Dear students, FLASH NOTES

FOR UPSC PRELIMS

The “Flash Notes for Dominate Prelims:

Environment” is your go-to companion for
one of UPSC Prelims’ most dynamic and
high-weightage areas. With 284+ PYQs
(2004–2024), it presents acts, treaties,
species, and climate issues in a structured,
revision-friendly format.
It covers high-yield microthemes like Pollution, Wetlands,
Climate Conventions, Invasive Species, Species
Conservation, and Ecological Theories, offering a
360-degree view of environmental challenges and India’s
national and global initiatives. From Operation Jumbo
and NBWL meetings to UNEA resolutions, every entry is
aligned with UPSC’s evolving question trends.

A focused Microtheme Analysis highlights topics like

CMS, CBD, Wildlife Act amendments, Climate Treaties
(Paris, UNFCCC, IPCC), and Biodiversity Protocols.
Topics such as Lakes drying, Methane tracking, Coral
bleaching, and LULC patterns are explained with crisp
clarity.

With structured tables, concise language, and quick-

recall summaries, this book ensures efficient last-mile
revision. Whether revising species status, protected area
updates, or global climate governance, this book equips
you with exam-focused insights to dominate Environment
in UPSC Prelims.

Drop in your comments and

suggestions to us at [email protected]

Best,
Civilsdaily IAS’ Dominate Prelims Team

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 2
Prelims PYQs Microthemes Distribution
284 Question Count
2004-2024

Souce: CD PYQ Microtheme Tool

The concept: Microthemes are recurring patterns observed in the last 20

years of UPSC Prelims papers. These represent predictable, high-yield areas
and should be your Priority 1. Focus on them specifically, as you should
expect questions from these topics. Only move on to other topics after you
have thoroughly mastered the Microthemes.

These Flash Notes simplified complex UPSC Syllabus

into microthemes, making my Prelims journey
efficient and result-oriented—highly recommended
for every aspirant!
- AIR 2, Animesh Pradhan

With Flash Notes, I could pinpoint high- Crisp, focused, and packed with microtheme
yield microthemes and streamline my insights—Flash Notes transformed how you
revision, making Prelims prep smarter, approach Prelims, ensuring clarity on First-priority
not harder! topics.
- IRMS, Sreelaxmi KV - AIR 48, Aaditya Pandey
UPSC 2023

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 Table of Contents
1. Environmental Acts, policies, reports 2.6 Gardi Sugdub Island 25
and organisations 6 2.7 Jacaranda Premature Blooming in Mexico  26
1.1 DDA Tree Felling in Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) 2.8 Glacial Lake Dynamics in the Himalayas 26
 9 2.9 How the Arun River is making Mount Everest taller 27
1.2 Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) 9 2.10 Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region  27
1.3 International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) 10 2.11 Madeira River in Brazil 28
1.4 Clean Plant Programme (CPP) 11 2.12 Little Prespa Lake is slowly drying 29
1.5 National Dolphin Research Centre, Patna 11 2.13 Mass Coral Bleaching in Lakshadweep  29
1.6 Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) COP14– Sa-
markand, Uzbekistan 12 3. P
 ollution, Pollutants and Harmful
1.7 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)  13 substances 30
1.8 Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972 14 3.1 Methane’s Contribution in Climate Change 31
1.9 Operation Jumbo 14 3.2 Periyar River – Pollution Crisis in Kerala’s Lifeline 32
1.10 IPCC’s Assessment Reports (AR) 15 3.3 N iranjan Panel – Expert Committee to Assess Cauvery
1.11 CBD COP16 – Convention on Biological Diversity Confer- River Pollution 32
ence in Colombia 15 3.4 Salar de Atacama – Ground Subsidence from Lithium
1.12 United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) 16 Extraction 33
1.13 Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement – Global Carbon Market 3.5 Manganese Contamination and Cancer Risk in Gangetic
Mechanism 17 Plains of Bihar 34
1.14 Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Management in India 17 3.6 Ban on Trichloroethylene and Perchloroethylene 34
1.15 Nagoya Protocol under the Convention on Biological 3.7 NGT Directs New Guidelines for Silica Mining 35
Diversity (CBD) 18
1.16 Key Highlights of World Migration Report 2024 19
1.17 10th World Water Forum – Water for Shared Prosperity20 4. Ecological Theory 36
4.1 Gape Limitation – A Key Concept in Predator-Prey Dynamics
 37
2. Climate Change 21 4.2 Gigantopithecus blacki 37
2.1 Greening of Thar Desert 22
2.2 Gulf Stream Collapse – Scientific Warnings and Global
Implications 22
2.3 Global Methane Tracker 2024 23
2.4 A23a Iceberg 24
2.5 Mount Fuji 24

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1. Environmental Acts, policies,
reports and organisations
Prelims PYQs
[UPSC CSE 2024] Consider the following [UPSC CSE 2022] Consider the following [UPSC CSE 2022] ‘Climate Action Tracker’
statements: statements: which monitors the emission reduction
Statement-I: The European Parliament 1. “The Climate Group” is an international pledges of different countries is a:
approved the Net-Zero Industry Act recently. non-profit organisation that drives climate (a) D
 atabase created by coalition of
Statement-II: The European Union intends action by building large networks and runs research organisations
to achieve carbon neutrality by 2040 and them. (b) W
 ing of “International Panel of Climate
therefore aims to develop all of its own clean 2. The International Energy Agency in Change”
technology by that time. partnership with the Climate Group (c) C
 ommittee under “United Nations
Which one of the following is correct in launched a global initiative “EP100”. Framework Convention on Climate
respect of the above statements? 3. EP100 brings together leading companies Change”
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II committed to driving innovation in energy (d) A
 gency promoted and financed by United
are correct and Statement-II explains efficiency and increasing competitiveness Nations Environment Programme and
Statement-I while delivering on emission reduction World Bank
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II goals.
are correct, but Statement-II does not 4. Some Indian companies are members of [UPSC CSE 2021] With reference to the
explain Statement-I EP100. ‘New York Declaration on Forests’, which of
(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is 5. The International Energy Agency is the the following statements are correct?
incorrect Secretariat to the “Under2 Coalition”. 1. It was first endorsed at the United Nations
(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II Which of the statements given above are Climate Summit in 2014.
is correct correct? 2. It endorses a global timeline to end the
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 loss of forests.
[UPSC CSE 2023] ‘Invasive Species (b) 1, 3 and 4 only 3. It is a legally binding international
Specialist Group’ (that develops Global (c) 2, 3 and 5 only declaration.
Invasive Species Database) belongs to which (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 4. It is endorsed by governments, big
one of the following organizations? companies, and indigenous communities.
(a) The International Union for Conservation [UPSC CSE 2022] In the context of WHO 5. India was one of the signatories at its
of Nature Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following inception.
(b) The United Nations Environment statements: Select the correct answer using the code
Programme 1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not given below:
(c) The United Nations World Commission for exceed 15 μg/m3 and annual mean of PM (a) 1, 2, and 4
Environment and Development 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m3. (b) 1, 3, and 5
(d) The World Wide Fund for Nature 2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone (c) 3 and 4
pollution occur during the periods of (d) 2 and 5
[UPSC CSE 2023] Consider the following inclement weather.
statements: 3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and [UPSC CSE 2021] ‘The Common Carbon
1. In India, the Biodiversity Management enter the bloodstream. Metric,’ supported by UNEP, has been
Committees are key to the realization of 4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger developed for:
the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol. asthma. (a) A
 ssessing the carbon footprint of
2. T he Biodiversity Management Committees Which of the statements given above are building operations around the world
have important functions in determining correct? (b) E
 nabling commercial farming entities
access and benefit sharing, including (a) 1, 3 and 4 around the world to enter carbon emission
the power to levy collection fees on the (b) 1 and 4 only trading
access of biological resources within its (c) 2, 3 and 4 (c) E
 nabling governments to assess the
jurisdiction. (d) 1 and 2 only overall carbon footprint caused by their
Which of the statements given above is/are countries
correct? (d) A
 ssessing the overall carbon footprint
(a) 1 only caused by the use of fossil fuels by the
(b) 2 only world in a unit time
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

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[UPSC CSE 2021] ‘R2 Code of Practices’ Select the correct answer using the code [UPSC CSE 2016] Consider the following
constitutes a tool available for promoting the given below: pairs: Terms sometimes seen in the news :
adoption of: (a) 1 and 2 only Their origin
(a) Environmentally responsible practices in (b) 3 only 1. A
 nnex-I Countries : Cartagena Protocol
electronics recycling industry (c) 2 and 3 only 2. C
 ertified Emissions Reductions : Nagoya
(b) Ecological management of Wetlands (d) 1, 2 and 3 Protocol
of International Importance under the 3. C
 lean Development Mechanisms : Kyoto
Ramsar Convention [UPSC CSE 2017] Consider the following Protocol
(c) Sustainable practices in the cultivation of statements: Which of the pairs given above is/are
agricultural crops in degraded land 1. Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to correctly matched?
(d) ‘Environmental Impact Assessment’ in the Reduce Short Lived Climate Pollutants is a (a) 1 and 2 only
exploitation of natural resources unique initiative of G20 group of countries. (b) 2 and 3 only
2. The CCAC focuses on methane, black (c) 3 only
[UPSC CSE 2018] “Momentum for Change: carbon and hydrofluorocarbons. (d) 1, 2 and 3
Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative Which of the statements given above is/are
launched by: correct? [UPSC CSE 2016] What is/are the
(a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate (a) 1 only importance/ importances of the
Change (b) 2 only ‘United Nations Convention to Combat
(b) The UNEP Secretariat (c) Both 1 and 2 Desertification’?
(c) The UNFCCC Secretariat (d) Neither 1 nor 2 1. It aims to promote effective action through
(d) The World Meteorological Organization innovative national programmes and
[UPSC CSE 2017] Consider the following supportive international partnerships.
[UPSC CSE 2018] The Partnership for statements in respect of Trade Related 2. It has a special/particular focus on South
Action on Green Economy (PAGE), a UN Analysis of Fauna and Flora in Commerce Asia and North Africa regions, and its
mechanism to assist countries transition (TRAFFIC): Secretariat facilitates the allocation of
towards greener and more inclusive 1. TRAFFIC is a bureau under the United major portion of financial resources to
economies, emerged at: Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). these regions.
(a) The Earth Summit on Sustainable 2. The Mission of TRAFFIC is to ensure that 3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach,
Development 2002, Johannesburg trade in wild plants and animals is not a encouraging the participation of local
(b) The United Nations Conference on threat to the conservation of nature. people in combating desertification.
Sustainable Development 2012, Rio de Which of the above statements is/are Select the correct answer using the code
Janeiro correct? given below:
(c) The United Nations Framework (a) 1 only (a) 1 only
Convention on Climate Change 2015, (b) 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Paris (c) Both 1 and 2 (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) The World Sustainable Development (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Summit 2016, New Delhi Answer: (b)
[UPSC CSE 2016] With reference to the
[UPSC CSE 2018] With reference to [UPSC CSE 2016] The term ‘Intended Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris
the ‘Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Nationally Determined Contributions’ is in 2015, which of the following statements
Agriculture (GACSA)’, which of the following sometimes seen in the news in the context is/are correct?
statements is/are correct? of: 1. T
 he Agreement was signed by all the
1. GACSA is an outcome of the Climate (a) Pledges made by the European countries member countries of the UN and it will go
Summit held in Paris in 2015. to rehabilitate refugees from the war- into effect in 2017.
2. Membership of GACSA does not create affected Middle East 2. T
 he Agreement aims to limit greenhouse
any binding obligations. (b) Plan of action outlined by the countries gas emissions so that the rise in average
3. India was instrumental in the creation of of the world to combat climate change global temperature by the end of this
GACSA. (c) Capital contributed by the member century does not exceed 2°C or even
Select the correct answer using the code countries in the establishment of Asian 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
given below: Infrastructure Investment Bank 3. D
 eveloped countries acknowledged their
(a) 1 and 3 only (d) Plan of action outlined by the countries historical responsibility in global warming
(b) 2 only of the world regarding Sustainable and committed to donate $1000 billion
(c) 2 and 3 only Development Goals a year from 2020 to help developing
(d) 1, 2 and 3 countries to cope with climate change.
[UPSC CSE 2016] Which of the following Select the correct answer using the code
[UPSC CSE 2017] With reference to ‘Global statements is/are correct? Proper design given below:
Climate Change Alliance’ which of the and effective implementation of UN-REDD+ (a) 1 and 3 only
following statements is/are correct? Programme can significantly contribute to: (b) 2 only
1. It is an initiative of the European Union. 1. Protection of biodiversity (c) 2 and 3 only
2. It provides technical and financial 2. Resilience of forest ecosystems (d) 1, 2 and 3
support to targeted developing countries 3. Poverty reduction
to integrate climate change into their Select the correct answer using the code
development policies and budgets. given below:
3. It is coordinated by World Resources (a) 1 and 2 only
Institute (WRI) and World Business (b) 3 only
Council for Sustainable Development (c) 2 and 3 only
(WBCSD). (d) 1, 2 and 3

