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PHYSICS LAB
EXPERIMENTS
LICENSE, DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY, AND LIMITED WARRANTY

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MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION (“MLI” or “the Publisher”) and anyone

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and might not apply to the purchaser of this product.
PHYSICS LAB
EXPERIMENTS

Matthew M. J. French

MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION

Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi
Reprint and Revision Copyright ©2017 by MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION
LLC. All rights reserved.

Original title and copyright: Finding Your Way in the Undergraduate Physics Labo-
ratory. Copyright ©2013 by M.M.J. French. ISBN 978-0-9549780-8-2. All rights
reserved. Published by The Pantaneto Press.

This publication, portions of it, or any accompanying software may not be repro-
duced in any way, stored in a retrieval system of any type, or transmitted by any
means, media, electronic display or mechanical display, including, but not limited
to, photocopy, recording, Internet postings, or scanning, without prior permission
in writing from the publisher.

Publisher: David Pallai

MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION
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M.M.J. French. Physics Lab Experiments.

ISBN: 978-1-942270-80-5

The publisher recognizes and respects all marks used by companies, manufactur-
ers, and developers as a means to distinguish their products. All brand names and
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 CONTENTS

About the Author ix

List of Figures xi
List of Tables xv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Characteristics of the Laboratory 2
1.2 Demonstrating Undergraduate Physics Laboratory 4

Chapter 2 Safety 9
2.1 Hazard Symbols 10
2.2 Electrical 12
2.3 High Voltages 13
2.4 Gas Cylinders 15
2.5 Vacuum Pumps 19
2.5.1 Pressure Units 20
2.5.2 Hand Pumps and Vacu-vins 22
2.5.3 Diaphragm Pump 22
2.5.4 Rotary Pump 22
2.5.5 Diffusion Pump 23
2.5.6 Turbomolecular Pump 23
2.6 Cryogenics 25
2.6.1 Liquid Nitrogen 25
2.6.2 Dry Ice 30
2.6.3 Liquid Helium 32
2.6.4 Helium-3 33
2.6.5 Liquid Oxygen 35
2.6.6 Argon 36
2.6.7 Cryogen Free Cooling 37
2.7 Lasers 38
2.8 Ionizing Radiation 40

Chapter 3 Making Measurements 45

3.1 SI Units 46
3.2 SI Prefixes 47
3.3 Vernier Calipers 47
3.4 Digital Calipers 48
3.5 Micrometer 48
3.6 Balances 49
vi • Physics Lab Experiments

3.7 Ammeters 50
3.8 Voltmeters 51
3.9 Resistor Color Codes 52
3.10 Multimeters 52
3.11 Further Ideas on Measurement of Resistance 53
3.12 Constant Current Sources 55
3.13 Lock-in Amplifers 58
3.14 Further Ideas on Reducing Noise in Electrical Measurements 61
3.15 Signal Generator 64
3.15.1 TTL 64
3.16 Oscilloscopes 65
3.17 Light Gates 70
3.17.1 Velocity with One Light Gate 70
3.17.2 Velocity with Two Light Gates 71
3.17.3 Acceleration with Two Light Gates 71
3.17.4 Acceleration with One Light Gate 71
3.18 PASCO Science Workshop Interface 72
3.19 Data Harvest 74
3.20 Pressure Gauges 77
3.21 Temperature Measurement 78
3.21.1 Near Room Temperature 79
3.21.2 Low Temperatures 82
3.21.3 High Temperatures 84
3.22 PID and Temperature Control 84
3.23 Kaye and Laby Tables 86
3.24 Microscopes 87
3.24.1 Optical Microscopes 87
3.24.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 89
3.24.3 Other Microscopes 90
3.25 Spectroscopes 92
3.26 Computers 92
3.26.1 Plugs, Sockets, and Connectors 92
3.26.2 Computer Data Logging 97
3.26.3 Still Cameras and Scanners 105
3.27 Video Cameras 106
3.28 Other Researcher's Data 107
3.29 Wii Controllers 108
3.30 Traditional Photographs 109

