentum, but there will be no
change to the total momentum of the system. In other words, since
Newton's 3rd says that these internal forces always occur in matched
"action-reaction" pairs, they cannot ever cause a change to the overall
momentum of the system. Only an external force (a force from something
that is not part of the system of particles) can cause a change in the total
momentum of the system. In the absence of a net external force, Ftot = 0
and hence Δptot = 0. In the absence of external forces, momentum
is conserved.
Any Questions?
Newtonian Mechanics
Forces, Density and Pressure

Marline Kurishingal
 What is a Force?
• We can define a FORCE as a push or a pull due to
the interaction between objects which produces
or tends to produce motion; stops or tends to
stop motion; changes or tends to change motion.

• There are various forces experienced in our daily

life, for example, gravitational force, electrical
force, magnetic force, normal reaction, tension,
friction, viscous force and upthrust.
 Types of Forces
• Gravitational Force, Electric Force, Magnetic
Force and Weak force.
• Four types of fundamental forces govern the
physical universe. They are gravitational force,
electromagnetic force, nuclear force and weak
force.
The forces on mass and charge in uniform
gravitational and electric fields.
 Field
• In Physics, a field refers to a region of space within
which a force is experienced.
• There are several different types of forces that act on
different types of “objects”. For all these types of
forces, Newton’s laws of motion still apply.
• A gravitational field due to a mass is a region of space
within which a gravitational force is experienced by
another mass. An electric field due a charge is a region
of space within which an electric force is experienced
by another charge. A magnetic field is a region of space
within which a magnetic force is experienced by a
moving charge.
The origin of the upthrust acting
on a body in a fluid
Upthrust acting on a body in a fluid
• A fluid will exert a force upward on a body if it
is partly or wholly submerged within it. This is
because the deeper into a fluid you go, the
greater the weight of it and so the greater the
pressure.
• This difference in pressure between the top
and the bottom of the object produces an
upward force on it. This is called Upthrust.
Using the equation p = ρgh
Sample Problem
Frictional forces and Viscous forces
Frictional Forces
Frictional Forces (Continued)
 Static Friction & Kinetic Friction
• There are two forms of friction, kinetic
and static.
• If you try to slide two objects past each
other, a small amount of force will result
in no motion. The force of friction is
greater than the applied force. This is
static friction.
• If you apply a little more force, the
object "breaks free" and slides, although
you still need to apply force to keep the
object sliding. This is kinetic friction. You
do not need to apply quite as much
force to keep the object sliding as you
needed to originally break free of static
friction.
Viscous Force
Using a vector triangle to represent
forces in Equilibrium
 Centre of Gravity

The weight of an object may be taken as

acting at one point known as the centre of
gravity.
You could think of that point as the position
where all the mass of the object could be
thought to be concentrated.
 A couple
• In physics, couple is a pair of equal parallel forces that
are opposite in direction. Couples produce or prevent
the turning of a body.

• The forces used to turn the steering wheel of a car

constitute a couple; each hand exerts a force, parallel
but opposite in direction, yet they work together to
achieve the same goal.

• It tends to produce rotation only. There is no linear

change in motion due to net/resultant force being zero.
The pair of forces is non-concurrent. (i.e. their lines of
actions do not pass through the a single common
point)
 The moment of a Force

• The moment of a force about a

pivot is the product of that force
and the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the
force and the pivot.
Moment of a force (calculation)

• The moment of a force can be worked out using

the formula:
• Moment = force applied × perpendicular
distance from the pivot.
• If the magnitude of the force is F Newtons and
the perpendicular distance is d metres then:

Moment = Fd
 The Torque of a couple
• When a driver turns a steering wheel, he exerts
two equal but opposite forces on it. The two
forces form a couple. The turning effect of a
couple is the sum of moment of the two forces.
The moment of a couple is called a torque.

• The torque of a couple is the

product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between their lines of action.
In other words, Torque is…
• Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an
object causes that object to rotate.

• The object rotates about an axis,

which we will call the pivot point, and will label 'O'.
• We will call the force 'F'. The distance from the pivot point
to the point where the force acts is called the moment arm,
and is denoted by 'r'. Note that this distance, 'r', is also a
vector, and points from the axis of rotation to the point
where the force acts. (Refer to Figure for a pictorial
representation of these definitions.)
 Calculation of Torque
• Torque is calculated using the equation
T = r x F = r F sinθ.

• In other words, torque is the cross product between

the distance vector (the distance from the pivot point
to the point where force is applied) and the force
vector, 'a' being the angle between r and F.
• Using the right hand rule, we can find the direction of
the torque vector. If we put our fingers in the direction
of r, and curl them to the direction of F, then the
thumb points in the direction of the torque vector.
When there is no resultant force
and no resultant torque, a
system is in equilibrium
 A system is in equilibrium
• The state of a body or physical system that is
at rest or in constant and unchanging motion.
• If a system is in static equilibrium, there are
no net forces and no net torque in the
system.
• If a system is in stable equilibrium, small
disturbances to the system cause only a
temporary change before it returns to its
original state.
 Principle of moments
State the Principle of Moments
If a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise
moments is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise
moments.
Principle of moments for a body in equilibrium
An object is in equilibrium if the sum of all
anticlockwise moments about the pivot is equal to the
sum of all clockwise moments about the same pivot.

All anti-clockwise moments can be taken to be positive

and clockwise moments to be negative or vice versa.
Density and Pressure
Derive from the definitions of pressure and density, the equation
p = ρgh
 Sample problem 1
• Calculate the pressure on an inspection harch 7m diameter
located on the bottom of a tank when it is filled with oil of
density 875 Kgm⁻³ to a depth of 7 metres.
Solution

The Pressure at the bottom of the tank is given by p = ρgh

ρ = 875 Kgm⁻³ , h = 7m, g = 9.8ms⁻²
p = ρgh
= 875 x 9.8 x 7
= 60.086 kPa
Newtonian Mechanics
Work, Energy and Power

Marline Kurishingal
Energy possessed by a body is the capacity of
the body to do work.
State the principle of conservation of energy.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but can be converted from one form to
another (or others).
The total amount of energy in any closed
system is constant.
Energy and work are both scalar quantities,
and have the unit Joule.
Work in terms of the product of a force and displacement in the
direction of the force
 Define Work

In cases, where no angle is given, you may use the equation

W = Fs
Unit of Work
Work done by a constant force
Sample problem - 1
Sample problem 2 - Solve it!
Sample problem 3 – Solve it!
Sample problem 4 – Solve it !
Example 5 – Solve it !
Example 6 – Solve it !

• How much work is done by a person who uses

a force of 27.5N to move a trolley 12.3m?

W = F x d = (27.5N) (12.3m)
= 338.25J
Special case
Try to solve it !
Derive from Equations of motion (KE)
Derive from Equations of motion (KE)
Sample problem 1 – Solve it !
 Energy in different forms, its
conversion and conservation,
and apply the principle of energy
conservation to simple examples
Gravitational potential energy, Electric potential energy
and Elastic potential energy
Give EXAMPLES of energy in
different forms and its
conversion
 Check your understanding!

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=end
screen&NR=1&v=tdl8wnQOkjM

• http://science.howstuffworks.com/engineerin
g/structural/roller-coaster3.htm
More Examples of Energy conversion
 Internal Energy
• Matter consists of atoms and molecules and these are
made up of particles having kinetic energy and
Potential energy.

• We can define the Internal energy of a system as the

sum of the kinetic energy of all its constituent particles
plus the sum of all the potential energy of interaction
among these particles in the system.

Note : The internal energy does not include potential

energy arising out of interaction between the system
and it surroundings.
The implications of energy losses in practical devices and
use the concept of efficiency to solve problems
Sample Problem
Derive, from the defining equation W = Fs, the formula Ep = mgh for
the potential energy changes near the Earth’s surface
 Sample problem

• Figure shows a dam with

storage of water. The
outlet of the dam is 20 m
below the surface of the
water in the reservoir.
Water leaving the dam is
moving at 16m/s.
Calculate the % of G.P.E
that is lost when
converted into K.E.
Solution
 Define power as work done per unit time and
derive power as the product of force and velocity.
Sample problem 1
Sample problem 2 – Solve it!

Solution on next slide

Solutions for the question in previous slide
 Relationship between force and
potential energy in a uniform field
Sample problem – Solve it!
 Matter
Deformation of Solids

Marline Kurishingal
 Deformation of Solids
Definitions:
• Stress: is a measure of the force required to cause a
particular deformation.
• Strain: is a measure of the degree of deformation.
• Elastic Modulus: the ratio of stress to strain
Elastic Modulus =

The elastic modulus determines the amount of force

required per unit deformation. A material with large
elastic modulus is difficult to deform, while one with
small elastic modulus is easier to deform.
Deformation of Solids : Changes in Length

Changes in Length
To stretch or compress something you must
exert a force on it at either end.

Tensile Stress is the force per unit cross-

sectional area exerted on the ends.
(Note the surface whose area we wish to measure is perpendicular to the
force.)
Changes in Length (continued)
• Tensile Strain is the fractional
Tensile Stress change in original length.
• Young's Modulus ( Y ) is the
ratio of tensile stress to tensile
strain:

Y= = =

where F is the applied force, LO is

the original length of the
object, A is the cross-sectional
area of the object, and ∆L is the
change in the length of the
object. Notice that Y has S.I. units
of N/m 2.
 Hooke’s Law
 Hooke’s Law states that, for relatively
small deformations of an object, the
displacement of the deformation is directly
proportional to the deforming force or load.

 Forces can cause objects to deform.