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[UPSC CSE 2016] With reference to ‘Agenda [UPSC CSE 2016] Consider the following (a) 1 only
21’, sometimes seen in the news, consider statements: (b) 2 and 3 only
the following statements: 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were (c) 1 and 3 only
1. It is a global action plan for sustainable first proposed in 1972 by a global think (d) 1, 2 and 3
development. tank called the ‘Club of Rome’.
2. It originated in the World Summit on 2. The Sustainable Development Goals have [UPSC CSE 2015] With reference to ‘Forest
Sustainable Development held in to be achieved by 2030. Carbon Partnership Facility’, which of the
Johannesburg in 2002. Which of the statements given above is/are following statements is/are correct?
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1. It is a global partnership of governments,
correct? (a) 1 only businesses, civil society and indigenous
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only peoples.
(b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 2. It provides financial aid to universities,
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 individual scientists and institutions
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 involved in scientific forestry research
[UPSC CSE 2015] What is the Rio+20 to develop eco-friendly and climate
[UPSC CSE 2016] Consider the following Conference, often mentioned in the news? adaptation technologies for sustainable
statements: (a) It is the United Nations Conference on forest management.
1. T
 he International Solar Alliance was Sustainable Development 3. It assists the countries in their ‘REDD+
launched at the United Nations Climate (b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the World (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
Change Conference in 2015. Trade Organization and Forest Degradation+)’ efforts by
2. T
 he Alliance includes all the member (c) It is a Conference of the Inter- providing them with financial and technical
countries of the United Nations. Governmental Panel on Climate Change assistance.
Which of the statements given above is/are (d) It is a Conference of the member Select the correct answer using the code
correct? Countries of the Convention on Biological given below:
(a) 1 only Diversity (a) 1 only
(b) 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 [UPSC CSE 2015] BioCarbon Fund Initiative (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 for Sustainable Forest Landscapes’ is (d) 1, 2 and 3
managed by the:
[UPSC CSE 2016] With reference to (a) Asian Development Bank [UPSC CSE 2015] With reference to an
an initiative called ‘The Economics of (b) International Monetary Fund organization known as ‘BirdLife International’,
Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)’, which (c) United Nations Environment Programme which of the following statements is/are
of the following statements is/are correct? (d) World Bank correct?
1. It is an initiative hosted by UNEP, IMF and 1. It is a Global Partnership of Conservation
World Economic Forum. [UPSC CSE 2015] Which of the following Organizations.
2. It is a global initiative that focuses on statements regarding ‘Green Climate Fund’ 2. T he concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’
drawing attention to the economic is/are correct? originated from this organization.
benefits of biodiversity. 1. It is intended to assist developing 3. It identifies the sites known/referred to as
3. It presents an approach that can help countries in adaptation and mitigation ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas’.
decision-makers recognize, demonstrate practices to counter climate change. Select the correct answer using the code
and capture the value of ecosystems and 2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP, given below:
biodiversity. OECD, Asian Development Bank and (a) 1 only
Select the correct answer using the code World Bank. (b) 2 and 3 only
given below: Select the correct answer using the code (c) 1 and 3 only
(a) 1 and 2 only given below: (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 3 only (a) 1 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only [UPSC CSE 2014] With reference to ‘Global
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Both 1 and 2 Environment Facility’, which of the following
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 statements is/are correct?
[UPSC CSE 2016] What is ‘Greenhouse Gas (a) It serves as a financial mechanism for
Protocol’? [UPSC CSE 2015] With reference to the ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and
(a) It is an international accounting tool International Union for Conservation of ‘United Nations Framework Convention
for government and business leaders Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and on Climate Change’.
to understand, quantify and manage the Convention on International Trade in (b) It undertakes scientific research on
greenhouse gas emissions. Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora environmental issues at global level.
(b) It is an initiative of the United Nations to (CITES), which of the following statements is/ (c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate
offer financial incentives to developing are correct? the transfer of technology and funds to
countries to reduce greenhouse gas 1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations underdeveloped countries with specific
emissions and to adopt eco-friendly and CITES is an international agreement aims to protect their environment.
technologies. between governments. (d) B oth (a) and (b)
(c) It is an inter-governmental agreement 2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects
ratified by all the member countries of the around the world to better manage natural
United Nations to reduce greenhouse gas environments.
emissions to specified levels by the year 3. CITES is legally binding on the States that
2022. have joined it, but this Convention does
(d) It is one of the multilateral REDD+ not take the place of national laws.
initiatives hosted by the World Bank. Select the correct answer using the code
given below:

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1.1 DDA Tree Felling in Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS)
• T he Delhi Development Authority (DDA) has come under scrutiny for felling around 1,100 trees within the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary,
situated in the eco-sensitive Southern Ridge area of Delhi.
• The action reportedly violated Supreme Court directions protecting Delhi’s ridge forests. The tree felling was carried out for road expansion
purposes, raising serious legal and environmental concerns.

Forest and green cover in Delhi and India (ISFR 2023)

•  elhi has the highest forest cover among India’s seven major megacities, with 195 sq. km of forest cover.
D
• Forest cover in Delhi accounts for 13.15% of its geographical area.
• Tree cover in Delhi is 147 sq. km, or 9.91% of its area.
• The combined green cover in Delhi (forest + tree cover) increased from 151 sq. km (10.2%) in 2001 to 342 sq. km (23.6%) in 2021.

India-level data from ISFR 2023:

•  otal forest cover in India: 7,13,789 sq. km, which is 21.71% of the geographical area.
T
• Total tree cover in India: 2.91% of the geographical area.
• Total green cover (forest + tree cover): 24.62% of India’s total geographical area.
• Top 3 states in forest cover by area: Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh.
• Top 3 states in forest cover as a percentage of total area: Mizoram > Arunachal Pradesh > Meghalaya.

Legal protection of trees in Delhi

The Delhi Preservation of Trees Act (DPTA), 1994 provides statutory protection to trees within the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
• A “tree” is defined as a woody plant with branches supported by a trunk of at least 5 cm in diameter and 1 metre in height.
• Under Section 2(h), “to fell a tree” includes cutting, severing, uprooting, bulldozing, or any form of removal.
• Under Section 8, no tree can be felled without prior permission from the Tree Officer, even on private land. The officer must respond within
60 days of inspection.
• Violation of the Act may result in imprisonment up to one year, or a fine up to ₹1,000, or both.
• The Act provides for the constitution of a Tree Authority which is responsible for conducting tree censuses, maintaining nurseries, and
assessing the impact of construction projects on trees.

Tree Transplantation Policy, 2020

• D elhi’s Tree Transplantation Policy mandates that 80% of trees approved for felling in infrastructure projects must be transplanted to a new
location.
• However, according to a government affidavit submitted in 2022, only 33% of the transplanted trees had survived, raising concerns about
the ecological effectiveness and monitoring of the policy.

About Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary

•  sola Bhatti WLS is located in southern Delhi, along the Aravalli hill range.
A
• It spans 32.71 sq. km and extends into the Faridabad and Gurugram districts of Haryana.
• The sanctuary forms part of the Southern Ridge, which is the only remaining part of the Aravalli range in Delhi.
• It serves as an important ecological corridor linking the Delhi Ridge to Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan.
• It is designated as an Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) due to its rich biodiversity and critical role in urban ecology and groundwater recharge.

The Hindu

1.2 Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP)

 he 26th Meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) is scheduled to take place in Kochi, Kerala, marking a significant
• T
event under the framework of the Antarctic Treaty System.

About the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP)

 he CEP is a specialised body established under the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). It was formed through the Protocol on Environmental
• T
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol), which was adopted in 1991 and came into force in 1998.

Objective
 he primary aim of the CEP is to advise and make recommendations on measures to protect the Antarctic environment and its dependent
• T
and associated ecosystems.

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Composition
 he CEP comprises representatives from consultative parties to the Antarctic Treaty. These are countries actively engaged in Antarctic
• T
research, governance, and decision-making.

Functions and responsibilities

• R eviews and advises on Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for proposed activities in Antarctica to ensure they cause minimal
environmental damage.
• Inspects Antarctic research stations and operational activities to verify compliance with environmental guidelines and regulations.
• Promotes scientific research related to Antarctic ecosystems and provides guidance on biodiversity conservation.
• Develops and updates waste management protocols to limit human impact in the region.
• Recommends policy frameworks and guidelines for environmental management and protection consistent with the goals of the Antarctic
Treaty.

Madrid Protocol, 1991

• T he Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, also known as the Madrid Protocol, was adopted in 1991 and came
into force in 1998.
• It designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and science” and sets comprehensive rules for the preservation of the
Antarctic environment.