Chapter 4 Data Analysis and Errors 113

4.1 Accuracy and Precision 115
4.2 Measurement Errors 117
 Contents • vii

4.2.1 Random Error 117

4.2.2 Systematic Error 117
4.2.3 Zero Error 117
4.3 Uncertainty 118
4.4 Resolution 118
4.5 Tolerance 118
4.6 Sensitivity 119
4.7 Response Time 119
4.8 The Mean of the Sample 120
4.9 Variance and Standard Deviation of the Sample 121
4.10 Measurement Distributions 123
4.11 Standard Error on a Single Measurement 126
4.12 Standard Error on the Mean 126
4.13 Estimation of Errors 127
4.14 Gaussian Error Distribution 128
4.15 Combination or Propagation of Errors 129
4.15.1 Linear 130
4.15.2 Products and Quotients 131
4.15.3 General Functions 133
4.15.4 Appropriate Significant Figures in Final
Answers and Errors 134
4.16 Plotting Appropriate Graphs 134
4.16.1 Drawing Lines of Best Fit and Finding Gradients 135
4.16.2 Error Bars on Graphs 135
4.16.3 Straight Line Graphs 136
4.16.4 Log Graphs 137
4.17 Graph Drawing Software 137
4.17.1 Excel 2003 and Prior Versions 138
4.17.2 Excel 2010 140
4.17.3 Kaleidagraph 144
4.17.4 MATLAB 147
4.18 Least Squares Fitting 151
4.18.1 Regression line of y on x 151
4.18.2 Steepest Descent 154
4.18.3 Gauss-Newton 155
4.18.4 Levenberg-Marquardt Method 158
4.18.5 Nelder-Mead Method 160
4.18.6 Distribution Testing 164
4.19 Uncertainty in Gradients and Intercepts of Graphs 165
4.20 Fourier Transform 168
4.20.1 Window Functions 171
viii • Physics Lab Experiments

Chapter 5 Presenting Results 173

5.1 Lab Book 174
5.2 Reports 175
5.2.1 Software 175
5.2.2 Structure 177
5.2.3 Graphs, Tables, and Diagrams 179
5.2.4 Referencing 183
5.2.5 Equations 185
5.2.6 Special Characters 189
5.3 Posters 192
5.3.1 Software 192
5.3.2 Paper Sizes 193
5.4 Presentations 194
5.4.1 Software 200

Chapter 6 Common Experiments 201

6.1 Example Experiments 201
6.1.1 Measuring Acceleration due to Gravity 202
6.1.2 Measuring the Speed of Light 208
6.2 Example Reports 215
6.2.1 Example Report: Charge Mass Ratio of an Electron 216
6.2.2 Example Report: Investigating Radioactivity 225
6.2.3 Example Report: Latent Heat of Vaporization
of Liquid Nitrogen 251

Index 275
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Matthew French studied for an undergraduate physics degree

at the University of Bristol. While working there towards a PhD
in experimental condensed matter physics, he spent four years
demonstrating experiments in the first year undergraduate physics
laboratory. Now an experienced school teacher and Head of Physics
at Prior Park College, Bath (UK), he is well positioned to bridge the
gap between students' knowledge at the end of secondary school and
that expected of them at the beginning of their university courses.
 LIST OF FIGURES