 The way in which an object deforms depends on

its dimensions, the material it is made of, the size
of the force and direction of the force.
If you measure how a spring stretches (extends its length) as you
apply increasing force and plot extension (e) against force (F);
P – proportionality limit
Calculating stress

• Stress
 Stress is a measure of how strong a material is. This is defined
as how much force the material can stand without undergoing
some sort of physical change.
 Hence, the formula for calculating stress is the same as the
formula for calculating pressure:

 where σ is stress (in Newtons per square metre but usually

Pascals, commonly abbreviated Pa).
Calculating strain

Stress causes strain.

• Applying force on an object causes it to stretch. Strain is
a measure of how much an object is being stretched.
Strain is the ratio of extension to the original length.

• The formula for strain is:

• Where is the original length of some bar being
stretched, and l is its length after it has been stretched. Δl
is the extension of the bar, the difference between these
two lengths.
 Calculating Young's Modulus

• Young's Modulus is a measure of the stiffness

of a material. It is defined as the ratio of stress
to strain. It states how much a material will
stretch (i.e., how much strain it will undergo)
as a result of a given amount of stress.
• The formula for calculating it is:

• Strain is unit less so Young's Modulus has the same units

as stress, i.e. N/m² or Pa.
 Tensile strength & Yield strength

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength which is also known as Ultimate tensile
strength or ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a
material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before
failing or breaking. Tensile strength is the opposite
of compressive strength and the values can be quite different.

Yield Stress or Yield strength or Yield point

The yield stress is the level of stress at which a material will
deform permanently. This is also known as Yield strength or
Yield point. Prior to the yield point the material will
deform elastically and will return to its original shape when
the applied stress is removed.
It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-
strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample
of the material.
• The value of the Young's Modulus is quoted for various
materials but the value is only approximate.
• This is because Young's Modulus can vary considerably
depending on the exact composition of the material.
• For example, the value for most metals can vary by 5%
or more, depending on the precise composition of the
alloy and any heat treatment applied during
manufacture.
• If a big force only produces a small extension then the
material is 'stiff' and E is a big value. If a force produces
a big extension then the material is not very stiff - it is
easier to stretch and the value of E will be smaller.
An experiment to measure the Young's Modulus
An experiment to measure the Young's Modulus
(continued)
• To minimize errors the control wire is the same length, diameter
and material as the test wire. This means that errors due to
expansion (from the surroundings) during the experiment are
avoided as the test wire and control wire would both expand by the
same amount and the scale would adjust position and eliminate the
error.
• The wire must have no kinks in it otherwise there will be big
extensions due to the wire straightening out rather than just
stretching.
• Care must be taken that the limit of proportionality is not
exceeded. This can be checked by removing the load after each
addition of the weight. If the limit has not been exceeded the wire
should return to the length it was before the weight was added.
• The wire is as long as possible (usually about 2m long) and it is
as thin as possible so that as big an extension as possible can be
recorded. (A typical extension for a 5N loading will be 1mm).
An experiment to measure the Young's Modulus
(continued)
• The test wire is loaded with the weight hanger so
that it is taut before readings are taken.
• The vernier scale is read and the result recorded as
addition of 0N.
• Weights - usually starting at 0N and increasing in 5N
increments to 100N - are then added and a reading
of the vernier scale is taken at each addition.
• The experiment should be repeated twice and any
anomalous results repeated and checked.
An experiment to measure the Young's Modulus
(continued)
• A graph of load against
extension is plotted. It
should be a straight line
through the origin
(provided measurements
are accurate).
• The gradient of that graph
will be F/e. Using that
value we can find the
value of Young's Modulus
for the wire. l/A X Gradient
 Proportionality limit and Yield strength
• Proportionality limit and Elastic limit
Maximum amount a material can be stretched by a force and still
(or may) return to its original shape depends on the material.

• Yield point or Yield strength

The point where there is a large permanent change in length with
no extra load force.
yield point :- interface between elasticity and plasticity

 Elastic limit - up to which material can sustain the load and return
back to its original position.
 Although these two points are so close to each other it can be
treated as one, on a case to case basis.
 It depends upon material whether it's brittle or ductile.
 Explaining Graph in the previous slide.....

• The stretching behavior is summarized in a stress-strain graph in the

previous slide. As the stress is increased initially Hooke's Law is
obeyed - the stress-strain relationship for the wire is linear & elastic.
• Just before the plastic region is reached we get the limit of
proportionality - beyond this for a small section we see non-linear
behaviour but the stretching is still elastic.
• After the yield strength, the material enters the plastic deformation
region, which means that the stretch of the wire is permanent. (For
example, if the wire is stressed to point A on the graph and the stress
is slowly decreased, the stress-strain curve follows the dotted line
instead of the original curve to point B and there is a permanent
extention when all stress is removed.) At the facture point the wire
snaps.
• Differences in the shape and limits of the stress-strain diagram
determines whether a material is considered ductile or brittle, elastic
or plastic.
Polymeric materials
Strength, Ductility & Toughness
High Yield strength & Low yield strength
 Energy in deformations
• Whenever we apply force to an object, it will
cause deformation. If the deformation caused is
within the elastic limit, the work done in
deforming the object is stored within it as
potential energy. We call this (elastic) 'strain
energy'. It can be released from the object by
removing the applied force.

• The strain energy then performs work in un-

deforming the object and returns to its original
state.
Force-extension graphs for typical
ductile, brittle and polymeric
materials, including an
understanding of ultimate
tensile stress.
Oscillations & Waves
Waves

Marline Kurishingal
Introducing Waves
• Waves carry energy.
 For Example, during an earthquake, the seismic waves
produced can cause great damage to buildings and the
surroundings.
• What is a wave?
 Wave is a method of propagation of energy.
For example, when we drop a pebble into a pond of still
water, a few circular ripples move outwards, on the
surface of the water. As these circular ripples spread
out, energy is being carried with them.
 Sources of Waves
• The source of any wave is a
vibration or oscillation.
• For example, the forming of
the slinky waves as shown.
 Wave motion provides a
mechanism for the transfer
of energy from one point to
another without the physical
transfer of the medium
between the two points.
 Two Types of Waves
• Transverse Wave
Rope waves, Water waves,
Light waves, Radio waves,
Electromagnetic waves.
• Longitudinal Wave
Sound waves and waves
produced in a vertical
oscillating spring under
tension.
 Transverse Waves

• Transverse waves
propagate in a
direction
perpendicular to the
direction of vibration.
 Longitudinal Waves
• Longitudinal waves
propagate in a direction
parallel to the direction
of vibration.
 Reference link for
Demonstration of waves

http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos/waves
/wavemotion.html
Describing Waves

The value of the maximum displacement from the rest of central position
in either direction.
Describing Waves
Describing Waves
Describing Waves

that are in
Describing Waves
Describing Waves – Phase difference
Describing Waves – Phase difference

Where φ is phase
difference, x is distance,
λ is the wavelength.
 The wave equation and principle

 Speed = distance/time
 Wavelength is the distance moved by the wave in one cycle i.e
distance
 Time = period = 1/frequency
 So speed = wavelength/period

Speed = wavelength x frequency, i.e v=λf

17
The Wave Equation
Example 4
Ripple Tank (Wave production)
 Energy is transferred by a progressive wave
Wave Motion
• There are also two other ways to classify waves - by
their motion. A wave in which energy is transferred
from one place to another as a result of its motion is
called a progressive wave.

• For example : An ultraviolet light wave, which transfers

energy from the sun to the skin of people lying on the
beach, for instance, is a progressive wave. In general,
waves that move from one point to another transfer
some kind of energy.
• In a progressive wave, the shape of the wave itself, is
what is transferred, not the actual components of the
medium.
 Look at this animated example
• http://library.thinkquest.org/15433/unit5/5-3.htm

• This animation of a dog on a leash shows a progressive wave

transferring energy from the boy to the dog, which end up
getting flipped through the air.
Continued
Intensity of the Wave
 Analyse and interpret graphical representations of
transverse and longitudinal waves.

• In a wave, there are two directions of

motions:
 direction of propagation of energy (which is the
direction of motion of the wave)

 direction of oscillation of the particles in the

wave.
Graphs representing waves
G
D
 Reference : * This is a very useful video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pYE8UHcL_gU
The frequency of sound using a calibrated CRO
(This topic was done in Second chapter : Measurement & Techniques)
 Sample problem
(This topic was done in Second chapter : Measurement & Techniques)
The wavelength of sound using stationary waves

• This topic would be studied in detail in next

chapter ‘Superposition’.
• Please refer to notes on Stationary Waves in
the topic Superposition.
POLARISATION
 Electromagnetic Wave : Electric Field & Magnetic Field

 A light wave is an electromagnetic wave that travels

through the vacuum of outer space.
 Electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave that has
both an electric and a magnetic component.
 Electromagnetic Wave : Electric Field & Magnetic Field

 A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is referred

to as unpolarized light.
 Light emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom or by a
candle flame are examples of unpolarized light.
 Such light waves are created by electric charges and vibrate in a
variety of directions.
 Polarization is a phenomenon associated
with transverse waves
• Process by which a wave’s oscillations are made to occur in
one plane only.
• Associated with transverse waves only.
Note : Here, Polarization of light is analogous
to that shown in the diagrams.
 Show an understanding that
Polarisation is a phenomenon
associated
with transverse waves

Reference link :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e
8aYoLj2rO8
 Polarization by Use of a Polaroid Filter
• The most common method of polarization involves the use of
a Polaroid filter.
• Polaroid filters are made of a special material that is capable of
blocking one of the two planes of vibration of an electromagnetic
wave.
• In this sense, a Polaroid serves as a device that filters out one-half
of the vibrations upon transmission of the light through the filter.
When unpolarized light is transmitted through a Polaroid filter, it
emerges with one-half the intensity and with vibrations in a single
plane; it emerges as polarized light.
A longitudinal waves cannot be
Polarised. Why?
 Applications of Polarizations
1) Polaroid sunglasses
– The glare from reflecting surfaces can be diminished
with the use of Polaroid sunglasses.
– The polarization axes of the lens are vertical, as
most glare reflects from horizontal surfaces.
 Applications of Polarizations
2) Polarization is also used in the entertainment industry to produce and
show 3-D movies.