CD

1.3 International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

• T he Union Cabinet has approved the establishment of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) in India.
• This global initiative is aimed at ensuring the protection and conservation of the world’s major big cat species.
• The Secretariat of IBCA will be headquartered in India, highlighting the country’s leadership in global conservation efforts.

Objective
IBCA seeks to protect and conserve seven major big cats found across the globe:
• Tiger
• Lion
• Leopard
• Snow Leopard
• Puma
• Jaguar
• Cheetah

Membership
• Open to 95 big cat range countries, along with non-range countries interested in big cat conservation.
• Includes conservation partners, scientific organisations, corporates, and other stakeholders committed to wildlife protection.
Key activities of IBCA
• Advocacy and awareness campaigns on big cat conservation
• Building global partnerships among countries and organisations
• Knowledge sharing and best practices in wildlife protection
• Capacity building through training, technology, and research exchange
• Promotion of eco-tourism and sustainable wildlife management
• Mobilisation of financial resources for conservation initiatives
Governance structure
• General Assembly: Includes all member countries and serves as the primary decision-making body.
• Council: Composed of elected member countries, responsible for implementing the Assembly’s decisions.
• Secretariat: Headed by a Secretary General, who is appointed by the General Assembly based on the Council’s recommendation.
Framework design
• The governance model of IBCA is inspired by the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
• The final governance structure was recommended by an International Steering Committee (ISC).

CD

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1.4 Clean Plant Programme (CPP)
• T he Union Cabinet has approved the Clean Plant Programme (CPP) with the objective of improving horticulture productivity by ensuring
access to high-quality, disease-free planting materials.
• This initiative is expected to significantly reduce crop losses and enhance the competitiveness of India’s horticulture sector.

Background and objectives

Announced in the Union Budget of February 2023, the CPP aims to:
• Provide certified, disease-free planting materials for fruits, vegetables, and flowers
• Improve yield and productivity by reducing losses due to plant diseases
• Strengthen horticulture value chains by improving input quality

Financial support and implementation

The Ministry of Agriculture has proposed a total outlay of ₹1,765 crore for implementing the programme:
• Half the funding will come from the Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
• The remaining half will be sourced through a loan from the Asian Development Bank (ADB)

Key features of CPP

• E stablishment of Clean Plant Centres across India
• Centres will be equipped for disease diagnostics, creation of mother plants, and quarantine of planting materials
• A structured certification process will ensure quality assurance and maintain accountability in distribution

Significance in Indian horticulture

• India is the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables globally
• Between 2013 and 2024, India’s horticulture cultivation area expanded from 24 million hectares to 28.63 million hectares
• In 2023–24, India exported $1.15 billion worth of fresh fruits but also imported $2.73 billion, indicating a need to strengthen domestic
production and reduce dependency

CD

1.5 National Dolphin Research Centre, Patna

 he inauguration of the National Dolphin Research Centre (NDRC) in Patna, Bihar marks a significant milestone in India’s efforts to
• T
conserve the Gangetic dolphin, the national aquatic animal of India.

Strategic location and purpose

• T he NDRC is strategically located near the Ganga River, which is the primary habitat of the Gangetic dolphin.
• It is India’s first research centre exclusively dedicated to the study and conservation of Gangetic dolphins.
• The centre will lead scientific research, conservation planning, and capacity building to improve dolphin conservation outcomes.

Why Patna?
• B ihar is home to around half of India’s estimated 3,000 Gangetic dolphins.
• The site offers direct access to the Ganga River ecosystem, enhancing research relevance and effectiveness.

Biological and ecological insights

•  he Gangetic dolphin was discovered in 1801 and historically inhabited river systems in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
T
• Found mainly in the mainstream of the Ganga Basin and its tributaries such as Ghagra, Kosi, and Chambal.
• Nicknamed the “Tiger of the Ganges”, it plays a crucial role as an indicator species for river health.
• The dolphin is essentially blind and navigates and hunts using ultrasonic sounds.
• Female dolphins are larger, and reproduction is slow, with calving intervals of 2–3 years.

Conservation status and threats

• I UCN Red List: Endangered
• CITES: Appendix I
• CMS (Convention on Migratory Species): Appendix I
• Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I

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Major threats include:
• U nintentional killing due to entanglement in fishing gear
• Poaching for oil and meat
• Habitat degradation due to damming, pollution, and river traffic

Conservation initiatives
• P roject Dolphin (2020): Launched to promote in-situ conservation of dolphins
• Vikramshila Ganges Dolphin Sanctuary in Bihar provides a protected habitat
• National Ganga River Dolphin Day celebrates awareness and action for dolphin conservation

Down to Earth

1.6 Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) COP14– Samar-

kand, Uzbekistan
 he 14th Conference of the Parties (COP14) to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
• T
concluded in Samarkand, Uzbekistan with the adoption of several key decisions to advance the global agenda for the conservation of
migratory species.

Key outcomes of COP14

• P arties agreed to list 14 new migratory species under CMS protection.
• Notable species added include the Eurasian lynx, Peruvian pelican, and Pallas’s cat.
• The listings reflect growing concern over habitat loss, poaching, and climate-related threats affecting migratory wildlife.

About CMS
• T he CMS is an intergovernmental treaty under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• Signed in 1979 in Bonn, Germany, and entered into force in 1983.
• As of March 1, 2022, CMS has 133 Parties, including India.

Mandate and structure

• C MS provides a legal foundation for coordinated international conservation measures across countries.
• Aims to protect terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species throughout their natural range.

Appendices of CMS
• A ppendix I: Includes Threatened Migratory Species that require strict protection.
• Appendix II: Includes Migratory Species that need international cooperation for conservation.

India and CMS

• India is a signatory to CMS and has signed non-legally binding Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) for conservation and management
of various species such as the Siberian crane, marine turtles, and raptors.
• India launched the National Action Plan for the Conservation of Migratory Birds (2018–2023) to strengthen habitat protection and
migratory corridors.
• Other key conservation efforts include:
- Project Snow Leopard (2009) for habitat conservation of the Himalayan snow leopard.
- Establishment of India’s first Dugong Conservation Reserve in Tamil Nadu, aiming to protect this vulnerable marine mammal.

Down to Earth

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1.7 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)
 n March 3, 2025, Prime Minister Narendra Modi chaired his first-ever meeting of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), more than ten
• O
years after assuming office. The meeting, held at Gir National Park, coincided with World Wildlife Day and marked the seventh full-body
NBWL meeting since the board’s inception.

Key outcomes of the meeting

• R eview of flagship wildlife conservation programmes.
• New initiatives announced for the conservation of gharials and the Great Indian Bustard.
• Plans to expand the scope of Project Cheetah and Project Lion.

What is the NBWL?

The National Board for Wildlife is the apex advisory body on wildlife conservation and policy in India. It was established in 2003 after
amendments to the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, and replaced the earlier Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
Its core functions include:
• Advising the government on policy matters related to wildlife conservation.
• Recommending the creation of national parks and sanctuaries.
• Reviewing and assessing development projects within or near protected areas.

Composition of the NBWL

• C hairperson: Prime Minister of India (ex officio)
• Vice-chairperson: Union Environment Minister
• Other members include:
- Chief of Army Staff
- Secretaries from the Ministries of Defence, Tribal Affairs, Information & Broadcasting, and Finance
- Members of Parliament (3 from Lok Sabha, 1 from Rajya Sabha)
- Director General of Forests
- Ten eminent ecologists, conservationists, and environmentalists
- Five members from non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

Standing Committee of NBWL

• A smaller group under NBWL responsible for evaluating project proposals involving forest land in and around protected areas.
• Makes recommendations which can be accepted or overruled by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

Criticism and controversy

•  ince 2014, the reconstitution of the NBWL has been criticised for reducing independent representation.
S
• The current board has fewer non-governmental members compared to the previous UPA era.
• Critics allege that it has acted as a rubber stamp for development projects.
• Notable controversial clearances include:
- Ken-Betwa river linking project, affecting Panna Tiger Reserve
- Oil exploration project near Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary
- Denotification of Galathea Bay Sanctuary, a nesting site for leatherback turtles
• The Standing Committee has held over 50 meetings since 2014, many without adequate independent expert participation.

Historical background
• T he NBWL’s predecessor, the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL), was formed in 1952 as the Central Board for Wildlife.
• Renamed IBWL at its first meeting in Mysore (1952), chaired by Sri Jayachamaraja Wadiyar, the Maharaja of Mysore.
• Key achievements of IBWL include:
- Advocating the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972
- Establishment of Gir National Park
- Declaring the tiger as the national animal and the peacock as the national bird
- Supporting the launch of Project Tiger in 1973

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1.8 Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972
• T he Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972 is a landmark legislation that provides the legal framework for the protection of wild animals,
birds, and plants in India.
• It plays a crucial role in ensuring ecological and environmental security by safeguarding biodiversity and maintaining ecological balance.

Objective and scope of the Act

• T he WPA aims to ensure the protection of wildlife species and their habitats.
• It provides for the creation of protected areas such as Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks, and Conservation Reserves.
• It regulates hunting, trade, transportation, and possession of wildlife and their derivatives.

Recent proposal by Kerala

• T he Kerala government has proposed an amendment to the WPA seeking to empower Chief Conservators of Forests (CCFs) instead of
Chief Wildlife Wardens (CWLWs) to permit hunting in certain cases.
• The amendment proposal would allow the hunting of even Schedule I mammals, which currently enjoy the highest level of protection.
• The stated aim is to streamline decision-making and address human-wildlife conflict more efficiently.

Classification of species under WPA

The Act divides wildlife into six schedules, based on the level of protection required:
• Schedule I: Provides absolute protection to species such as tigers and elephants. Violations attract the highest penalties.
• Schedule II: Also offers high protection. Hunting is permitted only under threat to human life.
• Schedules III and IV: Include species not classified as endangered. Violations attract lesser penalties.
• Schedule V: Includes species that may be hunted, such as certain vermin species.
• Schedule VI: Lists plant species that are prohibited from cultivation and planting.

Key provisions under the WPA

• S ection 44: Regulates issuance of licenses to taxidermists, dealers, and traders dealing in animal articles, preserved parts, captive
animals, and venom.
• Section 48: Mandates prior permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden or authorised officer for transporting wildlife or their derivatives.

The Hindu

1.9 Operation Jumbo

 he Karnataka Forest Department has resumed Operation Jumbo in the Hassan forest division, as part of a broader strategy to manage
• T
human-elephant conflict and ensure safer coexistence between local communities and wild elephants.

What is Operation Jumbo?