1. The undergraduate laboratories at the University of Oxford.

Left: condensed matter laboratory. Right: optics laboratory. 3
2. The undergraduate laboratories at the University of Bristol 3
3. Examples of simple low EMF power supplies.
Usually the yellow outputs give AC.
The black (negative) and red (positive) outputs give DC 13
4. Left: Low (electric) potential difference connectors
with exposed metal contacts. Right: High (electric)
potential difference connectors with shielded metal contacts.
The shielding automatically moves back as the plug is connected
into a socket. Both leads can be piggy-backed to connect
multiple leads to the same place. 14
5. Examples of high EMF (EHT) power supplies 14
6. A bracket and belt anchoring a cylinder to the desk 15
7. A cart used to move gas cylinder. This cart
has an extra set of wheels so the user doesn't
have to support part of the weight of the cylinder
while moving the cylinder 16
8. A gas regulator. This one is for oxygen only: the knob is
labeled and the crossed out symbol of an oil can is
present in the pressure gauges 17
9. Left: A gas cylinder key. Right: The spindle on a gas bottle 18
10. A vacu-vin hand pump 21
11. A rotary pump 21
12. A turbomolecular pump backed with a rotary pump. 24
13. Phase diagram for Nitrogen. Nitrogen is a gas at STP
(standard temperature and pressure) 26
14. A neoprene plastic bucket for storing liquid nitrogen. 27
15. Liquid Nitrogen Dewars. Left: a 25 liter “onion” Dewar
with a cart Right: a 10 liter Dewar 28
16. Phase diagram for Carbon Dioxide. Carbon Dioxide is
a gas at STP (standard temperature and pressure). 31
17. Phase diagram for Helium-4. Helium-4 is a gas at STP
(standard temperature and pressure) 32
18. Phase diagram for Oxygen. Oxygen is a gas at STP
(standard temperature and pressure) 36
xii • Physics Lab Experiments

19. Phase diagram for Argon. Argon is a gas at STP

(standard temperature and pressure) 37
20. Left panel: a lead lined wooden storage box and
forceps. Right panel: inside the box and the source inside
a metal cup holder 42
21. A Vernier Scale. The top is the main scale and the
bottom in the traveling scale. The left panel shows a
reading of 0.0 mm; The middle panel shows a
reading of 0.1mm; The right panel shows a reading of 0.6 mm. 47
22. A digital calipers measuring; Left: the diameter of a wire and
Right: the inside diameter of a pipe 48
23. A micrometer measuring a: 5.21 mm and b: 3.76 mm. 49
24. Two different multimeters 53
25. Simple diagram of a four-wire method of measuring the
sample resistance. R1, R2, R3, and R4 are resistances
which represent the contact and lead resistances 54
26. Simple four-wire mounting configuration of a sample to
measure resistance along in the direction of the current flow 55
27. Left panel shows a circuit layout of a resistor (typically
Rseries = 1k to 10 k) used as a constant current source.
It is connected in series with the sample and the oscillator
output on a lock-in amplifier. Right panel shows a circuit
diagram of a (electric) potential difference controlled constant
current source. The opamp used is an Linear Technology
LTC1150CN8#PBF (RS order number 5455629) 57
28. The front panel of a Stanford Research Systems (SRS)
830 lock-in amplifier 59
29. Left panel shows the circuit setup for a normal 4-wire
measurement configuration. Right panel shows the circuit
setup when setting the phase. Current is passed though the
sample and a series resistor, R. The (electric) potential
difference drop is measured across only the resistor 61
30. Inductive cross-talk between wires in two closed
circuits carrying AC signals 62
31. A signal generator 65
32. An CRT oscilloscope 66
33. A digital oscilloscope. 69
34. A PASCO Science WorkShop 500 Interface box
connected to a photogate 72
35. Choosing a sensor in PASCO DataStudio 73
36. Using PASCO DataStudio to measure the velocity in a photogate 74
37. Using PASCO DataStudio to produce a distance time graph 75
 List of Figures • xiii