Reference link : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qIKzPgo2rNw

HOW 3D WORKS (not in syllabus, just for your information only)

 Three-dimensional movies are actually two movies being shown at the
same time through two projectors.
 The two movies are filmed from two slightly different camera locations.
Each individual movie is then projected from different sides of the
audience onto a metal screen.
 The movies are projected through a polarizing filter. The polarizing filter
used for the projector on the left may have its polarization axis aligned
horizontally while the polarizing filter used for the projector on the right
would have its polarization axis aligned vertically.
 Consequently, there are two slightly different movies being projected
onto a screen. Each movie is cast by light that is polarized with an
orientation perpendicular to the other movie. The audience then wears
glasses that have two Polaroid filters. Each filter has a different
polarization axis - one is horizontal and the other is vertical. The result of
this arrangement of projectors and filters is that the left eye sees the
movie that is projected from the right projector while the right eye sees
the movie that is projected from the left projector. This gives the viewer
a perception of depth.
 QUESTION TIME !

Check your understanding on Polarization

 Question No.1

1. Suppose that light passes

through two Polaroid filters
whose polarization axes are
parallel to each other. What
would be the result?
 Answer - Question No.1
The first filter will polarize the light, blocking one-half of its
vibrations. The second filter will have no affect on the light.
Being aligned parallel to the first filter, the second filter will let
the same light waves through.
 Question No.2
2. Which of the following cannot be polarised?

A-infrared waves
B-microwaves
C-sound waves
D- ultraviolet waves
 Answer - Question No.2
• Answer: C – Sound waves
 Question No.3
3. Consider the three pairs of sunglasses below.
Identify the pair of glasses which is capable of
eliminating the glare resulting from sunlight
reflecting off the calm waters of a lake?
_________ Explain.
(The polarization axes are shown by the lines.)
 Answer - Question No.3
• Answer: A
• The glare is the result of a large concentration
of light aligned parallel to the water surface.
To block such plane-polarized light, a filter
with a vertically aligned polarization axis must
be used.
Oscillations & Waves
Superposition

Marline Kurishingal
 Recap....
• Refer Ripple tank experiment
Demonstration of Ripple tank experiment to
show wave properties.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
8a61G8Hvi0
 Constructive Interference
• Refer the figure on right with two
waves arriving at a point at the same
time in opposite directions.
• If they arrive in Phase – that is,
if their crests arrive at exactly the
same time – they will interfere constructively.

• A resultant wave will be produced which has crests much higher

than either of the two individual waves and troughs which are
much deeper.
• If the 2 incoming waves have the same frequency and equal
amplitude A, the resultant wave produced by constructive
interference has an amplitude of 2A.
• The frequency of the resultant is the same as that of incoming
waves.
 Destructive Interference
• Refer the figure on right with two
waves arriving at a point at the same
time.
• If they arrive out of Phase – that is,
if the crests of one wave arrive at
same time as the troughs from the other – they will interfere
destructively.

• A resultant wave will have a smaller amplitude. (based on case

to case)

• In the case shown in figure where the incoming waves have

equal amplitude, the resultant wave has zero amplitude.
 Interference and Superposition of Waves
• When two waves meet they
will interfere and superpose.
After they have passed they
return to their original forms.
This is true if they are coherent
or not.

• At the point they meet, the two waves will combine to give a
resultant wave whose amplitude (or intensity) may be greater
or less than the original two waves.

• The resultant displacement can be found by adding the two

displacements together. This phenomenon leads to
the Principle of Superposition.
 The principle of Superposition
• The Principle of Superposition states that
when two or more waves meet at a point, the
resultant displacement at that point is equal
to the sum of the displacements of the
individual waves at that point.

Note : Displacement is a vector, so remember to add the individual

displacements taking account of their directions.
Note : The transverse shown in above figure is for the demo of
cancellation of noise only. Remember, sound waves are to be
represented in longitudinal form.
 Stationary Wave
• A stationary wave is set up by the superposition
of two progressive waves of the same type,
amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite
directions.

• A stationary (or standing) wave is one in which

some points are permanently at rest (nodes),
others between these nodes are vibrating with
varying amplitude, and those points with the
maximum amplitude (antinodes) are midway
between the nodes.
This is not in Syllabus, this is included here for your understanding
on stationary waves

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BoeATJk7dg
 Uses and application of Melde's experiment
(for your information only)
• Melde's experiment teaches us creation of standing
waves.
• One can create a great product of neutralising the
sounds by creating sounds with same wave length and
frequency as the source.

• For example : If we know exactly the frequency of any

machine ( say an aeroplane flying over your building
every day during take off and landing) and if we can
measure the wave length of sounds that machine
creates..create a product that can create similar waves
in opposite direction, so that they undergo mechanical
interference and the machine sound is neutralised.
Note : In A level Physics syllabus, this part
appears in previous chapter ‘waves’.
Continued in next slide
Sample problem 1
Sample problem 2
Sample problem 3
Sample problem 4
Sample problem 5
The formation of a stationary
wave using a graphical method
Nodes and Antinodes
Sample problem 6

Y
 Diffraction
 Diffraction is the
spreading of waves
through an aperture or
round an obstacle.
 It is observable when
the width of the
aperture is of the same
order of magnitude as
the wavelength of the
waves.
 Diffraction (continued)
• The extent of the diffraction
effect is dependent on the
relative sizes of the aperture
to the wavelength of the wave.

• The smaller the size of the aperture, the greater

the spreading of the waves (if the width of the
aperture is about the same size as the wavelength, λ, the
diffraction effect is very considerable).

• Size of the aperture refers to the width of the slit or gap.

 Experiments which demonstrate
diffraction including the diffraction
of water waves in a ripple tank with
both a wide gap and a narrow gap

Note : Huygens’ explanation of

Diffraction is not mentioned in syllabus.
Generally, the bigger the wavelength in relation to the width of
the aperture, the greater is the spreading or diffraction of the
waves.
• The diagrams below show the plan view of diffraction of plane water
waves through gaps of different width, in a ripple tank. Note that the
wavelengths do not change after passing through the gap.

• It is the relative sizes of the aperture to the wavelength that is important.

• http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/diffract.htm
 Application of Diffraction
• The forms of jetties
are used for
directing currents
and they are
constructed
sometimes of high
or low solid
projections.
Note : Huygen’s explanation of diffraction is not
mentioned in syllabus
Interference
 Interference
 Interference is the superposing of two or more waves to give
a resultant wave whose displacement is given by the Principle
of Superposition.

 Watch Demo (Name is Double slit coherent wave interference patterns)

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNx70orCPnA
 Interference (continued)
• At regions of maxima,
constructive interference
occurs (i.e. the waves arrive
at these points in phase),
resulting in maxima
amplitude, hence high
intensity.

• At regions of minima,
destructive interference
occurs (i.e. the waves arrive
at these points in anti-phase),
resulting in minima or zero
amplitude, hence low or zero
intensity.
Experiments that demonstrate
Two-source Interference
Reference :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UkkKM1IkKg
Conditions required for two-source interference fringes
to be observed
 Just for your understanding only : (not in syllabus)
What is the meaning of 'a constant phase difference’ between two
coherent waves' ?

 The primary source of light is transition of electrons. This happens

for every source be it the fluorescent tubes or the sun .
 As an electron jumps to its higher level it reaches an unstable
excited state. It stays there for about
10 ns and comes back to the ground state. Thus every 10ns a new
stream of light is produced.
 If we have two sources of light then the phase difference between
any two waves would be random. In fact it would change every
10ns or so. This is why we don't find interference in practical life.

 To have a constant phase difference between two waves (i.e. to be

coherent.) the waves should be from a common source, so that
there is no ab-nitio phase difference to get a constant phase
difference and two waves (from the same source) can be made to
have some path difference.
 Note : As per syllabus, you need to have an
understanding of young’s double slit experiment, but
you don’t have to prove/derive the equation.
 Check your understanding!
• Do headlights from a car form interference
patterns? Why?
 The interference would be ‘visible’ if the two sources are oscillating
in phase or have a constant phase difference. This is why a single
light source (as in young’s double slit experiment) is split to produce
two which are then coherent.

 In addition the separation of the headlamps is so large that any

interference fringes would be too close together to be easily
measurable, and the path difference between waves would render
them no longer coherent.

 Note that, because the wavelength of light is so small (of the order
of 10¯⁷m) to produce observable fringes ‘D’ needs to be large and
‘a’ as small as possible. (This is one of the application of equation of young’s double
slit experiment)
Sample problem 7
Sample problem 8
Sample problem 9
 Use of a diffraction grating
to determine the wavelength of light
• A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large
number of identical, parallel, very closely spaced slits.