Operation Jumbo is a state-level campaign initiated by the Karnataka Forest Department to:
• Capture and radio-collar rogue wild elephants
• Track elephant movement using GPS-based technology
• Reduce human-elephant conflict through real-time monitoring

Execution and resources involved

• E ach operation to capture and collar a wild elephant costs approximately ₹22 lakh.
• The radio-collars are imported from South Africa.
• The operation involves a dedicated team of 70–80 personnel, including:
- Forest officers
- Veterinarians
- Mahouts (elephant handlers)
- Support staff
• Activities include surveillance, tracking, tranquilizing (darting), and relocation or securing of tuskers.

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Why Operation Jumbo matters
• India is home to the largest population of wild Asian elephants, with an estimated 29,964 individuals (as per the 2017 elephant census).
• Karnataka leads all states in wild elephant population, followed by Assam and Kerala.
• T he state frequently witnesses human-elephant conflict in forest-fringe regions, often resulting in crop loss, property damage, and human
fatalities. Operation Jumbo seeks to strike a balance between wildlife conservation and public safety.

Conservation status of Asian Elephants

• I UCN Red List: Endangered
• CITES: Appendix I
• CMS (Convention on Migratory Species): Appendix I
• Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I

The Hindu

1.10 IPCC’s Assessment Reports (AR)

• In January 2024, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) officially launched its Seventh Assessment Cycle (AR7) with
a bureau meeting held in Turkey. This marks a new phase in the global effort to assess and respond to the evolving science and impacts of
climate change.

About IPCC
The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP). It is the leading international scientific body for the assessment of climate change.
• IPCC has 195 member countries.
• It does not conduct original research but reviews and synthesises scientific literature produced globally.
• It plays a crucial role in shaping global climate policy by providing science-based evidence and projections.

From AR6 to AR7

• The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) warned of the urgent need to limit global warming, calling for immediate global action.
• AR6 highlighted the catastrophic consequences of exceeding 1.5°C warming.
• Insights from AR6, along with member country submissions, will help define the scope and structure of the upcoming AR7 cycle.
The initiation of AR7 signifies a renewed commitment to scientific integrity, global cooperation, and informed climate action at all levels of
governance.

1.11 CBD COP16 – Convention on Biological Diversity Confer-

ence in Colombia
 he 16th Conference of the Parties (COP16) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was held in Cali, Colombia, continuing
• T
global efforts to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity.

About the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

•  he CBD was opened for signature in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit and entered into force on 29 December 1993.
T
• The first COP session was held in 1994 in the Bahamas.
• The CBD Secretariat is headquartered in Montreal, Canada.
• Ratified by 196 countries, with the United States being the only UN member that has not ratified the treaty.

Role of the COP

• T he Conference of the Parties (COP) is the governing body of the CBD.
• It meets every two years to review progress, set priorities, and adopt work programmes.

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Protocols under the CBD
1. C
 artagena Protocol (2000, in force from 2003):
- Governs the transboundary movement of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs).
- Aims to manage risks related to biotechnology.
2. N
 agoya Protocol (2010, in force from 2014):
- Focuses on access and benefit-sharing (ABS).
- Ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources with countries of origin.

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

• Finalised at COP15 in Montreal (2022).
• Sets out 23 global biodiversity targets for 2030 and 4 long-term goals for 2050.
• Addresses the global biodiversity crisis by aiming to halt and reverse biodiversity loss.
• Non-binding on member states, but provides a crucial roadmap for biodiversity action.
30 x 30 Momentum at COP16
• One of the key priorities of COP16 is to push for the implementation of the 30 x 30 target:
- Conserve 30% of the world’s land and oceans by 2030.
- Restore 30% of degraded ecosystems by the same deadline.

The Indian Express

1.12 United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA)

The United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) is the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment, responsible
for setting global environmental priorities and developing international environmental law and policies.

Establishment and mandate

• E stablished in 2012 during the Rio+20 Conference, as a result of the strengthening of the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
• Serves as the governing body of UNEP.
• Provides a platform for UN member states, civil society, scientists, and the private sector to discuss environmental challenges.

Structure and functioning

•  eadquartered in Nairobi, Kenya.
H
• Composed of 193 UN member states, each with one vote.
• Meets biennially to make policy decisions, adopt resolutions, and set the global environmental agenda.
• Decisions and resolutions are non-binding but influential in shaping global and national environmental action.

Major themes and issues addressed

UNEA has dealt with a wide range of environmental issues, including:
• Climate change and carbon neutrality
• Plastic pollution and marine litter
• Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem restoration
• Chemicals and waste management
• Sustainable consumption and production
• Green recovery and circular economy

UNEA and multilateral action

• U NEA plays a central role in coordinating environmental dimensions of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• Encourages multilateral efforts through partnerships, innovation, and knowledge sharing.
• Acts as a forum for the negotiation of new international environmental agreements, including the recent push for a Global Plastics
Treaty.

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1.13 Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement – Global Carbon Market
Mechanism
 t COP29 held in Baku, Azerbaijan, countries adopted the long-awaited rules under Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement, establishing a
• A
global carbon trading mechanism under UN supervision.

What is Article 6.4?

• A rticle 6.4 creates a UN-supervised global carbon market that enables countries to trade carbon credits, also known as Emission
Reduction Credits (ERCs).
• Countries can invest in emission reduction projects globally and use the resulting credits to offset their own emissions.
• The mechanism helps in achieving Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) by allowing international cooperation.

Supervision and compliance

• T he system is overseen by a Supervisory Body under the UNFCCC.
• This body ensures that:
- Projects meet international standards.
- Credits are properly issued and tracked.
- Environmental integrity is maintained.

Key features of Article 6.4

•  romotes sustainable development and low-emission investments.
P
• Generates tradeable ERCs from verified emission reduction projects.
• Supports both public and private sector participation in climate actions.
• Helps countries meet their NDCs more efficiently and affordably.

Related provisions – Article 6.2

• A rticle 6.2 allows countries to engage in bilateral or multilateral trading of Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs).
• ITMOs serve as units for carbon credits traded between countries to support NDC targets.

Potential impact
• A rticle 6.4 could help reduce the cost of implementing climate plans by $250 billion annually.
• It provides a powerful incentive to scale up green investments, especially in developing countries.

Down to Earth

1.14 Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Management in India

 he Andaman and Nicobar Islands Administration has sought the expertise of the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) to manage the invasive
• T
chital (Axis axis) population on Ross Island, highlighting the growing ecological concerns caused by Invasive Alien Species (IAS).

Chital and IAS Context

• The chital, or spotted deer, is classified as:
- Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List
- Schedule II species under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
• Despite its native status in mainland India, chital is non-native to the Andaman Islands and has become an invasive species there.

Definition and Global Framework

• T he Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines Invasive Alien Species (IAS) as non-native organisms (animals, plants, fungi, or
microorganisms) that pose threats to biodiversity, ecosystems, or human well-being.
• IAS are known for their ability to “arrive, survive, and thrive” in new environments, often lacking natural predators.
• The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) functions under the IUCN’s Species Survival Commission (SSC) to identify and manage
IAS globally.

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India’s Legal Framework on IAS
• T he Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, as amended in 2022, provides a narrower definition of IAS.
• It refers to non-native species whose introduction or spread may threaten wildlife or habitats, and empowers authorities to regulate or
remove such species.

Ecological Impact and Concerns

• IAS like chital on Ross Island threaten native flora and fauna, disrupt ecological balance, and alter habitat structure.
• They outcompete native species, often leading to population decline or extinction of endemic organisms.

The Indian Express

1.15 Nagoya Protocol under the Convention on Biological Di-

versity (CBD)
 he Nagoya Protocol is a landmark international agreement under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted to ensure fair
• T
and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources.

Adoption and Implementation

• A dopted: October 29, 2010, in Nagoya, Japan
• Came into force: October 12, 2014
• Legally binding on its Parties

Objective
 o provide a transparent legal framework for the access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived
• T
from their use.

Scope
 pplies to genetic resources covered under the CBD, including those held in in-situ (natural habitats) and ex-situ (gene banks, botanical
• A
gardens) conditions.
• Also covers traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources.

Key Provisions
• A
 ccess: Requires prior informed consent (PIC) from the provider country before accessing genetic resources.
• Benefit-sharing: Establishes mutually agreed terms (MAT) for sharing benefits—monetary or non-monetary (e.g., technology transfer,
research collaboration).
• Compliance: Mandates Parties to ensure that users within their jurisdiction comply with access and benefit-sharing (ABS) obligations.

Relevance to India
• India ratified the Nagoya Protocol in October 2012.
• Implemented through the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA).
• Aims to protect sovereign rights over biological resources, especially in biodiversity-rich regions.

Down to Earth

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1.16 Key Highlights of World Migration Report 2024
 he World Migration Report 2024, released by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), outlines major global migration trends,
• T
with an increasing focus on the climate change-migration nexus.

About IOM
• Established in 1951 as the Provisional Intergovernmental Committee for the Movement of Migrants from Europe (PICMME), post-WWII.
•  ecame a related organisation of the United Nations in 2016.
B
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
• Membership: 175 Member States and 8 Observer States
• India became a Member State on June 18, 2008.

Global Trends in the Report

• C limate change and environmental degradation are emerging as key drivers of internal and cross-border migration.
• Over 216 million people are projected to migrate within their countries by 2050 due to climate-related impacts.

Regional Climate Migration Trends

• N orth Africa: Countries like Libya, Algeria, and Morocco face migration due to reduced rainfall and prolonged droughts.
• South Asia:
- Pakistan and Bangladesh: Severe floods have caused large-scale displacement.
- India: Experiences significant internal migration due to climate impacts, particularly in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya
Pradesh.

India-Specific Data
• I ndia is the largest recipient of global remittances, receiving a record $111.22 billion in 2022.
• Major source countries for remittances to India:
- United Arab Emirates (UAE)
- United States (USA)
- Saudi Arabia
• India hosts the largest number of international migrants, primarily its own diaspora residing in the UAE, USA, and Saudi Arabia.
• Ranks as the 13th destination country globally for immigrants, with approximately 4.48 million immigrants.

The Hindu

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1.17 10th World Water Forum – Water for Shared Prosperity
• T he 10th World Water Forum, held in Bali, Indonesia, served as a crucial platform to address the growing global water crisis.
• At the event, the World Bank released its flagship report titled “Water for Shared Prosperity”, underlining the disparities and risks
associated with water access and management.

Key Findings from the World Bank Report

•  billion people lack access to safely managed drinking water.
2
• 3.5 billion people do not have safe sanitation facilities.
• Over 800 million people are at high risk of drought, and twice as many live in flood-prone areas.
• Low-income countries are seeing a regression in safe drinking water access—about 197 million more people lack access compared to 2000.
• The rural-urban divide in water access in these countries has shown little improvement in two decades.
• Water stress is highest in regions like the Sahel, Southeastern Africa, and South and Central Asia.
• The Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) holds over half of Africa’s freshwater resources.

About the World Water Forum

• F irst held in 1997, the World Water Forum is the world’s largest international event on water.
• Occurs every three years, drawing stakeholders including governments, scientists, NGOs, civil society, and businesses.
• Organised by the World Water Council (WWC).