38. A Data Harvest QAdvanced Datalogger with a

Light Level probe connected to input 75
39. A screen shot of the Data Harvest EasySense software
showing a graph of Light Level against time 76
40. Illustration of chromatic aberation of a lens. Red light
(the dashed line) is refracted less than blue light (the dotted line) 88
41. Illustration of spherical aberation of a lens 88
42. Left: Electron diffraction pattern from Gold. Right:
A dark field image of islands of Gold 90
43. Creating a new VI in LabVIEW 102
44. The LabVIEW program. On the left is the “block
diagram” window and on the right is the “front panel” window 103
45. Inserting a “GPIB Read” component in LabVIEW. 103
46. A LabVIEW program which reads data and produces a graph 104
47. A LabVIEW program within a “while” loop 105
48. Photograph of a graticule using a microscope 106
49. Using ScanIt to set the axis 108
50. Targets illustrating the differences between the terms
accurate and precise. The center of the target corresponds
to the true value. The stars are the individual measurements 115
51. Graphs illustrating the differences between the terms
accurate and precise. The vertical line corresponds to the
true value. The vertical axis is a probability distribution
(or the number of measurements) and horizontal axis is
the magnitude of the quantity being measured 116
52. Number lines comparing the spread of data 123
53. Histogram of the measurements of the current flowing
through a bulb given in the text 124
54. Histogram of the measurements of a quantity when the
number of measurements tends to infinity 124
55. Plotting an “XY Scatter” graph with Excel 2003 139
56. Selecting the data series with Excel 2003 139
57. Adding a polynomial trend line of order 2 to the data
and ensuring the equation is displayed on the chart. 140
58. Adding X axis error bars. They have a fixed size of ± 0.25.139 141
59. Plotting a graph with Excel 2010 141
60. Selecting the data series with Excel 2010 142
61. Adding axis titles with Excel 2010 142
62. Adding a linear trend line to the data and ensuring the
equation is displayed on the chart 143
63. Adding X axis error bars. They have a fixed size of ± 1. 143
64. Switching between editing X and Y error bars 144
65. Plotting a graph with Kaleidagraph 145
66. Selecting data for a graph with Kaleidagraph 145
xiv • Physics Lab Experiments

67. Adding a Trendline with Kaleidagraph 146

68. The fit parameters box in Kaleidagraph 146
69. Adding error bars in Kaleidagraph 147
70. A simple MATLAB graph 148
71. A MATLAB graph showing two lines and axes labels. 149
72. A MATLAB graph with vertical error bars 150
73. An Excel trendline, showing the equation of the straightline
and the R2 value are given by Equations 84, 85, and 86 154
74. The different triangles involved in a two parameter version of the
Nelder-Mead function minimization algorithm. 161
75. A graph showing the maximum and minimum gradients
consistent with the error bars 166
76. The Microsoft Excel 2003 Regression Window 167
77. The Microsoft Excel 2003 Regression package output. 168
78. Entering the data ranges into Fourier Analysis window. 169
79. Filling in the FFT Frequency column. 170
80. Graph of FFT Frequency against FFT Magnitude. 171
81. Fast Fourier transform of a sine wave with frequency
10 Hz. Left panel shows leakage with no windowing function
present. Right panel shows leakage reduced
with a windowing function 172
82. Good and bad scaling of axes 179
83. Good and bad lines on graphs 180
84. Always add x and y error bars where possible 180
85. The Equation Tool Bar in Microsoft Word 2003 185
86. Inserting an Equation in Microsoft Word 2010 186
87. The Equation Tool Bar in Microsoft Word 2010 187
88. Inserting Greek characters in Microsoft Word 2010. 187
89. Inserting an Equation in Open Office Writer 189
90. Example poster 1. Based on a final year project 195
91. Example poster 2. Based on early work towards a PhD. 196
92. Example presentation slides 199
93. Moment of inertia of a pendulum 206
94. Faucault method diagram 210
95. Reflection from the fixed mirror as the rotating
mirror changes angle 211
96. Considering the virtual image of the fixed mirror 212
 LIST OF TABLES