• If a monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of

narrow bright fringes is produced.
 How a Diffraction Grating Works

When you look at a diffracted light

you see:
– the light straight ahead as if
the grating were transparent.
– a "central bright spot".
– the interference of all other
light waves from many
different grooves produces a
scattered pattern called a
spectrum.
 Application of Diffraction Grating

• A diffraction
grating can be
used to make a
spectrometer and
a spectrometer is a
device that
measures the
wavelength of
light.
The equation : d sin θ = nλ
The equation : d sin θ = nλ
(continued from previous slide)
Sample problem 10
Electricity & Magnetism
Electric Fields

Marline Kurishingal
 Electric Fields
• Electric charges exert forces on each other
when they are a distance apart. The word
‘Electric field’ is used to explain this action at a
distance.
• An Electric field is defined as the region of
space where a stationary charge experiences
force.
 The direction of Electric Fields
• The direction of electric field is defined as the direction in
which a positive charge would move if it were free to do so.
So the lines of force can be drawn with arrows that go from
positive to negative.
• Electric field lines are also called force lines.
• The field lines are originated from the positive charge and
they end up at the negative charge.

Positive Charge Electric Field Negative Charge Electric Field

(animated demo) (animated demo)
Remember, for any ELECTRIC FIELD.....

 The lines of force starts

on a positive charge and
end on a negative charge.
 The lines of force never
touch or cross.
 The strength of the
electric field is indicated
by the closeness of the
lines; means the closer
they are, the stronger the
field.
 Electric Field Strength
• Electric field strength at a point is defined as
the force per unit charge acting on a small
positive charge placed at that point.
• If a force experienced by a positive charge +Q
placed in the field is F, then the field strength,
F
E is given by E  Q

Note : Remember, the symbol E is also used for ‘energy’.

 Unit of Electric Field Strength
• The unit of Electric field strength for the
F
equation E 
Q is given by N C⁻¹

where force is measured in Newtons and

charge in Coulombs.

Note : Remember, later we shall see that there is another

common SI unit for electric field strength, Vm⁻¹ . However the
2 units are equivalent.
 The field strength (E) of the uniform field
between charged parallel plates in terms of
potential difference (V) and separation (d)

Positive Charge Q

F
The field strength of the uniform field between charged parallel plates in terms
of potential difference and separation.

The figure illustrates parallel plates at a distance

d apart with a potential difference V between
them.
A charge +Q in the uniform field
between the plates has a force F
acting on it.
To move the charge towards the positive plate
would require work to be done on the charge.
Continued from previous slide…

Work done is given by the product of force and

distance.
To move the charge from one
plate to other requires work W
and is given by W = Fd,
where F is force and d is the distance.
Now lets see what is potential difference.
(see next slide)
Continued from previous slide…
So what is potential difference?
 If the electric field is NOT UNIFORM, it is not so simple to calculate
the energy change due to moving a charge in the field.

 It is therefore useful to define a quantity which describes the work

done in moving unit charge from one point in the field to another
point. We call this quantity the POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE between the
two points and is given by V  W
Q

• V is the symbol for potential difference, which has units of JOULES

PER COULOMB, (JC-1). As this is an important quantity, it is given its
own unit, the VOLT, (V).

• "One volt is the potential difference between two points in an

electric field such that one joule of work is done in moving one
coulomb of charge from one point to another."
Continued from previous slide…

By rearranging equation on potential

difference, work done W = VQ
 Thus W = Fd = VQ
 F V
Q d

F
But is the force per unit charge and this is
Q

the definition of electric field strength.

Thus, for a uniform field, the field strength E is
V
given by E =
d
Continued from previous slide…

For parallel plates separated by a distance d, with a

potential difference V, the uniform electric field
within the plates has strength:
V
E
d

We sometimes use an alternate unit for E.

Voltage
E
distance
Volts

metre
 Vm 1
Calculate the forces on charges in uniform
electric fields.
F V

Q d

V V
E  ,E 
d d
Sample problem 1 : Calculate E

Two parallel plates separated by 0.1m have a

potential difference ΔV = 100V. What is the Electric
Field strength between the plates?

V
E
d
100V

0.1m
 1000Vm 1
 Sample problem 2 : Calculate E and F
• Two metal plates 5.0cm apart have a potential
difference of 1000 V between them. Calculate :
(a) The strength of the electric field between plates.
(b) The force on a charge of 5.0 nC between the plates.

Solution :
V 1000
(a) E = , E = 0.05
= 2.0 x 10⁴ Vm⁻¹
d

(b) F = EQ, F = 2.0 x 10⁴ x 5.0 x 10⁻⁹ = 1.0 x 10⁻⁴ N

 The effect of a uniform
electric field on the motion of
charged particles
 Energy Changes in Electric Fields
Consider the movement of a charge in a uniform electric field ;

To lift a charge towards the top (positive) plate we

exert an external force;
Therefore, Work Done by external Force is :

A
B W = Fext x d
= EQ. d (since F = EQ)

= V xQxd (since E =
V )
10 m
d d

q = +2 C q = +4 C W = QV
E = 10 N C-1
Sample problem 3 : Calculate the Work done

The work done on each charges are :

B
A

E = 10 N C-1 10 m

q = +2 C q = +4 C

w  QEd w  QEd
 2 10 10  4 10 10
 200 J  400 J
 Sample problem 3 : Calculate V

We define the Work done (in moving charge from one

position to another) per unit charge as the change in
potential or potential difference, V.
W
V
q

Taking the data of W from previous sample problem,

calculate V.

+2C Charge, +4C Charge,

200 J 400 J
V V
2C 4C
 100 JC 1  100 JC 1
 Electron Volt

Work done when a charge of one electron moves through a

potential difference of 1 V is one electron volt (e.V).
The equivalent energy is:
Since W = QV
Q = 1.6 x 10-19C, and 1 V = 1 J C-1

hence 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19C x 1 J C-1

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
 Motion in an Electric Field
Find the velocity using Equations of Motion
(with sample problem)

Consider a positive charge placed in a uniform electric field,

as shown in the diagram below.

Electric Field
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
1000V

+
q=10μC
0.1m
FE m=0.1g
0V
- - - - - - - - - - - -

Find the velocity of the charge after it has travelled a distance of

5 cm. Use the following information:
 Motion in an Electric Field
Find the velocity using Equations of Motion
(with sample problem)
(continued from previous slide)

Electric Field
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
1000V

+
Q=10μC
V 0.1m
E m=0.1g
d
0V
1000
  1 10 4 Vm 1 - - - - - - - - - - - -

0 .1
 1 10 4 NC 1
F
F  QE a
m
 10  10 6  1 10 4 10 1
  4  103 ms  2
 10 1 N 10
 Motion in an Electric Field
Find the velocity using Equations of Motion
(with sample problem)
(continued from previous slide)

Can use the equations of motion to determine the speed of

particle after travelling for 5cm.

v1  0ms 1 d  0.05m a  103 ms 2 v2  ?

v 22  v12  2as
v22  2as (v1  0ms 1 )
v2  2as
v2  2 103  0.05
v2  10ms 1 towards the -' ve plate
 Motion in an Electric Field
Find the velocity using Change in K.E
(with sample problem)

Can also determine the velocity by using the change in kinetic

energy of the particle.
Electric Field
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

1000 V

A
V
E 0.05 m
Q=10μC
d 0.1 m
m=0.1g
 10000Vm 1 B

0V
- - - - - - - - - - - -
 Motion in an Electric Field
Find the velocity using Change in K.E
(with sample problem)
(Continued )

Electric Field
To find the potential difference + + + + + + + + + + + +
1000 V

between A and B, rearrange the A

0.05 m
equation, 0.1 m
B

V
E
0V
- - - - - - - - - - - -
s
Q=10μC
 V  Es
1 m=0.1g
 V  10000Vm  0.05m
 V  500V
 Motion in an Electric Field
Find the velocity using Change in K.E
(with sample problem)
(Continued )

Now calculate the kinetic energy at point B. If the charge is

released at rest, Electric Field
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
1000 V
K.E at B (Gain in K.E) = P.E lost
A Q=10μC
1
2 mv 2
 qV 0.1 m
0.05 m
m=0.1g
B
2qV
v  - - - - - - - - - - - -
0V


 
2  10 10 6  500
10  4
 10ms 1 towards the -' ve plate
 Motion in an Electric Field
Find the K.E from the work done
(with sample problem, data from previous slide)

The work done by the field on the charge can be calculated

easily because it is equal to the gain in kinetic energy by the
charge.

EK  W  qV Electric Field

+ + + + + + + + + + + +
1000 V
5
 10  500 A
0.05 m
Q=10μC
 5 10 3 0.1 m
B m=0.1g
 5mJ - - - - - - - - - - - -
0V
 For a charge that enters the Electric Field...

Straight line parabola

+q Straight line

Horizontal Component of the velocity (H component)

vh  v1h  v2 h horizontal velocity is constant

L L
vh  so t 
t vh
a0 as v  0
For a charge that enters the Electric Field...
(continued from previous slide)

Vertical Component of the velocity (v

component)
F QE
As it is initially travelling horizontally,
Now av  
m m
vy1 = 0 m/s
Where vy1 is initial vertical velocity And , v y2  at v = u + at
and vy2 is final vertical velocity
QE L
 S = ut + ½ at
m vx
2
L
So, s v  2 av  
1

 vx 
Straight parabol
line a
+ Straight
2
q line L
 s v  1 2 a v 2
vx
The direction of the force in an electric field

Electric Field
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

Direction of F on +

Direction of F on -

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The direction of the force depends on the charge

on the particle.
Assumptions
(just for your info only)

Assumptions
- ignore fringe effects (ie. assume that the field is completely uniform)

- ignore gravity (the acceleration due to gravity is insignificant compared with

the acceleration caused by the electric field).