World Water Council (WWC)

• F ounded in 1996, following global consultations from 1994–1996.
• Has a diverse membership from over 50 countries.
• Works to:
- Promote awareness on water issues
- Influence global water policies
- Conduct research and advocacy
- Support Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6): Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

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2. Climate Change
Prelims PYQs
[UPSC CSE 2018] Which of the following [UPSC CSE 2014] The scientific view is that [UPSC CSE 2012] The increasing amount of
statements best describes “carbon the increase in global temperature should not carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the
fertilization”? exceed 2°C above pre-industrial level. If the temperature of the atmosphere, because it
(a) Increased plant growth due to increased global temperature increases beyond 3°C absorbs:
concentration of carbon dioxide in the above the pre-industrial level, what can be its (a) T
 he water vapour of the air and retains its
atmosphere possible impact/impacts on the world? heat.
(b) Increased temperature of Earth due to 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net (b) The UV part of the solar radiation.
increased concentration of carbon dioxide carbon source. (c) All the solar radiations.
in the atmosphere 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur. (d) The infrared part of the solar radiation.
(c) Increased acidity of oceans as a result of 3. All the global wetlands will permanently
increased concentration of carbon dioxide disappear. [UPSC CSE 2011] Human activities in the
in the atmosphere 4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible recent past have caused the increased
(d) Adaptation of all living beings on Earth to anywhere in the world. concentration of carbon dioxide in the
the climate change brought about by the Select the correct answer using the code atmosphere, but a lot of it does not remain in
increased concentration of carbon dioxide given below: the lower atmosphere because:
in the atmosphere (a) 1 only 1. Its escape into the outer stratosphere
(b) 1 and 2 only 2. T he photosynthesis by phytoplankton in
[UPSC CSE 2018] The term “sixth mass (c) 2, 3 and 4 only the oceans
extinction/sixth extinction” is often (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 3. T he trapping of air in the polar ice caps
mentioned in the news in the context of the Which of the statements given above is/are
discussion of: [UPSC CSE 2012] The acidification correct?
(a) Widespread monoculture practices in of oceans is increasing. Why is this (a) 1 and 2 only
agriculture and large-scale commercial phenomenon a cause of concern? (b) 2 only
farming with indiscriminate use of 1. The growth and survival of calcareous (c) 2 and 3 only
chemicals in many parts of the world phytoplankton will be adversely affected. (d) 3 only
that may result in the loss of good native 2. The growth and survival of coral reefs will
ecosystems. be adversely affected. [UPSC CSE 2010] What are the possible
(b)Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite 3. The survival of some animals that have limitations of India in mitigating the global
with the Earth in the near future in the phytoplanktonic larvae will be adversely warming at present and in the immediate
manner it happened 65 million years ago affected. future?
that caused the mass extinction of many 4. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds 1. A ppropriate alternate technologies are not
species including those of dinosaurs. will be adversely affected. sufficiently available
(c) Large scale cultivation of genetically Which among the statements given above is/ 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research
modified crops in many parts of the world are correct? and development
and promoting their cultivation in other (a) 1, 2 and 3 only 3. M any developed countries have already
parts of the world which may cause the (b) 2 only set up their polluting industries in India
disappearance of good native crop plants (c) 1 and 3 only Which of the statements given above is/are
and the loss of food biodiversity. (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 correct?
(d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse (a) 1 and 2 only
of natural resources, fragmentation/ [UPSC CSE 2012] Which of the following (b) 2 only
loss of natural habitats, destruction of can be threats to the biodiversity of a (c) 1 and 3 only
ecosystems, pollution and global climate geographical area? (d) 1, 2 and 3
change. 1. Global warming
2. Fragmentation of habitat
[UPSC CSE 2017] In the context of 3. Invasion of alien species
mitigating the impending global warming due 4. Promotion of vegetarianism
to anthropogenic emission of carbon dioxide, Choose the correct answer using the code
which of the following can be the potential given below:
sites for carbon sequestration? (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
1. Abandoned and Uneconomic coal seams (b) 2 and 3 only
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs (c) 1 and 4 only
3. Subterranean deep saline formations (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Select the correct answer using the code
given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

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2.1 Greening of Thar Desert
A recent study indicates that the Thar Desert in Rajasthan may be undergoing a gradual “greening” process, largely due to the effects of
climate change and altered rainfall patterns.

About the Thar Desert

• T he Thar Desert is the 18th largest subtropical desert in the world.
• It is one of the most densely populated deserts, with 40% of Rajasthan’s population residing within it.
• Geographical extent:
- Stretches from the Sutlej River in the north
- Bounded by the Rann of Kutch in the south
- Aravalli Hills to the east
- Indus River to the west
• Approximately 85% of the Thar Desert lies in India, the rest in Pakistan.
• T he region has been inhabited since ancient times, with civilisations thriving here around 50,000 years ago.
• It houses the Desert National Park, which is home to several endangered species, including the Great Indian Bustard.

Reasons for Greening

1. Climate Change Effects:
- Global warming is causing shifts in temperature and rainfall patterns.
- These changes are making the environment more favourable for vegetation growth.
2. Altered Rainfall Patterns:
- Increased precipitation over the desert region has been observed in recent years.
- This trend is encouraging the spread of grasses and shrubs, reducing barren land area.
3. Indian Monsoon Dynamics:
- The westward extension of the monsoon is bringing more rainfall to the Thar.
- This shift is particularly significant as monsoons historically brought limited rain to this region.
4. Expansion of the Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP):
- The IOWP is a large area of warm sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean.
- Due to climate change, the IOWP is expanding westward, affecting monsoon circulation.
- This westward expansion may lead to increased rainfall in the Thar Desert.

CD

2.2 Gulf Stream Collapse – Scientific Warnings and Global

Implications
 ecent scientific studies have raised serious concerns over the potential collapse of the Gulf Stream system, also known as the Atlantic
• R
Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), due to accelerating climate change. This system plays a vital role in regulating global climate
patterns.

What is the Gulf Stream/AMOC?

• T he Gulf Stream is a powerful ocean current that forms part of the larger AMOC, which transports warm, salty water from the tropics to the
North Atlantic.
• It helps regulate temperatures across North America and Europe, supports marine biodiversity, and influences global monsoon patterns.

What does a collapse mean?

• A collapse of the AMOC refers to a significant slowdown or complete shutdown of this circulation system.
• This could lead to dramatic shifts in global weather systems, with far-reaching consequences.

Key predictions and timeline

• A 2023 study in Nature Communications suggested that the AMOC could collapse as early as mid-to-late 21st century, possibly between
2025 and 2095, depending on emissions and feedback loops.
• Early warning signals include changes in sea surface temperatures, salinity, and Greenland ice melt.

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Consequences of AMOC collapse
1.  urope: Severe winters and disruption of agriculture due to cooling.
E
2. West Africa and India: Weakening of monsoon systems, threatening water and food security.
3. Amazon Rainforest: Increased risk of dieback due to reduced rainfall.
4. Sea-level rise: Particularly along the eastern seaboard of North America.
5. Global climate destabilisation: Intensification of heatwaves, storms, and ecosystem shifts.

Scientific basis and warnings

• IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) categorises the AMOC collapse as a low-likelihood, high-impact event, but newer research
indicates the tipping point may be closer than previously assumed.

Policy and preparedness

• T he potential collapse of the Gulf Stream system highlights the urgency of emission reductions, climate adaptation, and international
cooperation.
• It underscores the need for robust early-warning systems, climate-resilient infrastructure, and scientific monitoring.
The Gulf Stream’s fate is a stark reminder of how interconnected Earth’s systems are and how quickly irreversible change can occur if
climate thresholds are crossed.

2.3 Global Methane Tracker 2024

• T he Global Methane Tracker (GMT) 2024, published by the International Energy Agency (IEA), presents a concerning picture of methane
emissions from the global energy sector.
• Based on the latest satellite data, field measurements, and scientific research, the report provides a comprehensive assessment of
emissions trends and reduction potential.

Key findings from GMT 2024

• In 2023, methane emissions from fuel use reached nearly 120 million tonnes (Mt)—one of the highest levels on record.
• This represents a slight increase from 2022 levels.
• An additional 10 Mt of methane came from bioenergy-related sources.
• Around 80 Mt of emissions originated from just 10 countries, led by:
- United States and Russia for oil and gas emissions
- China for emissions from coal mining operations

Top five sources of methane emissions

1.  griculture – 40%
A
2. Oil and gas operations – 22%
3. C
 oal mining – 12%
4. W
 aste (landfills and wastewater) – 11%
5. B
 iomass and bioenergy burning – 5%

Implications for climate action

 ethane is a potent greenhouse gas, with more than 80 times the warming potential of CO₂ over 20 years.
• M
 espite some regional emission reductions, global levels remain too high to meet the Paris Agreement targets.
• D

Paris Agreement alignment

• T o limit global warming to 1.5°C, methane emissions from fossil fuels must be reduced by 75% by 2030.
• Achieving this goal would require an investment of around $170 billion, equivalent to less than 5% of the fossil fuel industry’s 2023 income.

Data and methodology

• T he GMT uses advanced satellite tracking, aerial surveys, and ground-based monitoring.
• It incorporates findings from new scientific studies and international collaborations.

Down to Earth

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 23
2.4 A23a Iceberg
The A23a iceberg, currently the world’s largest, has captured global
scientific attention as it drifts and spins across the Southern Ocean
after breaking off from Antarctica.

Origin and characteristics

• A
 23a originated from the larger A23 iceberg, which calved from
the Filchner Ice Shelf in 1986.
• It covers approximately 3,855 square kilometers, which is
nearly twice the size of Delhi or more than six times the size of
Mumbai.

Recent movement and location

• S ince detaching in 2020, A23a has been drifting and is now
located near the South Orkney Islands, northeast of the
Antarctic Peninsula.
• The iceberg is currently trapped over a seamount, where it has
begun to spin slowly in place, completing a full rotation roughly
every 24 days.

Cause of spinning and melting

• A 23a is affected by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, which is
pulling it into warmer waters.
• As a result, the iceberg is gradually melting—though this does not
contribute to sea level rise, as it is already floating.

Ecological and scientific significance

• T he iceberg’s prolonged presence in the area could disrupt local marine ecosystems, especially by affecting plankton and other
foundational species in the food web.
• A23a offers a unique opportunity for scientists to study the dynamics of large iceberg movement, melting behavior, and interactions with
ocean currents.

The Indian Express

2.5 Mount Fuji

• M
 ount Fuji, Japan’s tallest and most iconic mountain, recently recorded its longest delay in snowfall since records began in 1894,
highlighting potential climate anomalies in the region.