1. Chemical Hazard Symbols. Usually the border is red

and the diagram is black 11
2. Non-Chemical Hazard Symbols. Usually the text, border
and diagram is black and the background is yellow. 12
3. Compressed gas cylinder colors 19
4. Conversion factors for common pressure units 20
5. Table of temperature and vapor pressures for He-4 34
6. Table of temperature and vapor pressures for He-3 35
7. The new laser classifications. 40
8. The old laser classifications 42
9. List of common radioactive sources. Protactinium
and Radon are listed with radiation given out by the
decay chain which generates them from Uranium-238
and Thorium-232 respectively 43
10. The SI units 46
11. The SI prefixes 46
12. Resistor color codes 51
13. Thermocouples, Compositions, Temperature
Ranges and Sensitivities 81
14. Effect of changing PID values 86
15. Relationships for setting PID values 86
16. Common plugs and sockets 93
17. Example data for calculation of the mean and variance. 121
18. Probability that a given measurement is within “z”
standard deviations of the mean. 129
19. Example data for a regression line 152
20. Example calculations for a regression line 153
21. Example data for Nelder-Mead method 163
22. Commonly used LaTeX symbols 191
23. Papers Sizes 193
 CHAPTER

1
INTRODUCTION

For some students, “the experimentalists”, their laboratory

sessions are the highlight of their undergraduate degrees. It is in
the laboratory that the physics they have learnt in lectures begins to
make sense to them and the connections between the equations and
reality are illuminated. Some of these students will continue work-
ing in laboratories to complete doctorates in experimental physics
or turn to experimental work in industry. For other students, “the
theoreticians”, the laboratory sessions are something that must be
endured, often on a weekly basis. However, separating students into
the discrete boxes of experimentalists and theoreticians does not
really convey the holistic experience today’s undergraduates receive:
they must be talented at experiments as well as theory in order to
excel at university.
This new book aims to guide both the “experimentalist” and “the-
oretician” through their compulsory laboratory course forming part
of an undergraduate physics degree. Some students will have left
school believing that physics experiments “never work”. Designing
and performing good physics experiments is a craft, it is a skill devel-
oped gradually over time. I hope this book might go some way to
persuading all students of the value and beauty within a carefully
planned and executed experiment and help them develop the skills
to carry out experiments themselves.
Those students who are completing undergraduate research
projects and beginning a doctorate will also find helpful and relevant
sections. Graduate students supervising laboratory sessions will find
2 • Physics Lab Experiments

this a useful resource: especially the dedicated section on “Demon-

strating Undergraduate Physics Laboratory”.
Chapter 2 includes, the characteristics and safety consider-
ations of a range of equipment and materials. Chapter 3 moves on to
detail how many common measurement instruments are operated.
In Chapter 4, the focus turns to how to analyze measurements and
Chapter 5 deals with the presentation of results. Finally, Chapter 6
details a number of common experiments and example laboratory
reports.
The idea of learning about experimental physics through read-
ing a book, might at first seem to be tinged with a hint of irony.
However, there are many concepts and techniques which a phys-
ics student needs to learn and understand. Often these are not
specifically written down or taught in lectures: it is up to the inter-
ested student to investigate and learn for themselves. While the
goal of this book is not to detract from this inquisitive and curiosity
driven learning, it aims to provide an overview of the many topics
and skills required in the first year undergraduate physics labora-
tory and beyond. Inevitably, some readers will find detail lacking
in one area or another or pages which are currently superfluous to
their needs. This book should not be read cover to cover, rather
it should be dipped into to gain a basic understanding of a certain
topic when necessary. Where needed the reader, then armed with
a good grounding in the topic, can use other books or the Internet
for further research.

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LABORATORY

In the first year, students will usually work in pairs (or very
small groups) undertaking a different experiment each week. It
is important students are able to work with other scientists: for
some experiments it is essential to have two people to perform the
experiment. By discussing experimental methods and the prob-
lems experienced with their partner students can challenge their
understanding and learn from each other. However, it is essential
to work together as a team and that both are engaged in each part
 Introduction • 3

of the experiment. Each student should record their own results

and perform their own analysis. Of course, the calculations and
results after each stage in the analysis should be cross checked.
Identifying each other’s mistakes soon after they are made will
work to the advantage of both students.