> For a charge that enters the field :

-Before entering electric field, the charge follows a straight line path
(no net force)

-As soon as it enters the field, the charge begins to follow a parabolic
path (constant force always in the same direction)

- As soon as it leaves the field, the charge follows a straight line

path (no net force)
Electricity & Magnetism
Current of Electricity

Marline Kurishingal
Recap......
 Types of electricity
• Current Electricity: Net flow of charges in a certain direction
• Static Electricity: No net flow of charges in a certain direction

 Matter can be classified into 3 types according to their electrical

properties:

• Conductors – Materials which have mobile charge carriers, mainly

electrons and ions which will drift to constitute an electric current under
the effect of an applied electric field. Hence they can conduct electricity.
Examples include metals and electrolyte solutions.
• Insulators – Materials which have no mobile charge carriers that can drift
under the effect of an applied electric field. Hence they cannot conduct
electricity. Examples include rubber, wood and plastic.
• Semiconductors – Materials which have intermediate electrical
conductivity which vary substantially with temperature. Examples include
Germanium, Silicon.
Show an understanding that electric current is the rate
of flow of charged particles.

• All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms,

each consisting of a positively charged nucleus with
negatively charged electrons moving around it.
• Charge is measured in units called coulombs (C). The
charge on an electron is -1.6 x 10⁻¹⁹ C.
• Normally atoms have equal number of positive and
negative charges, so that their overall charge is zero.
• For some atoms, it is relatively easy to remove an
electron, leaving an atom with an unbalanced
number of positive charges. This is called positive
ion.
Show an understanding that electric current is the rate of flow
of charged particles. (continued from previous slide)

• Atoms in metals have one or more electrons which

are not held tightly to the nucleus.
• These free (or mobile) electrons wander at random
throughout the metal.
• But when a battery (or source) is connected across
the ends of the metal, the free electrons drift
towards the positive terminal of the battery (or
source) producing an electric current.
Show an understanding that electric current is the rate of flow
of charged particles. (continued from previous slide)

• The size of the electric current is given by the rate of

flow of charge and is measured in units called
amperes with symbol A.
• A current of 3 amperes means that 3 coulombs pass
a point in the circuit every second. In 5 seconds, a
total charge of 15 coulombs will have passed the
point.
Charge is quantised
 Electric current
• Electric current is the rate of flow of electric
charge.
Q
• Mathematically, I = t where
I is the electric current (unit: ampere, symbol:
A);
Q is the electric charge (unit: coulomb,
symbol: C);
t is the time taken (unit: second, symbol: s)
 Charge & Coulomb
• From the definition of electric current I= Q we obtain,
t
Q = It.
• Electric charge flowing through a section of a circuit is
the product of the electric current and the time that it
flows.

 Q = It, substituting in units we obtain the following :

 1 C = (1 A) (1 s) = 1 A s
 One coulomb is the quantity of electric charge that
passes through a section of a circuit when a steady
current of one ampere flows for one second.
Solve problems using the equation Q = It
Solve problems using the equation Q = It
 Resistance and Ohm
Ohm's Law states that the current through the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between its ends provided its
temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.
Solve problems using
P = VI, P = I²R, V= IR
Resistance & Resistivity
 Resistivity
• Resistivity is defined as the electrical property
of a material that determines the resistance of
a piece of given dimensions.

RA
• It is equal to ρ =l where R is the
resistance, A the cross-sectional area,
and l the length, and is the reciprocal of
conductivity. It is measured in ohm
metres. It is denoted by the symbol ρ.
 L
Solve problems using R = A
 Potential difference and Volt
• Defining p.d in terms of energy:
 The potential difference between two points in a
circuit is defined as the electrical energy
converted to other forms of energy per unit
charge passing between the two points.

• Alternatively, defining p.d in terms of power:

 The p.d. between two points in a circuit is defined
as the rate of conversion of electrical energy to
other forms of energy per unit current flowing
between the two points.
Potential difference and Volt (continued)
Potential difference and Volt (continued)
Potential difference and Volt (continued)

Just for your info : The real Earth is electrically neutral.

This means that it has the same number of electrons and
protons, so their charges cancel out overall. Scientifically,
we describe this by saying that the Earth has an Electric
Potential of zero.
 W
Solve problems using V =Q
 Sketch and explain
the I-V characteristics
of
a metallic conductor at constant temperature,
a semiconductor diode
and
a filament lamp.
Sketch and explain the I-V characteristics of a metallic conductor at
constant temperature
Sketch and explain the I-V characteristics of a semiconductor diode
Sketch and explain the I-V characteristics of a filament lamp.
The temperature characteristic of a thermistor
E.M.F in terms of the energy transferred by a source in driving
unit charge round a complete circuit
E.M.F in terms of the energy transferred by a source in driving
unit charge round a complete circuit
(continued from previous slide)
 Distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d.
in terms of energy considerations

• The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source is

defined using the non-electrical energy
converted to electrical energy while the
potential difference (p.d.) between two points
is defined using electrical energy converted to
non-electrical energy.
 The effects of the internal resistance of
a source of e.m.f. on the terminal potential difference and output power.

• In practice, no energy source (battery or generator) is

perfect.
• Some of the electrical energy delivered by a source is
always dissipated within itself.

• The source is said to have internal resistance. When

the external load is large, the internal resistance has
negligible effect.
• When the external load is not large, the internal
resistance can be depicted as a series resistor within
the source as shown in the diagram in next slide.
 The effects of the internal resistance of
a source of e.m.f. on the terminal potential difference and output power.
(continued from previous slide)

E=V
VxI=P
 The effects of the internal resistance of
a source of e.m.f. on the terminal potential difference and output power.
(continued from previous slide)

V = E - Ir

I in the above
equation
becomes Zero
 Show an understanding of the effects of the internal resistance of
a source of e.m.f. on the terminal potential difference and output power.
Electricity & Magnetism
D.C. Circuits

Marline Kurishingal
 Recap........

Note : This chapter includes only

D.C. In AS syllabus A.C is not
included.
Electrical Circuit Symbols

:
 Draw and interpret circuit diagrams
containing sources, switches,
resistors, ammeters, voltmeters,
and/or any other type of component
R1

R2
 COMBINATION OF
RESISTORS- RESISTANCE
IN
SERIES AND PARALLEL
 Resistors connected in Series

Continued in next slide...

Resistors connected in Series
(continued from previous slide)

V3
 Resistors connected in Parallel

Continued in next slide...

 Resistors connected in Parallel
(continued from previous slide)

:
 Solve problems using the formula
for the combined resistance of two
or more resistors in series.
 Solve problems using the formula
for the combined resistance of two
or more resistors in parallel.
 Why the current is the same in all series resistances?
And why the voltage is the same in all parallel resistors?

1) In a series circuit of resistors, the same current flows

through all the resistors, however potential gets divided
according to individual resistance values. Because according
to Ohm's law V = I R, and here since I is same, and V is directly
proportional to R. Hence the potential will be different across
different resistors.
(Note : Theoretically, for resistors that have equal resistance, they have same V).

2) In the
: case of parallel combination of resistors, the same
potential will exist across every resistor, but now current gets
divided in the inverse ratio of resistance values. ( I = V / R ) this
is also in accordance with Ohm's law.
Recap........
cannot be
 Gustav Kirchhoff's
Junction Rule & Loop Rule
The Junction rule
And
The Loop rule
 Kirchhoff's First Law
• Kirchhoff's First Law: At any junction in a
circuit, the sum of the currents arriving at the
junction is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the junction.
• This is also known as ‘junction rule’.
 Conservation of Charge and the Kirchhoff's First Law

Kirchhoff’s first rule is a statement of

conservation of electric charge.
All charges that enter a given point in a circuit
must leave that point because charge cannot
build up (accumulate) at a point.
If this does not happen then charges are
getting accumulated at a point or charges are
created from nowhere! both of which don't
happen, In other words - charge is conserved.
The sum of currents meeting at a Junction

:
:
Sample problem 1
Sample problem 2
 Kirchhoff's Second Law
• Kirchhoff's Second Law: The algebraic sum of
e.m.f is equal to the algebraic sum p.d for any
closed loop within the circuit.
• This is also known as ‘Loop rule’.
 Conservation of Energy and the Kirchhoff's Second Law
Kirchhoff’s second rule follows from the law of conservation of
energy.
 Let us imagine moving a charge around a closed loop of a circuit.
When the charge returns to the starting point, the charge circuit
system must have the same total energy as it had before the charge
was moved.

 The sum of the increases in energy as the charge passes through

some circuit elements must equal the sum of the decreases in
energy as it passes through other elements.

 The potential energy decreases whenever the charge moves through

a potential drop -IR across a resistor or whenever it moves in the
reverse direction through a source of emf.
 The potential energy increases whenever the charge passes through
a battery from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Sample problem 3
Potential Divider

Continued in next slide...

Potential Divider
(continued from previous slide)
Application of Potential Divider circuits
Application of Potential Divider circuits
Potentiometer

Continued in next slide...

 Potentiometer
(continued from previous slide)

AJ
AB

Continued in next slide...

Potentiometer and its application
Principle of Potentiometer

Note : This equation is going to

be used for next application.

Continued in next slide...

Potentiometer and its application
(continued from previous slide)

Note : The above equation is used

for next application.

Continued in next slide...

Potentiometer and its application
Comparison of EMF

Note :
Galvanometer is
connected along
with Jockey :
 Modern Physics
Particle and Nuclear Physics

Marline Kurishingal
 The results of the α-particle
scattering experiment
&
the existence and small size of the
nucleus
Rutherford Alpha Particle Scattering
Experiment
Rutherford Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
• Rutherford‘s alpha particle
scattering experiment changed
the way we think of atoms.