Geographical and geological features

• L ocated on Honshu Island, about 100 km southwest of Tokyo.
• It stands at 3,776 metres (12,389 feet), making it the highest
mountain in Japan.
• A stratovolcano, formed through layers of lava, ash, and tephra
over thousands of years.
• Its current form is believed to have taken shape around 300,000
years ago.
• The last major eruption was the Hoei eruption in 1707, which
caused ash fallout over Edo (now Tokyo).

Climate and environmental characteristics

•T he summit typically remains snow-capped from November to May.
• In 2024, snowfall was significantly delayed, underscoring rising
temperatures and climate variability.

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Cultural and spiritual importance
•  ecognised as one of Japan’s Three Holy Mountains.
R
• Considered sacred in Shintoism, and associated with the deity Konohanasakuya-hime.
• Depicted in famous artworks such as Hokusai’s Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji.
• Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013 for its cultural significance and natural beauty.

Tourism and ecology

• P art of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park.
• Surrounded by five scenic lakes: Kawaguchi, Yamanaka, Sai, Shoji, and Motosu.
• Hosts cultural events like the Fuji Shiba-sakura Festival, which celebrates local flora.

Down to Earth

2.6 Gardi Sugdub Island

• In a landmark response to climate change, Panama has begun relocating residents of Gardi Sugdub Island, part of the Guna Yala province,
due to rising sea levels. This marks one of the first large-scale climate-induced relocations in the world.

Background
• G ardi Sugdub is part of the San Blas archipelago, situated in the
Caribbean Sea.
• The island is home to around 1,200 Indigenous Guna people, with
300 families recently relocated to mainland Panama.
• Panama plans to evacuate entire island communities by 2050,
aiming to become the first nation to do so in response to sea level
rise.

Sea level rise in the Caribbean

• T he Caribbean Sea is witnessing a rise in sea level of
approximately 3 to 4 millimetres per year.
• The rising seas have led to frequent flooding, coastal erosion, and
saltwater intrusion, threatening the habitability of low-lying islands
like Gardi Sugdub.

About the Caribbean Sea

• T he Caribbean Sea is the second-largest marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean.
• Geographically located between North and South America, it is bordered by:
- South: Colombia, Panama, Venezuela
- W est: Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula
- N orth: Greater Antilles (including Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico)
- E ast: Lesser Antilles (a chain of smaller islands)
• It connects to the Gulf of Mexico in the north via the Yucatán Channel.

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2.7 Jacaranda Premature Blooming in Mexico
• In an unusual event that has drawn both curiosity and concern, Jacaranda trees in Mexico began blooming prematurely in early 2024, well
ahead of their typical flowering season.
• Scientists and environmentalists have identified this anomaly as a possible indicator of climate change.

About Jacaranda trees

• N ative to South America, Jacarandas are widely planted in cities like Mexico City for their lavender-blue blossoms.
• In Mexico, Jacarandas usually bloom during the spring season, especially in March and April, colouring the urban landscape with vibrant hues.

What’s unusual?
• In 2024, the trees began to bloom as early as January and February, well before the usual season.
• Premature blooming has been observed in multiple parts of Mexico, particularly in Mexico City.

Reasons for early blooming

• A bove-average temperatures during the winter months have likely triggered the early flowering.
• Changes in photoperiod (daylight hours) and urban heat island effects are believed to have accelerated the blooming cycle.

Link to climate change

• T he event is being studied as a climate change indicator, highlighting shifts in seasonal cycles.
• Scientists warn that such changes can disrupt plant-pollinator relationships, affect biodiversity, and alter urban ecosystems.

Broader implications
 hile Jacarandas are ornamental, premature blooming in plants can signal ecosystem stress.
• W
• It may affect agriculture, water cycles, and city-level environmental planning in the long run.

2.8 Glacial Lake Dynamics in the Himalayas

 he Himalayan region is witnessing dynamic transformations in its glacial lakes due to the accelerated retreat of glaciers induced by
• T
climate change. These changes pose increasing threats to both ecosystems and human settlements downstream.

Formation and distribution of glacial lakes

• G lacial lakes form when glaciers melt, and the meltwater accumulates behind natural dams of moraines or ice.
• Most Himalayan glacial lakes are located in countries like India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and China.
• Key basins include the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra, where lake formation has accelerated in the last two decades.

Current trends and data

•  significant rise in the number, size, and volume of glacial lakes has been recorded.
A
• Between 1990 and 2018, glacial lake area in the Himalayas increased by over 50%.
• Regions like Sikkim, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh have shown notable increases in glacial lake activity.
• A notable example is the Gepang Gath Lake in Lahaul-Spiti district, Himachal Pradesh, which has undergone rapid expansion in recent
years, raising concerns over its stability and potential GLOF risks.

Risks from Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)

• T he increased formation of lakes elevates the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs).
• GLOFs occur when a natural dam fails, releasing vast volumes of water and debris downstream.
• GLOFs can cause loss of life, infrastructure damage, and disruptions in hydropower projects.

Contributing climate factors

• R ising global temperatures are accelerating glacier melt.
• Erratic precipitation, including sudden snow and rainfall events, contributes to lake formation.
• Thawing permafrost and seismic activity also weaken moraine dams.

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 26
Monitoring and mitigation efforts
• R emote sensing and satellite data are used to map and monitor glacial lakes.
• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) are active in
risk assessment.
• Mitigation includes early warning systems, lake drainage mechanisms, and community awareness programs.

The Hindu

2.9 How the Arun River is making Mount Everest taller

 ecent geological studies suggest that the Arun River, a major trans-Himalayan river flowing through Tibet and Nepal, is indirectly
• R
contributing to the uplift of Mount Everest, causing it to rise by up to 2 millimetres annually.

River Incision and Crustal Lightening

• T he Arun River erodes significant rock and soil from its deep river valley, located about 75 km from Mount Everest.
• This process, known as river incision, reduces the overall weight of the Earth’s crust in the Arun River basin.

Isostatic Rebound Effect

• W hen heavy loads such as rock or ice are removed from a section of the Earth’s crust, the underlying crust rises to maintain balance, similar
to how a boat rises when cargo is unloaded.
• This process, called isostatic rebound, is believed to be lifting the Earth’s crust beneath the Everest region, contributing to the
mountain’s gradual rise.

Hydro-Geographical Profile of the Arun River

• O riginates in Tibet, where it is known as Phung Chu or Bum-chu.
• Enters Nepal, flowing southward and joining the Sun Koshi and Tamur rivers at Tribenighat to form the Sapta Koshi River.
• Major tributaries:
- Left bank: Yeru Tsanpo, Trakar-chu
- Right bank: Barun River
• It is the largest trans-Himalayan river in Nepal, playing a key role in regional hydrology, sediment transport, and ecosystem dynamics.

Development and Strategic Importance

• T he Arun-III Hydro Power Project, with a capacity of 900 MW, is under construction with financial support of $6.95 billion from India.
• The project recently achieved a major tunnel breakthrough, marking a key milestone in enhancing renewable energy infrastructure in the region.

2.10 Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region

• T he Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region, often referred to as the “Third Pole”, is facing unprecedented climate and ecological threats.
• The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has called for urgent climate finance and cooperation to
prevent the collapse of this crucial mountain ecosystem.

Geographical coverage
The HKH region spans across 12 countries:
• Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
• It is often termed the “Water Tower of Asia”, due to its extensive snow and ice reserves.

Environmental importance
• T he HKH region contains the largest volume of snow and ice outside the Arctic and Antarctic, spanning over 3,500,000 square
kilometres.
• It is home to thousands of glaciers and iconic peaks such as Mount Everest and K2.
• Major source of freshwater for over 12 major rivers, affecting the lives of more than 2 billion people across Asia.

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 27
Major rivers originating or sustained by the HKH
•  yr Darya and Amu Darya – flow into the Aral Sea
S
• Tarim River – flows to the Taklamakan Desert
• Indus – discharges into the Arabian Sea; Ganga and Brahmaputra – discharge into the Bay of Bengal
• Yellow River – empties into the Gulf of Bohai
• Yangtze River – flows into the East China Sea
• Mekong River – reaches the South China Sea
• Chindwin, Salween, Irrawaddy – flow into the Andaman Sea

Urgent concerns and ICIMOD’s role

• R apid glacier melt, rising temperatures, and erratic weather patterns are impacting regional ecosystems, agriculture, and water security.
• ICIMOD has warned that without coordinated climate action, the HKH could face an irreversible collapse.

About ICIMOD
•  n intergovernmental knowledge and learning centre dedicated to the HKH.
A
• Headquartered in Kathmandu, Nepal.
• Serves eight regional member countries.
• Works to generate and disseminate scientific knowledge, connect science with policy, and promote on-the-ground practices.
• Provides a platform for regional cooperation, targeting sustainable mountain development.

Down to Earth

2.11 Madeira River in Brazil

• T he Madeira River, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon
River, is currently experiencing record low water levels due to a
severe drought in the Amazon rainforest.
• This situation underscores the growing impact of climate change
and deforestation on South America’s key water systems.

Geographical and hydrological profile

• T he Madeira River is formed by the confluence of the Mamoré and
Beni Rivers at Villa Bella, Bolivia.
• It flows 3,352 km, beginning from the upper reaches of the
Mamore River.
• The river travels along the Bolivia-Brazil border for about 100 km,
before coursing through the Rondônia and Amazonas states in Brazil.
• It meets the Amazon River roughly 145 km east of Manaus, a key
city in the Brazilian Amazon.

Navigation and seasonal behaviour

• The river is navigable by seagoing vessels for about 1,300 km upstream until Cachoeira de Santo Antônio.
• Its climate varies from arid to humid, and during the rainy season, the river overflows its banks, submerging nearby forests.

Historical and cultural context

• H istorically inhabited by Indigenous communities and mestizo populations, the region later attracted farmers and ranchers.
• The name “Madeira” means “Wood River” in Portuguese, reflecting the river’s importance in timber transport. It was previously known as
the Cuyari River.

Environmental significance and challenges

• T he drought and record low water levels threaten local biodiversity, water supply, transportation, and fishing livelihoods.
• As part of the Amazon basin, the Madeira plays a critical role in regional ecology and hydrology.

CD

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 28
2.12 Little Prespa Lake is slowly drying
• L
 ittle Prespa Lake, also known as Small Lake Prespa, is
undergoing a gradual ecological decline, as large portions of the
lakebed dry up due to a combination of climate change and human
interventions.

Geographical profile
• T he lake lies on the Albanian-Greek border, with the majority of its
area in Greece, and a small southern tip in Albania.
• It is located just north of the Great Prespa Lake, to which it is
ecologically connected.
• In Albania, Little Prespa Lake spans about 450 hectares, much of
which has become swampy or dried up in recent years.

Causes of drying
• H istorically, the lake was fed by snowmelt and rainfall, providing
steady inflow to maintain its water level.
• In the 1970s, Albania’s communist government diverted the
Devoll River for irrigation around the Korca region, significantly
reducing inflows to the lake.
• The combination of hydrological disruption and ongoing climate
change has accelerated the lake’s drying trend.