Figure 1.1: The undergraduate laboratories at the University of Oxford. Left: condensed
matter laboratory. Right: optics laboratory.

Figure 1.2: The undergraduate laboratories at the University of Bristol.

Laboratory sessions will probably consist of a day, or most of a day,

to perform the experiment and collect results. Students may have to
hand in their analysis and write up of the experiment the same day,
4 • Physics Lab Experiments

or be given a number of days to complete this. Usually a number of

the experiments are written up as formal laboratory reports, this is
discussed in more detail in Section 5.2.
When entering the laboratory, the experiments will usually be
partially set up on tables in a large room: see for example Figure
1.1 and Figure 1.2. There will probably be other students nearby
performing the same experiment using an identical set of apparatus.
This provides more opportunities to discuss results and troubleshoot
the equipment and the method when results don’t seem to make
sense. Each group of 8 or 10 students (4 or 5 pairs) will usually be
supervised by a post graduate laboratory demonstrator. When advice
or help is needed, having carefully thought about the question and
tried to find the solution the student should consult the demonstra-
tor for help. Sometimes, the demonstrator will remain with the same
group of students for the whole year working with them each week
on different experiments. In other cases a demonstrator will remain
with the experiment and work with a different group of students
each week.
Never touch or remove equipment from someone else’s experi-
ment. Experiments can be working and recording data even if the
user is not present. It is very annoying and frustrating if an experi-
ment is carefully setup, recording data and someone disturbs or
removes some of the equipment.
In the second year, and perhaps third year laboratory courses
experiments become more complex and longer: perhaps 4, 6, or 10
days (usually at 1 day per week). Students still work in pairs, but the
scripts become less detailed and it is expected that students use the
knowledge and skills acquired in the first year laboratory to develop
a method and derive much of the analysis themselves.

1.2 DEMONSTRATING UNDERGRADUATE

PHYSICS LABORATORY

This section is written as a brief introduction for anyone dem-

onstrating undergraduate physics laboratory: usually this would be
concurrent with studying for a PhD.
 Introduction • 5

Demonstrating undergraduate physics laboratory can be an

enjoyable experience which also provides a little extra money. It is
also good experience for the future when applying for post-doc jobs
or academic posts. It is usually expected that all academics working
at a university contribute to teaching in some way. When spending
much of the time working on the computer reading papers or ana-
lyzing data, a day in the undergraduate laboratory can give a very
welcome break. At other times, when experiments are going well
and significant progress is being made the interruption caused by
the laboratory day can be a little frustrating.
In some universities or year groups the demonstrator is attached
to a group of around 8–10 students who work in pairs. Each week
a different experiment is performed and it is the demonstrators’
responsibility to ensure they know how to carry out the experiment
according the the script given to the students, use all the necessary
equipment and complete the analysis. Demonstrators should be on
hand with their groups of students for the full duration of the labora-
tory session. At least initially, this can seem like a great deal of work
and a little daunting for anyone not confident with the experiments.
However, there is usually the opportunity to practice the experi-
ments when the laboratory is closed to undergraduate students and
more experienced laboratory demonstrators who have worked for a
number of years are usually happy to help.
Alternatively, in some universities or year groups the demon-
strator is attached to a particular experiment (or a small number of
experiments). This allows the demonstrator to become an expert in
certain experiments, although this means they meet different stu-
dents each week.
The laboratory books of the students are usually handed to the
demonstrator for checking every week. The demonstrator will be
responsible for marking the work and submitting the marks for colla-
tion. It is good practice for each demonstrator to keep a record of all
marks they award. It is wise to always keep on top of marking. It need
not take significant amounts of time, especially if it is done as soon as
possible after the books are handed when it will be more fresh in the
mind. Calculations and error analysis need not be worked through for
each student individually and checked in detail, although sometimes
it is easy to spot and highlight/correct an error the student has made.
6 • Physics Lab Experiments