• Before the experiment the

best model of the atom was
known as the Thomson
or "plum pudding" model. The
atom was believed to consist
of a positive material
"pudding" with negative
"plums" distributed
throughout.
Rutherford Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
(continued from previous slide)

Note : Diagram
is only for your
reference, its
not in syllabus

• Rutherford directed beams of alpha particles (which are the nuclei of

helium atoms and hence positively charged) at thin gold foil to test this
model and noted how the alpha particles scattered from the foil.
Rutherford Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
(continued from previous slide)

• Rutherford made 3 observations:

 Most of the fast, highly charged alpha particles

went whizzing straight through un-deflected. This
was the expected result for all of the particles if
the plum pudding model was correct.
 Some of the alpha particles were deflected back
through large angles. This was not expected.
 A very small number of alpha particles were
deflected backwards! This was definitely not as
expected.
Rutherford Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
(continued from previous slide)

• To explain these results a new model of the atom was needed.

• In this model the positive material is concentrated in a small but

massive (lot of mass - not size) region called the nucleus. The
negative particles (electrons) must be around the outside
preventing the atom from trespassing on its neighbours space to
complete this model.
• The diagram in next slide will help you to understand the results of
the experiment.
Rutherford Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
(continued from previous slide)
Particles in the Atom
2
Recap…
 Note : This
equation is an
example for
N balanced
equation. Do not
consider it for
alpha emission.
-1
• In alpha decay 2 protons and 2 neutrons
are emitted. Notice that this reduces
the nucleon number by 4 and the
proton number by 2. A new element is
thus formed.

• In beta decay a neutron changes into a

proton (which remains in the nucleus)
and an electron (which is emitted as
beta radiation). The net effect is an
increase in proton number by 1, while
the nucleon number stays the same. -1

Again a new element is formed.

• When a nucleus has undergone alpha or

beta decay it is often left in a high-
energy (excited) state. This energy can
be lost in the form of an emitted a
gamma ray. Because the composition of
the nucleus is unchanged no new
element is formed.
Recap…
Recap….
 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

AS Experimental skills and

investigations
Almost one-quarter of the marks for the AS examination are for experimental skills
and investigations. These are assessed on Paper 3, which is a practical examination.

There is a total of 40 marks available on this paper. Although the questions are
different on each Paper 3, the number of marks assigned to each skill is always the
same. This is shown in the table below.

Skill Total Breakdown of marks

marks
Manipulation, 16 marks Successful collection of data 13 marks
measurement and Range and distribution of values 1 mark
observation, MMO
Quality of data 2 marks

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

Presentation of data 10 marks Table of results: layout 1 mark
and observations, PDO Table of results: raw data 1 mark
Table of results: calculated quantities 2 marks
Graph: layout 1 mark
Graph: plotting of points 1 mark
Graph: trend line 1 mark
Display of calculation and reasoning 3 marks
Analysis, conclusions 14 marks Interpretation of graph 2 marks
and evaluation, ACE Drawing conclusions 3 marks
Estimating uncertainties 1 mark
Identifying limitations 4 marks
Suggesting improvements 4 marks

The syllabus explains each of these skills in detail, and it is important that you read
the appropriate pages in the syllabus so that you know what each skill is and what
you will be tested on.

There is a great deal of information for you to take in and skills for you to develop.
The only way to do this really successfully is to do lots of practical work and gradu-
ally build up your skills bit by bit. Don’t worry if you don’t get everything right first
time. Just take note of what you can improve next time — you will steadily get better
and better.

The examination questions

There are usually two questions on Paper 3. The examiners will take care to set
questions that are not exactly the same as any you have done before.

Read the question carefully before you start. It is important that you follow the
instructions and do exactly what the question asks. It is easy to jump in, thinking
that you have done this type of practical before, when what you are being asked to
do is subtly different.

Question 1
This question is a complete experiment. For example, it might be:
●● investigating factors affecting the period of an oscillating system
●● investigating the effect of forces acting on a system
●● investigating an electric circuit

This experiment will ask you to:

●● set up some apparatus or connect up a circuit
●● take a series of readings with the apparatus
●● use the raw data to find derived data
●● plot a graph using the raw or derived data

2
 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

●● find information from the graph, such as its gradient and/or the y-intercept
●● use the information from the graph to calculate the constants in an equation

Question 2
This question takes the starting point of an investigation. You will be given some
simple apparatus, which you may have to assemble. You will then:
●● take a couple of initial measurements in which you will have to justify the number
of significant figures used, or explain how you set the apparatus up to ensure as
accurate measurement as possible
●● take measurements of the independent and dependent variables and estimate
the absolute and/or percentage uncertainty in one of the readings
●● take a second pair of readings and justify whether or not the readings you have
taken support a particular hypothesis
●● identify limitations or sources of error in the experiment
●● suggest improvements that would make the experiment more reliable

Tips Before the exam:

●●Every time you do a practical during your AS course, time yourself. Are you
working quickly enough? You will probably find that you are slow to begin with
but as the course progresses try to work a little faster as your confidence
improves.
In the exam:
●● Read the question carefully and do exactly what it asks you to do. This is unlikely

to be exactly the same as anything you have done before.

●● Leave yourself enough time to complete both questions, spending approximately

60 minutes on each.

How to get high marks in Paper 3

It is impossible to predict what sort of experiment you will have to do in the examina-
tion. However, many of the experiments are variations on experiments that you will
have met during your course. You need to make the most of your practical sessions
in order to develop the skills that will make the practical examination easier.

Making measurements
Physics is a science of measurement. You need to be familiar with the use of a range
of instruments: millimetre scales, micrometers, vernier scales, measuring cylinders,
balances, newton meters, thermometers, ammeters, voltmeters, cathode-ray oscil-
loscopes. You will have become familiar with many of these instruments in your
previous courses. Nevertheless, it is important to ensure that you are competent in
the use of all of these. If you are not sure, refer to the relevant part of this book or
ask your teacher for help.

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

You need to be able to assemble basic apparatus according to the instructions given.
There will be nothing too difficult but the more practice you have had the easier you
will find this, and the quicker you will be able to do it. One of the skills you need to
develop is the ability to build electric circuits. Difficulties often arise when there are
parallel circuits. The simple rule here is to build the main series part of the circuit
and then add the parallel arms afterwards.

The stages in building a circuit are shown in the diagram on page 5.

Stage 1 Connect the positive terminal of the cell to the red terminal of the ammeter.

Stage 2 Connect the black terminal of the ammeter to the first resistor.

Stage 3 Complete the main circuit by connecting the second resistor to the first,
and then to the negative terminal of the cell.

Stage 4 Connect two leads to the voltmeter and then connect them to the relevant
points in the circuit. Note the red terminal of the voltmeter is nearest to
the positive terminal of the cell.

Tip
If you have difficulty in setting up the apparatus, or connecting a circuit, inform the
supervisor. There might be a problem with your apparatus, in which case there will
be no penalty (you might even get a little extra time). If there is nothing wrong with
the apparatus, the supervisor will make a note on your paper that help was required
in setting it up and you might lose 1 or 2 marks. However, better to lose the odd
mark here than to lose everything because you were unable to proceed.
Variables
The factor that you change or control is called the independent variable. The
factor that is affected and that you measure when you collect your results is the
dependent variable. The table shows some examples.

Investigation Independent variable Dependent variable

1 Investigating the height of a Height from which the Height to which the
bouncing ball ball is dropped ball bounces
2 Investigating the period of Mass on the end of the Periodic time
vibration of masses suspended spring
by a spring
3 Investigating the melting of ice Temperature of water Time taken to melt
in water
4 Investigating the current Resistance of resistor Current
through resistors
5 Investigating e.m.f. using a e.m.f. Balance length
potentiometer

We will refer to these examples later in the text, so you might like to put a marker on
this page so that you can easily flip back as you read.

4
Hodder CIE revision guide 2010
Physics fig P1
22 Sep 2010
Eleanor Jones AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

Circuit diagram Apparatus

Leads

A
Resistors Battery
+ −

Ammeter Voltmeter
V

A V

Building the circuit

1 + − 2 + −

A A

Black terminal

Red terminal

3 + − 4 + −

A A

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

At A2, you will need to consider variables other than those you have chosen that
might affect your results. These are known as control variables and we will
consider them in detail in the A2 section of the book.

Range of readings
When you plan your experiment you should use as wide a range of values for the
independent variable as possible. If you consider Investigation 3 — the melting ice
experiment — the range of temperatures of the water in the beaker should be from
nearly 100 °C to about 10 °C. You will probably be told how many readings to take but
it likely to be a minimum of six sets. The values chosen for the independent variable
should be taken at roughly equal intervals. A sensible spread might be 95 °C, 80 °C,
60 °C, 45 °C, 30 °C and 15 °C.

It sometimes makes sense to take several readings near a particular value — for
example, if the peak value of a curved graph is being investigated. Practice in
carrying out experiments will give you experience in deciding if this type of approach
is necessary.

Accuracy, precision and uncertainty

Precision and accuracy are terms which often cause confusion. Accuracy is how
close to the ‘real value’ a measurement is. Consider a rod of diameter 52.8012 mm.
Suppose that you use a ruler and measure it to be 53 mm. This is accurate but it is
not very precise. If your friend uses a micrometer screw gauge and measures it as
52.81 mm this is much more precise, even though the final figure is not totally accurate.

No measurement can be made to absolute precision — there is always some

uncertainty. We can describe the uncertainty as the range of values in which a
measurement could fall. If a result is recorded as 84.5 s, this implies that there is an
uncertainty of at least 0.1 s, perhaps more. You may see such a reading written as
84.5 ± 0.2 s. The 0.2 s in this reading is called the absolute uncertainty.