Ecological and environmental implications

• T he lake has supported wetland biodiversity, including various species of birds, fish, and aquatic plants.
• Drying of the lake threatens habitats, water availability, and the region’s ecological balance.
• It also raises concerns for cross-border water management and regional cooperation.

The Hindu

2.13 Mass Coral Bleaching in Lakshadweep

 he Lakshadweep Sea is witnessing alarming levels of mass coral bleaching due to persistent extreme heatwaves and marine
• T
heatwaves, severely impacting one of India’s most pristine coral reef ecosystems.

Scientific Observations
• S urveys conducted by ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (ICAR-CMFRI) highlight coral bleaching events across multiple
reef sites.
• Degree Heating Week (DHW), a metric used to assess thermal stress on corals, has exceeded 4, indicating significant and prolonged
thermal exposure.

What is Coral Bleaching?

• C oral bleaching occurs when corals expel their symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) due to thermal stress, leading to a loss of colour and vital
nutrients.
• If stress persists, bleached corals are unable to recover, resulting in mass mortality.

Causes and Triggers

• Prolonged marine heatwaves caused by climate change and rising ocean temperatures.
• Shallow coral reefs in the Lakshadweep Sea are particularly vulnerable to rapid temperature fluctuations.
Ecological and Economic Impact
• Coral reefs support biodiversity hotspots, protect coastal communities from erosion, and sustain fisheries and tourism.
• Bleaching events threaten marine species, livelihoods of local communities, and ecosystem resilience.

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 29
3. Pollution, Pollutants and
Harmful substances
Prelims PYQs
[UPSC CSE 2024] Consider the following [UPSC CSE 2021] Why is there a concern (a) 1 only
statements: (2024) about copper smelting plants? (b) 2 and 3 only
Statement-I: Many chewing gums found 1. They may release lethal quantities of (c) 3 only
in the market are considered a source of carbon monoxide into the environment. (d) 1, 2 and 3
environmental pollution. 2. The copper slag can cause the leaching of
Statement-II: Many chewing gums contain some heavy metals into the environment. [UPSC CSE 2020] Which of the following are
plastic as gum base. 3. They may release sulfur dioxide as a the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene
Which one of the following is correct in pollutant. pollution?
respect of the above statements? Select the correct answer using the code 1. A
 utomobile exhaust
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II given below: 2. T
 obacco smoke
are correct and Statement-II explains (a) 1 and 2 only 3. W
 ood burning
Statement-I (b) 2 and 3 only 4. U
 sing varnished wooden furniture
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are (c) 1 and 3 only 5. U
 sing products made of polyurethane
correct, but Statement-II does not explain (d) 1, 2, and 3 Select the correct answer using the code
Statement-I given below:
(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is [UPSC CSE 2021] ‘Triclosan’, considered (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
incorrect harmful when exposed to high levels for a (b) 2 and 4 only
(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II long time, is most likely present in which of (c) 1, 3 and 4 only
is correct the following? (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
(a) Food preservatives
[UPSC CSE 2022] Consider the following: (b) Fruit-ripening substances [UPSC CSE 2020] Steel slag can be the
1. C arbon monoxide (c) Reused plastic containers material for which of the following?
2. N itrogen oxide (d) Toiletries 1. C onstruction of base road
3. Ozone 2. Improvement of agricultural soil
4. S ulphur dioxide [UPSC CSE 2021] With reference to furnace 3. P roduction of cement
Excess of which of the above in the oil, consider the following statements: Select the correct answer using the code
environment is/are cause(s) of acid rain? 1. It is a product of oil refineries. given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 2. Some industries use it to generate power. (a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 4 only 3. Its use causes sulfur emissions into the (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 4 only environment. (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 3 and 4 Which of the statements given above are (d) 1, 2 and 3
correct?
[UPSC CSE 2021] Magnetite particles, (a) 1 and 2 only [UPSC CSE 2019] Why is there a great
suspected to cause neurodegenerative (b) 2 and 3 only concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are
problems, are generated as environmental (c) 1 and 3 only released into environment?
pollutants from which of the following? (d) 1, 2, and 3 (a) They are considered harmful to marine
1. B
 rakes of motor vehicles ecosystems.
2. E
 ngines of motor vehicles [UPSC CSE 2020] Consider the following (b) They are considered to cause skin cancer
3. M
 icrowave stoves within homes statements: in children.
4. P
 ower plants 1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and (c) They are small enough to be absorbed by
5. T
 elephone lines mercury. crop plants in irrigated fields.
Select the correct answer using the code 2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur (d) They are often found to be used as food
given below: dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the adulterants.
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only environment.
(b) 1, 2 and 4 only 3. High ash content is observed in Indian
(c) 3, 4 and 5 only coal.
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 30
[UPSC CSE 2019] Consider the following: 2. Carbon monoxide [UPSC CSE 2015] With reference to ‘fly ash’
1. C arbon monoxide 3. Nitrogen dioxide produced by the power plants using coal as
2. Methane 4. Sulfur dioxide fuel, which of the following statements is/are
3. Ozone 5. Methane correct?
4. S ulphur dioxide Select the correct answer using the code 1. F
 ly ash can be used in the production of
Which of the above are released into the given below: bricks for building construction.
atmosphere due to the burning of crop/ (a) 1, 2 and 3 only 2. F
 ly ash can be used as a replacement for
biomass residue? (b) 2, 3 and 4 only some of the Portland cement contents of
(a) 1 and 2 only (c) 1, 4 and 5 only concrete.
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 3. F
 ly ash is made up of silicon dioxide and
(c) 1 and 4 only calcium oxide only, and does not contain
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 [UPSC CSE 2015] Which one of the any toxic elements.
following is associated with the issue of Select the correct answer using the code
[UPSC CSE 2016] In the cities of our control and phasing out of the use of ozone- given below:
country, which among the following depleting substances? (a) 1 and 2
atmospheric gases are normally considered (a) Bretton Woods Conference (b) 2 only
in calculating the value of the Air Quality (b) Montreal Protocol (c) 1 and 3
Index? (c) Kyoto Protocol (d) 3 only
1. C
 arbon dioxide (d) Nagoya Protocol

3.1 Methane’s Contribution in Climate Change

• M
 ethane (CH₄) is the second-most significant anthropogenic greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO₂) and plays a crucial role in
global warming and climate change dynamics.

Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Lifespan

• M ethane has a GWP of 28 over a 100-year period, meaning it traps 28 times more heat than CO₂.
• Over a 20-year period, it is over 80 times more potent.
• Unlike CO₂, which can persist in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, methane breaks down in about 12 years, making it a high-impact
short-term climate pollutant.

Primary sources of methane emissions

•  attle farming (32%) – Includes emissions from manure management and enteric fermentation.
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• Landfills (20%) – Anaerobic decomposition of organic waste.
• Rice cultivation (10%) – Waterlogged fields create anaerobic conditions.
• Wastewater treatment (8%) – Biodegradation of waste in anaerobic conditions.
• Industrial processes – Leakage and venting during oil and gas production.

Sectors responsible for methane emissions

• A griculture, energy, and waste sectors together contribute about 30% of global warming.
• Livestock emissions are a major contributor, especially in countries with large dairy and meat industries.

Global Methane Pledge

•  aunched during the UN COP26 climate summit, co-led by the European Union and the United States.
L
• Aims to reduce global methane emissions by at least 30% from 2020 levels by 2030.
• Supported by over 90 countries.
• India has not signed the pledge, citing concerns over implications for its agriculture and livestock-dependent economy.

Regulatory action
• In May 2024, the European Union introduced new regulations requiring fossil fuel companies to monitor, report, and reduce methane
emissions.

The Indian Express

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 31
3.2 Periyar River – Pollution Crisis in Kerala’s Lifeline
•A mass fish kill has recently struck the Periyar River in Kerala, raising alarm over the deteriorating health of one of the state’s most important rivers.
• The incident is believed to be caused by industrial pollution originating from the Edayar Industrial Area.

Periyar River – Geographical Overview

•  ength: Approximately 244 km.
L
• Source: Originates in the Sivagiri Hills of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu.
• Mouth: Empties into the Arabian Sea at Aluva, near Kochi, Kerala.
• Flow Path: Passes through Idukki, Ernakulam, and Thrissur districts in Kerala.
• Major Tributaries: Muthirapuzha, Cheruthoni, and Edamalayar.

Key Infrastructure and Projects

• Home to major hydroelectric and irrigation projects like the Idukki Dam and the Mullaperiyar Dam.

Cultural and Historical Significance

• The river basin is believed to house the ancient port of Muziris, a vital centre for Indo-Roman trade.

Environmental Challenges
• Pollution from industrial discharge and urban waste has critically damaged riverine ecology.
• Water management disputes between Kerala and Tamil Nadu further complicate sustainable usage.
• Illegal sand mining and poor enforcement of environmental laws contribute to habitat degradation.
• Greenpeace India once described the lower Periyar as a “cesspool of toxins.”
The recent ecological disaster calls for urgent environmental regulation, pollution control, and inter-state coordination to restore the
health of Kerala’s “Lifeline.” It serves as a stark reminder of the delicate balance between development and ecological sustainability.

3.3 Niranjan Panel – Expert Committee to Assess Cauvery

River Pollution
• T he Government of Karnataka has constituted a new expert committee, headed by Niranjan, the Chief Environment Officer, to examine
pollution in the Cauvery River.
• The panel has been tasked with submitting a report within 10 days to determine if the river is contaminated by sewage, industrial
effluents, solid waste, and other pollutants.

Cauvery River – Geographical and Cultural Significance

•  lso spelled Kaveri, and referred to as ‘Ponni’ in Tamil.
A
• It originates from Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range, Kodagu district, Karnataka.
• The catchment area spans across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the Union Territory of Puducherry.
• Flows through several significant towns and cities, serving as a lifeline for agriculture and drinking water.

Major Tributaries
• Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, and Bhavani.

Hydrological Features
• The river is perennial, sustained by both the southwest and northeast monsoons.

Biodiversity and Protected Areas in the Basin

•  auvery Wildlife Sanctuary
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• Biligirirangan Hills Wildlife Sanctuary
• Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary
• Muthathi Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary
• Bhimeshwari Wildlife Sanctuary
• Nagarhole and Bandipur National Parks

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 32
Environmental Concerns
• C oncerns over rising pollution from untreated sewage, urban runoff, and industrial effluents.
• Illegal dumping and unregulated tourism exacerbate the issue.
• Sand mining and water sharing disputes further threaten riverine health.

The Hindu

3.4 Salar de Atacama – Ground Subsidence from Lithium

Extraction
 recent study has revealed that Chile’s Salar de Atacama, a key
• A
site for global lithium production, is sinking by 1–2 cm annually
due to intensive lithium brine extraction. This highlights the
ecological risks posed by increasing global demand for green
energy minerals.