Usually some guidance is provided to help with the assignment

of marks, but the following could be used as a guide if nothing is
provided. Bear in mind that a 2:2 would correspond to 5/10, a 2:1 to
6/10 and a 1st to 7/10.
A mark of 4/10 or less would be awarded for a write up which
did not meet the criteria for a mark of 5/10. This will generally be
awarded rarely.
A mark of 5/10 would correspond to a reasonable attempt to
collect data in the laboratory, perhaps incomplete due to a lack of
effort, skill/patience or hindered by temperamental equipment.
There should be an attempt to describe the method in some detail
and to complete the analysis as far as a final answer. The final answer
may be significantly incorrect due to errors in the recoding of data or
the analysis. There may be no consideration of uncertainty.
A mark of 6/10 would be awarded where there was a complete or
almost complete set of data, perhaps only limited by temperamental
equipment. The majority of the steps in the method are described
in the correct order. The analysis has been completed and a final
answer has been calculated. The final answer should be order of
magnitude correct, or there are one or two simple errors which can
be easily identified such as a missing constant, an incorrect conver-
sion or a power of ten error. There may some consideration of uncer-
tainty in the final result but a reasonable, quantitative estimate is not
given.
A mark of 7/10 would correspond to a collection of a complete
set of data of an appropriate accuracy and precision. All the key
points in the method would be described in the correct order and
in significant detail. The analysis should be complete through to the
final answer. The final answer should be order of magnitude correct
or any larger discrepancy identified and an explanation attempted.
There is some consideration of uncertainty leading to a quantitative
estimate of the uncertainty in the final answer, although its origin
(both in the experiment and in numerical terms) may be somewhat
unclear.
A mark of 8/10 or higher will probably only be awarded rarely.
This would correspond to meeting and exceeding all the criteria
for a mark of 7/10. There should be clearly recorded data which
has been repeated a number of times (as time allowed) along with
 Introduction • 7

a detailed consideration of the uncertainty in each measurement.

The method should provide significant detail, which would allow a
similar student to perform the same experiment without reference
to other texts. The final answer should be quoted with an uncer-
tainty which is clearly calculated and well founded in the actual mea-
surements taken.
Alternative guidance is sometimes provided for marking formal
reports. Marks might be awarded in categories such as “Clarity of
arguments”, “Scientific Content”, “Presentation”, “Scientific Liter-
acy and Style”.
The “Clarity of arguments” section might score 7/10 if there is a
clear introduction, explanation of the method, the analysis and the
results. This should be at a level understandable by a student in the
same academic year as the author. If some of these areas are lacking
a clear explanation then 6/10 may be more appropriate. If most of
these areas are not clearly explained then 5/10 or less may be appro-
priate.
The “Scientific Content” section might score 7/10 if there is suf-
ficient detail on all aspects of any derivations needed, the method,
analysis and error analysis which would allow a similar student to
repeat the work without reference to other texts. Extremely thor-
ough and competent work would score  8/10, and work where some
sections are not fully addressed would score 6/10. If many sections
are not fully addressed or if any are missing a mark of  5/10 would
be appropriate.
In the “Presentation” section, marks are awarded for the layout
and organization of the work. Tables and diagrams should be neat,
appropriate and fully labeled with column headings, units and figure
captions (e.g., Figure 1.2: A diagram of ...). Graphs should be of an
appropriate type (usually scatter graphs, without the points joined
up) have axis labels, units, a line of best fit (in most cases), a figure
caption and be large enough to be seen clearly. The written work
should be logically ordered and there should be a good use of sec-
tion numbers and sub-headings. Where there are only a few minor
mistakes a mark of 7/10 should be awarded. A mark of 6/10 would
be appropriate if there are a number of mistakes or one point is con-
sistently absent. If there are many of the above points absent then a
mark of  5/10 could be awarded.
8 • Physics Lab Experiments