It is often convenient to express an uncertainty as a percentage of the reading. This

is known as the percentage uncertainty.

percentage uncertainty = (absolute uncertainty/reading) × 100%

The percentage uncertainty in the previous example is:

(0.2/84.5) × 100% = 0.24%

Precision of measurement
When making a static measurement (for example, the length of a pendulum) you
should normally measure to the nearest division on the instrument. The exception
to this is if the divisions are more than one millimetre apart. In this case, you need
to judge to the nearest half division or better. When making a dynamic measure (for
example, the height to which a ball bounces), then other considerations come into
play — the ball is moving, so you have to judge when it is at its maximum height.
This is a much more difficult task. You can probably measure only to the nearest
5 millimetres or worse.

6
 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

Many digital stopwatches measure to 1/100 of a second. However, the uncertainties

in the reaction times of manually starting and stopping a stopwatch are much greater
than this. The best you can manage is to measure to the nearest 1/10 of a second.
Until 1977, world records for running events were given to only this precision.
It was only with the advent of electronic timing that it became possible to record
them to 1/100 of a second. The current world record for the men's 100 m is 9.58 s.
This suggests an absolute uncertainty of ±0.01 s, a percentage uncertainty of approx-
imately 0.1%. This has the knock-on effect that for the world record to be valid the
track must also be measured to a precision of 0.1% or better. This means an absolute
uncertainty of 10 cm.

Repeating readings
You should recognise that you can reduce the chances of serious error by repeating
readings, all of which should be included in your records. In general, it is only neces-
sary to repeat those readings with the potential for the highest percentage uncertainty.

Worked example
A student is measuring the relationship between the height from which a ball
is dropped and the height to which it bounces. The student drops the ball from
a height of 1.0 m and it bounces to a height of approximately 50 cm.

State which measurements should be repeated and justify your answer.

Answer
The height from which the ball is dropped can be measured to the nearest
millimetre, giving a percentage uncertainty of 0.1%. The height to which the
ball bounces can only be estimated to about 1 cm, giving a percentage uncer-
tainty of 2%. This is a much larger percentage uncertainty. Hence the height
of bounce should be repeated but the height from which the ball is dropped
need not be repeated.

Types of error
We can loosely put errors in measurement into one of two categories — random
errors and systematic errors.

Random errors occur due to a lack of precision in taking readings, slight changes
in experimental conditions and making value judgements when taking measure-
ments. Where it is felt that the random error might be significant, repeated readings
should be taken. These readings will give you further information about the uncer-
tainty in the measurement. For instance, if you take five readings of the maximum
amplitude of a pendulum as 24.1 cm, 23.8 cm, 24.3 cm, 23.6 cm and 24.0 cm, this gives
an average value of 23.96 cm, which would be rounded to 24.0 cm. It is quite clear
that the measuring instrument can measure to the nearest millimetre, but to give
the reading as 24.0 ± 0.1 cm would be claiming a greater precision than you have.
The largest deviation from the average value is 0.4 cm, so the correct precision is
± 0.4 cm. The reading should be recorded as 24.0 ± 0.4 cm.

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

Systematic errors generally occur because of faults in a measuring instrument,
or are repeated errors such as a parallax error (not looking perpendicularly at a
measuring instrument but always at the same angle). It is worth noting that if the
angle from which the instrument is viewed changes, then the error introduced will
be random, not systematic. Careful thought when setting up and carrying out the
experiment should ensure that parallax errors are avoided.

30 40 30 40
20 50 20 50
she sees 10
60 he sees 10
60

0 70 0 70

30 40
20 50
60
10
0 70

In the diagram above, the passenger thinks that the driver is travelling faster than he
really is because she is looking at the speedometer at an oblique angle, introducing
a parallax error.

The most common form of systematic error due to a faulty instrument is a zero error.
When you take a micrometer screw gauge and close the jaws using the ratchet, you
should check if the zero is lined up correctly. If it is not, then this is easy to rectify
by simply subtracting the error from the reading. (Don’t forget that if the error is a
minus quantity, subtracting a minus quantity means adding its magnitude to the
measured quantity.)

Worked example
The diagrams below show the diameter of a steel ball bearing being measured.

(a)
20

0 15

(b)
0

0 45

8
 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

Determine the diameter of the ball bearing.

Answer
reading on the barrel = 3.00 mm
reading on the thimble = 0.17 mm

calculate the final reading by subtracting the zero error from the intial reading:
reading on micrometer = 3.17 mm
zero error = −0.02 mm
diameter of the ball bearing = 3.17 − (−0.02) = 3.19 mm

The other type of systematic error you could encounter is an instrument with a
wrongly calibrated scale — that is, it consistently reads high or low, at a steady
percentage of the true reading. An example might be a stopwatch that runs slow.
This is more difficult to allow for unless you have a standard with which to compare
it. It will not cause any scattering of the points on a graph but it will cause a shift in
the gradient of the graph.

Presentation of data and observations

You should be in the habit of recording your measurements and results directly into
your laboratory notebook, rather than using scraps of paper which might get lost or
destroyed. This means you need to be organised. You must think clearly, before you
start your work:
●● What measurements do I need to make?
●● What measurements do I need to repeat?
●● What quantities do I need to calculate from my raw results?

You then need to draw a table that has sufficient columns and rows to accommodate
these quantities, including columns for repeated readings and their averages.

The heading for each column should include the quantity being measured and the
unit in which it is measured.

Raw data
The degree of precision of raw data in a column should be consistent. It will be
determined by the measuring instrument used or the precision to which you can
measure. This means that the number of significant figures may not be consistent.
An example might be when measuring across the different resistors using a potenti-
ometer, where the balance points may vary from 9.3 cm to 54.5 cm.

Calculated data
With data calculated from raw measurements the number of significant figures
must be consistent with the raw measurements. This usually means that, except
where they are produced by addition or subtraction, calculated quantities should be
given to the same number of significant figures as (or one more than) the measured
quantity of least precision. If a time is measured as 4.1 s, squaring this gives 16.81 s2.

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

However, you would record the value as either 16.8 s2 (or perhaps 17 s2). Again the
number of significant figures in the column is not necessarily consistent.

The table below shows some readings from a potentiometer experiment and demon-
strates how readings should be set out:
●● the column headings, with quantity and unit
●● the raw data to the same precision
●● the calculated data to the relevant number of significant figures

R/Ω L1/m L 2 /m L av/m ln (L av)

47 0.191 0.194 0.193 −1.65**
100 0.381 0.379 0.380* −0.968
220 0.778 0.784 0.781 −0.247
* Do not forget to include the zero, to show that the length has been measured to the
nearest millimetre.
** You could justify writing this as −1.645, one more significant figure than the raw data.
If this helped to plot a more precise graph, then it would be sensible to do this.

Graphs
Reasons for plotting graphs
Graphs:
●● tend to average data thereby reducing the effects of random errors
●● identify anomalous points (which should then be investigated further)
●● tend to reduce the effect of systematic errors
●● give information that can be used to identify relationships between variables

Rules for plotting graphs

1 Draw and label axes. Axes should be labelled with the quantity and the unit in a
similar manner to column headings in a table. In general, the independent variable
(the one you control) is put on the horizontal axis (x-axis). The dependent variable
(the one that changes due to changes in the independent variable) goes on the
vertical axis ( y-axis).
2 Choose sensible scales. Scales should be chosen so that the points occupy at
least half the sheet of graph paper used. However, awkward scales (1:3, 1:7, 1:11, 1:13
or their multiples) must be avoided. You do not necessarily have to include the origin
on the graph if this means that a better use of the graph paper can be achieved.
3 Plot points accurately. Points should be plotted by drawing a small cross with
a sharp pencil. Do not use dots or blobs.
4 Draw the best-fit straight line or best smooth curve. When you draw a
straight line use a 30 cm ruler and a sharp pencil. There should be an equal
number of points above and below the line. Take care that those points above
and those below the line are evenly distributed along the line.
5 Identify and check any anomalous points. If a point is well off the line, go
back and check it. In all probability you will have made an error, either in plotting
the point or in taking the reading.

10
 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

Do n o t fiddle your straight line or curve so that it goes through the origin.
There may be good reasons why the dependent variable is not zero when the
independent variable is zero. Consider Investigation 2 in the table on page 4
— the experiment to investigate the period of vibration of a mass on the end of
a spring — the measurements of the mass on the spring do not make allowance
for the mass of the spr ing it self.

A typical straight-line graph is shown below.

Current/A

3.0 This point has nearly

disappeared into the
line and can hardly
2.0 be seen.

1.0 Where is the

centre of this blob?

0
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Potential difference/V

Curves should be drawn with a single sweep, with no feathering or sudden jerks. You
need to practise doing this.

(a) (b)
y y

x x

Graph (a) shows a well-drawn smooth curve. Graph (b) shows a poorly drawn curve
through the same points. Note the jerkiness between the first two points and the
feathering between points 2 and 4 and between points 5 and 6.

Measuring the gradient of a graph

The gradient of a graph is defined as
Change in y = Dy = y 2 − y1
Change in x Dx x 2 − x1
When choosing the points to calculate the gradient you should choose two points on
the line (not from your table of results). To improve precision the two points should
be as far apart as possible.

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

In the straight-line graph on page 11, two suitable points might be (0, 0.5) and
(10.0, 3.2).

This gives a gradient = 3.2 − 0.5 = 0.27 = A V−1

10.0 − 0
Note that you should always include the unit of the gradient.

You may be asked to find the gradient of a curve at a particular point. In this case,
you must draw a tangent to the curve at this point and then calculate the gradient of
this line in a similar way to that described above.