Lithium Brine Extraction Process

• T he process involves pumping lithium-rich saltwater (brine) to
the surface.
• The brine is then left to evaporate in large ponds, allowing
lithium to crystallize and be harvested.
• This extraction leads to the depletion of underground aquifers,
as brine is withdrawn faster than it can be naturally replenished.

Geographical Significance of Salar de Atacama

• L ocated in Chile’s Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on
Earth.
• Contains the highest lithium concentration among brine
sources globally (0.15% by weight).
• Part of the “Lithium Triangle”, which also includes Salar de
Uyuni (Bolivia) and Hombre Muerto (Argentina).

Wider Lithium Landscape

• A rgentina holds over half of the world’s lithium resources.
• It ranks:
- 2nd in global lithium resources
- 3rd in global reserves
- 4 th in global production

Study Insights
• R esearchers used satellite data from 2020–2023 to monitor
earth deformation.
• The analysis confirmed ground subsidence directly linked to lithium brine pumping.

Environmental Implications
• L and sinking may affect local ecosystems, water balance, and infrastructure.
• Long-term over-extraction could lead to irreversible geological and ecological damage.

The Indian Express

Flash Notes: ENVIRONMENT HQ: Ground Floor, Apsara Arcade, ORN, New Delhi-05 80765 17832 33
3.5 Manganese Contamination and Cancer Risk in Gangetic
Plains of Bihar
 recent scientific study has revealed alarming levels of manganese (Mn) contamination in groundwater across the Gangetic plains of
• A
Bihar, with potential links to rising cancer cases in the region.

What is Manganese?
• M anganese (Mn) is a naturally occurring trace element found in many minerals, soils, and rocks.
• It is essential in small amounts for human health. It supports:
- Bone development
- Wound healing
- Metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol
- Antioxidant enzyme function

How Does Manganese Enter Water Sources?

Manganese enters groundwater and surface water due to:
• Natural weathering of rocks and soils rich in manganese.
• Mining and industrial activities, which may discharge manganese waste.
• Fertilizer and pesticide runoff in agricultural areas.
• Decay of organic matter in stagnant water bodies.

Key Findings of the Study

• G roundwater samples from various districts in Bihar show excess concentrations of manganese, surpassing the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) permissible limits for drinking water.
• Prolonged exposure to high levels of manganese is associated with neurotoxicity, organ damage, and, according to this study, potential
carcinogenic effects.
• The contamination is particularly severe in areas with intensive agricultural activity, poor sanitation, and inadequate water treatment infrastructure.

3.6 Ban on Trichloroethylene and Perchloroethylene

• In a landmark regulatory decision, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has announced a final ban on the
manufacture, processing, and use of two widely used industrial chemicals – Trichloroethylene (TCE) and Perchloroethylene (PCE) –
citing their significant health hazards.

What are TCE and PCE?

•T richloroethylene (TCE): A volatile organic compound (VOC) historically used as a metal degreaser, solvent, and intermediate in chemical synthesis.
• Perchloroethylene (PCE), also known as Tetrachloroethylene: Commonly used in dry cleaning, metal degreasing, and as a chemical intermediate.

Applications of TCE and PCE

• TCE (Trichloroethylene):
- Degreasing of metal parts in aerospace and automotive industries
- Extraction solvent for greases, oils, waxes, and tars
- Ingredient in adhesives, varnishes, and paints
- Intermediate in production of refrigerants
• PCE (Perchloroethylene):
- Widely used solvent in dry cleaning industry
- Used in manufacturing of fluorocarbons
- Degreasing operations in metal fabrication
- Cleaning and maintenance of electronic components

Health Hazards
• B oth TCE and PCE are classified as probable human carcinogens.
• Long-term exposure is linked to:
- Liver and kidney cancers
- Neurological effects (dizziness, headaches, cognitive impairment)
- Reproductive toxicity and developmental harm
- Damage to the immune and endocrine systems

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3.7 NGT Directs New Guidelines for Silica Mining
 he National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to formulate fresh guidelines for the
• T
approval and regulation of silica (silicon dioxide) mining and washing plants in India.

What is Silicon Dioxide?

• A lso known as silica, it is a naturally occurring mineral composed of silicon and oxygen (SiO₂).
• Found in quartz, sand, and rocks, silica is one of the most abundant minerals on Earth.
• Major sources include:
- Quartz (pure crystalline silica)
- Sandstones and Granites (igneous and sedimentary rocks)
- Volcanic ash and diatomaceous earth
- Industrial by-products like rice husk ash and furnace slag

Applications of Silica
• U sed extensively in glass manufacturing, cement, ceramics, and electronic components.
• Serves as a filler in rubber, plastics, paints, and coatings.
• Employed in foundry operations, hydraulic fracturing (fracking), and water filtration systems.

Environmental and Health Concerns

• S ilica dust is a known respiratory hazard, causing silicosis, a severe lung disease.
• Prolonged exposure may also lead to lung cancer, tuberculosis, and autoimmune disorders.
• Silica mining, particularly open-pit extraction and washing, leads to:
- Soil erosion
- Water table depletion
- Riverbed degradation
- Loss of biodiversity

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4. Ecological Theory

Prelims PYQs
[UPSC CSE 2022] “If rainforests and tropical [UPSC CSE 2014] The most important [UPSC CSE 2013] In the grasslands, trees
forests are the lungs of the Earth, then surely strategy for the conservation of biodiversity not replace the grasses as a part of an
wetlands function as its kidneys.” Which one together with traditional human life is the ecological succession because of: (2013)
of the following functions of wetlands best establishment of: (a) Insects and fungi
reflects the above statement? (a) Biosphere Reserves (b) Limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients
(a) The water cycle in wetlands involves (b) National Parks (c) Water limits and fire
surface runoff, subsoil percolation and (c) Wildlife Sanctuaries (d) None of the above
evaporation (d) Botanical Gardens
(b) Algae form the nutrient base upon which Q. Which one of the following is the correct
fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles sequence of ecosystems in the order of
and mammals thrive. [UPSC CSE 2014] What are the benefits decreasing productivity? (2013)
(c) Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining of implementing the ‘Integrated Watershed (a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves
sedimentation balance and soil Development Programme’? (b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes
stabilisation 1. Prevention of soil runoff (c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(d) Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and 2. Linking the country’s perennial rivers with (d) Oceans, mangroves, lake, grasslands
excess nutrients seasonal rivers
3. Rainwater harvesting and recharge of Q. With reference to food chains in
[UPSC CSE 2017] Biological Oxygen groundwater table ecosystems, consider the following
Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for: 4. Regeneration of natural vegetation statements: (2013)
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood Select the correct answer using the code 1. A
 food chain illustrates the order in which
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest given below: a chain of organisms feed upon each other.
ecosystems (a) 1 and 2 only 2. F
 ood chains are found within the
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems (b) 2, 3 and 4 only populations of a species.
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude (c) 1, 3 and 4 only 3. A
 food chain illustrates the numbers of
regions (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only each organism which are eaten by others.
Which of the statements given above is/are
[UPSC CSE 2015] Which one of the [UPSC CSE 2014] Which one of the correct?
following is the best description of the term following is the process involved in (a) 1 only
‘ecosystem’? photosynthesis? (b) 1 and 2 only
(a) A community of organisms interacting (a) Potential energy is released to form free (c) 1, 2 and 3
with one another energy. (d) None
(b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited (b) Free energy is converted into potential
by living organisms energy and stored.
(c) A community of organisms together with (c) Food is oxidized to release carbon dioxide
the environment in which they live and water.
(d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area (d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and
water vapour are given out.
[UPSC CSE 2014] Which of the following
adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle [UPSC CSE 2014] Which one of the
on the planet Earth? following is the correct sequence of a food
1. V olcanic action chain?
2. Respiration (a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings
3. Photosynthesis (b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
4. D ecay of organic matter (c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans
Select the correct answer using the code (d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
given below:
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

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4.1 Gape Limitation – A Key Concept in Predator-Prey Dynamics
• In ecology, the concept of “gape limitation” refers to the physical constraint of a predator’s mouth (gape) size, which determines the maximum
size of prey it can capture and consume. This simple anatomical limit plays a significant role in shaping ecological communities and food webs.

Understanding Gape Limitation

• P redators are limited to eating prey that can fit into their mouths.
• For example, a small-mouthed predator fish may only feed on small invertebrates.
• In contrast, a predator with a larger gape can eat a wider range of prey, including small fish and larger invertebrates, giving it a
competitive advantage.

Ecological Implications
• G
 ape size directly influences a predator’s foraging success, growth rate, and overall fitness.
• It shapes feeding ecology, influencing the structure and stability of predator-prey relationships.
• T his concept explains how size hierarchies among predators affect prey populations and community composition.

Broader Significance
• G ape limitation is crucial in understanding trophic interactions, especially in aquatic ecosystems.
• It has applications in evolutionary biology, behavioural ecology, and conservation planning, helping predict species interactions under
environmental change.

4.2 Gigantopithecus blacki

•G
 igantopithecus blacki, the largest primate in history, went extinct approximately 300,000 years ago, likely due to its inability to adapt to
environmental changes. A recent study based on fossils from 22 caves in southern China sheds light on its ecology, diet, and reasons for extinction.

Overview and Discovery

•  iscovered in 1935, Gigantopithecus blacki is an extinct ape genus.
D
• Lived during the Early to Middle Pleistocene (2 million to 300,000 years ago).
• Fossils have been found primarily in China, with possible remains in Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia.
• Initially considered a potential hominin, it is now classified as a close relative of modern orangutans.

Physical Characteristics
• Estimated weight ranges from 200 to 300 kg, though size is speculative due to limited remains, mainly teeth and jawbones.

Diet and Ecological Niche

•  erbivorous, with teeth adapted for grinding tough plants.
H
• Likely consumed fig family fruits and fibrous vegetation.
• Dental and stable isotope analyses indicate a less diverse diet compared to related species like Pongo weidenreichi.
• Pollen studies show a shift from dense to open forests during its final millennia.

Extinction Causes
• L ived in subtropical to tropical forests, but these habitats began transforming into more open environments between 295,000 and
215,000 years ago.
• Reduction in forest cover likely caused nutritional stress, supported by tooth wear and isotope studies.
• Its specialised diet and limited adaptability contributed to its extinction.
• Human activity may have also played a role, although evidence is limited.

Cultural Significance and Cryptozoology

• Occasionally referenced in cryptozoology, with speculative links to the Tibetan Yeti or North American Bigfoot.

Scientific Insights
• T he study of G. blacki’s extinction offers insights into how diet specialisation, climate change, and ecological inflexibility can drive
species to extinction.
• Highlights the importance of adaptive capacity in surviving long-term environmental transformations.
The Hindu

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