Finding the y-intercept

The y-intercept of a graph is the point at which the line cuts the y-axis (that is
when x = 0). In the example on page 11, the intercept is 0.5 A. When a false origin is used, it
is a common mistake for students to assume that the vertical line drawn is the zero
of x, so if you have used a false origin check carefully that the vertical line is at x = 0.

If, however, the chosen scale means that the y-intercept is not on the graph, it can
be found by simple calculation.
●● Calculate the gradient of the graph.
●● The equation for a straight line graph is y = mx + c. Choose one of the points used
for calculating the gradient and substitute your readings into the equation.

Worked example
The voltage input to an electrical device and the current through it were
measured. The graph below was drawn from the results.

1.5

1.0

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
V
Determine the y-intercept on the graph.

Answer
Find the gradient. Use the points (0.06, 0) and (0.50, 1.90).

gradient = Dy = y 2 − y1 = 1.90 − 0 = 4.3 AV−1

Dx x 2 − x1 0.50 − 0.06
Substitute the first point and the gradient into the equation y = mx + c.
0 = (4.3 × 0.06) + c
c = −0.26 A

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 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

Evaluation of evidence
During an experiment you should record any uncertainties in your measurements.

It is important to note that questions on the combinations of uncertainties are often

set in the theory papers. To find the uncertainty of a combination of variables, the
rules are:
●● for quantities that are added or subtracted, the absolute uncertainties are added
●● for quantities that are multiplied together or divided, the fractional (or percentage)
uncertainties are added
●● for a quantity that is raised to a power, to calculate a final uncertainty the frac-
tional uncertainty is multiplied by the power and the result is treated as a positive
uncertainty

Worked example 1
The currents coming into a junction are I1 and I2. The current coming out
of the junction is I. In an experiment the values of I1 and I2 are measured as
2.0 ± 0.1 A and 1.5 ± 0.2 A respectively.

Write down the value of I with its uncertainty.

Answer
I = I1 + I2 = (2.0 ± 0.1) + (1.5 ± 0.2)

The quantities are being added so to find the uncertainty the uncertainties of
the original quantities are added.

Hence I = 3.5 ± 0.3 A

Worked example 2
The acceleration of free fall g is determined by measuring the period of oscil-
lation T of a simple pendulum of length L. The relationship between g, T and L
is given by the formula g = 4π2(L/T2).

In the experiment, L was measured as 0.55 ± 0.02 m, and T as 1.50 ± 0.02 s.

Find the value of g and its uncertainty.

Answer
g = 4π2(L/T2) = 4π2(0.55/1.502) = 9.7 m s –2

To find the uncertainties, the second and third rules are applied.

Fractional uncertainty in L = 0.02/0.55 = 0.036

Fractional uncertainty in T = 0.02/1.50 = 0.013

Fractional uncertainty in T –2 = 2 × 0.013 = 0.026

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

Fractional uncertainty in g = fractional uncertainty in L + fractional uncer-
tainty in T –2 = 0.036 + 0.026 = 0.062

The absolute uncertainty in g = 9.7 × 0.062 = 0.6

Thus g = 9.7 ± 0.6 m s –2

It is worth noting that the examiners are looking for the absolute uncertainty, not
the percentage uncertainty. If you take the short cut and leave your answer as
9.7 ± 6.2%, you will lose credit. It is also worth noting that it is poor experimental
practice to take only one reading and to try to find a value of g from that. You should
take a series of readings of T for different lengths L, and then plot a graph of T2
against L. The gradient of this graph would be equal to 4π2/g.

To ascertain if an experiment supports or fails to support a hypothesis, your result

should lie within the limits of the percentage uncertainties. To support the hypoth-
esis in the absence of any uncertainty calculations, a good rule of thumb is that the
calculated value should lie within 10% of any predicted value.

The following worked examples take you through some of the stages of evaluating
evidence.

Worked example 1
In an initial investigation into the time it takes for an ice cube to melt
(Investigation 3 in the table on page 4) in a beaker of water the following
results are obtained.

Trial 1:
initial temperature of the water = 50 °C
time taken (t) to melt = 85 s

Trial 2:
initial temperature of the water = 80 °C
time taken to melt = 31 s

(a) Explain why it is only justifiable to measure the time taken for the ice
cube to melt to the nearest second.

(b) Estimate the percentage uncertainty in this measurement in trial 1.

(c) Estimate the percentage uncertainty in this measurement in trial 2.

(d) Why is it more important to calculate the uncertainty in the time rather
than in the initial temperature of the water?

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 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

Answer
(a) Even though the stopwatch that was used may have measured to the
nearest one-hundredth of a second, it was difficult to judge when the
last bit of ice disappeared.

(b) Suppose that the absolute uncertainty = ±5 s

5
percentage uncertainty = ± × 100% = 6%
85
(c) absolute uncertainty = ±5 s
5
percentage uncertainty = ± × 100% = 16%
31
(d) The percentage uncertainty in measuring the temperature of the water
is much less than the uncertainty in measuring the time. (±1 °C, leading
to ±1 to 2%).

This example shows the reasoning in estimating the uncertainty in a measured

quantity and how to calculate percentage uncertainty. You might feel that 5 s is rather
a large uncertainty in measuring the time. It is at the upper limit, and you might be
justified in claiming the uncertainty to be as little as 1 s. Nevertheless, if you try
the experiment for yourself, and repeat it two or three times (as you should do with
something this subjective), you will find that an uncertainty of 5 s is not unreason-
able. The measurement of the initial temperature of the water has a much lower
percentage uncertainty as less judgement is needed to make the measurement.

The next stage is to look at how to test whether a hypothesis is justified or not.

Worked example 2
It is suggested that the time taken (t) to melt an ice cube is inversely propor-
tional to θ 2 , where θ is the initial temperature of the water in °C.

Explain whether or not your results from Worked example 1 support this
theory.

Answer

If t ∝ 1/θ 2 then t × θ 2 = constant

Trial 1: 85 × 502 = 213 000

Trial 2: 31 × 802 = 198 400

difference between the constants = 14 600

percentage difference = (14 600/198 400) × 100% = 7.4%

This is less than the calculated uncertainty in the measurement of t (= 16%, for
trial 2) so the hypothesis is supported.

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International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide

AS experimental skills & investigations

There are various ways of tackling this type of problem — this is probably the simplest.
Note that it is important to explain fully why the hypothesis is/is not supported.
At the simplest level, if the difference between the two calculated values for the
constant is greater than the percentage uncertainties in the measured quantities,
then the evidence would not support the hypothesis.

Hint
A more sophisticated approach in this example would be to consider the combined
uncertainties in the raw readings as the limit at which the experiment supports the
theory. The theory predicts that t = constant/θ 2 , which means that the constant
= t × θ 2 . To combine uncertainties on multiplication (or division) the percentage
uncertainties are added.
●● percentage uncertainty in θ = 2%, (see above, the greatest uncertainty is chosen)

●● therefore, percentage uncertainty in θ 2 = 2 × 2% = 4%,

●● percentage uncertainty in t = 16%

●● total uncertainty = 4% + 16% = 20%

Evaluating the experiment

There are two parts to this section:
●● identifying weaknesses in the procedure
●● suggesting improvements that would increase the reliability of the experiment

Before looking at Worked example 3, try to list four weaknesses in the procedure
in the previous experiment. Then list four improvements that would increase the
reliability of the experiment.

Worked example 3
State four sources of error or limitations of the procedure in Investigation 3
— the melting ice experiment.

Answer
(1) Two readings are not enough to make firm conclusions.
(2) The ice cubes may not be the same mass.
(3) There will be some energy exchanges with the surroundings.
(4) The ice cubes might be partly melted before they are put into the water.

Identifying weaknesses in a procedure is not easy but the more practical work you do
the better you will become. It is important to be precise when making your points. In
many experiments (not this one!) parallax can lead to errors. It would not be enough
to say in an answer ‘parallax errors’, you would need to identify where those errors
arose. If you were trying to measure the maximum amplitude of a pendulum, you
would need to say, ‘Parallax errors, when judging the highest point the pendulum
bob reaches.’

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 AS Experimental Skills and Investigations

Having identified the areas of weakness you now need to suggest how they could
be rectified. The list given in Worked example 4 is not exhaustive — for example
a suggestion that there should be the same volume of water in the beaker every
time would also be sensible. However, a comment regarding measuring the average
temperature of the water would not be acceptable as this would make it a different,
albeit a perfectly valid, experiment.

If you have not got four weaknesses try writing ‘cures’ for the weaknesses suggested
in Worked example 3.

Worked example 4
Suggest four improvements that could be made to Investigation 3. You may
suggest the use of other apparatus or different procedures.

Answer
(1) Take more sets of readings with the water at different temperatures
and plot a graph of t against 1/θ 2.
(2) Weigh the ice cubes.
(3) Carry out the experiment in a vacuum flask.
(4) Keep the ice cubes in a cold refrigerator until required.

In many ways this is easier than identifying weaknesses but note that you need to
make clear what you are doing. The first suggestion is a good example — there is
no point in taking more readings unless you do something with them! Note also the
answer makes it clear that it is not just repeat readings that would be taken (that
should have been done anyway); it is readings at different water temperatures.

This experiment does not cover all the difficulties you might encounter; for instance
in the bouncing ball experiment (Investigation 1), the major difficulty is measuring
the height to which the ball bounces. One possible way in which this problem could
be solved is to film the experiment and play it back frame by frame or in slow motion.

Whenever you carry out an experiment, think about the weaknesses in the proce-
dure and how you would rectify them. Discuss your ideas with your friends and with
your teacher. You will find that you gradually learn the art of critical thinking, which
will help you to score highly on this part of the paper.

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