Finally marks in the “Scientific Literacy and Style” are awarded

for the style in which the report is written. Usually reports should be
in a formal style with no use of the words “we”, “I” or “you”. Descrip-
tion of the physics involved and the analysis should make correct use
of appropriate technical terms. Reference should be made to other
work which is cited in an appropriate, formal style. If these criteria
are mostly met then a mark of 7/10 should be awarded. If there are
occasional mistakes, then 6/10 could be given. With many mistakes
or a whole report written in the first person (using “we”, “I” or “you”)
then a mark of 5/10 could be awarded.
 CHAPTER

2
SAFETY

While performing experiments at school students probably took

it for granted that the equipment they used was safe and was very
unlikely to do them harm unless used in an obviously unsafe manner.
The class teacher would have been following carefully thought out
advice from a national organization called CLEAPSS [1], in addi-
tion to performing their own risk assessment. In most cases com-
mon sense and following the teachers’ instructions was all that was
required on the student’s part.
At university, students are likely to meet liquid gases, danger-
ous chemicals, high temperatures, high (electric) potential differ-
ences and lasers. Risk assessments should have been carried out for
all instructed experiments met in the first two or three years of an
undergraduate degree. However, some of the equipment or chem-
icals used will have the potential to cause serious harm. Further-
more, other equipment or chemicals which may be present in the
same area could also be very dangerous.
Students should make sure risk assessments are read and
understood and follow any safety rules or advice given by the
university: students have legal obligation to do this in the United
States. Students should begin to see why certain precautions are
needed and develop responsibility for themselves. Equipment
or chemicals which students do not understand or are not con-
fident with should never be touched or used. Where one person
may be confident, another may not be: students should always
ask for advice if they are unsure or not confident with certain
equipment.
10 • Physics Lab Experiments

There is general safety advice which is applicable to all laborato-

ries at all time. Later, safety advice for specific pieces of equipment
will be covered.
Shoes should always be worn when working in the lab because
they provide some protection from spillages and falling objects.
Sandals, high heels, and open shoes are completely inappropriate
as they allow chemical or cryogenic liquids (used by the students
themselves or others) to pose a danger to the feet.
Loose or dangling clothing, jewelery, hair, and beards may get
caught in moving equipment: especially motors. Sensible clothing
should be worn, jewelery removed and hair tied back using a hair
band or elastic band.
If working with chemicals, clothing should ideally cover legs and
arms and a lab coat should be worm to help protect against spills or
splashes.
Food and drinks should never be present or consumed in the
lab. There is the risk of contamination of the food from chemicals,
including traces of unknown chemicals from previous work which
took place in the same area. Drinks can easily be spilled causing
damage to expensive equipment.

2.1 HAZARD SYMBOLS

The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling

of Chemicals (GHS) uses the pictograms shown in Table 2.1. There
is not officially a single word meaning for any of the symbols: there
should be adjacent written hazard information. However, there is a
general guide given here based on the old European descriptions of
similar hazard symbols.
 Safety • 11

Table 2.1: Chemical Hazard Symbols. Usually the border is red and the diagram is black.

Further non-chemical hazard symbols which might be present

in a laboratory are shown in Table 2.2. The symbols may be shown
with or without the accompanying text.
12 • Physics Lab Experiments

Table 2.2: Non-Chemical Hazard Symbols. Usually the text, border, and diagram is black
and the background is yellow.

2.2 ELECTRICAL

All devices provided in the lab powered by mains electricity

should have been tested prior to use by the university to ensure
they are safe. This is called a portable appliance test (PAT) and
is carried out at set time intervals depending on the equipment.
It involves a visual examination of the wire and plug and a resis-
tance measurement to ensure that there is a good earth connec-
tion from any exposed metal on the case. Because it was deemed
safe at the time of testing, does not guarantee it is safe at the time
of use.
Before plugging in any device to the mains it is prudent to visu-
ally check the cable and plug for any cracks, cuts, breaks, or exposed
wires. Any equipment which is found damaged or not working
should not be used. It should be reported to a lab demonstrator or
lab technician who will remove the equipment or label it as unser-
viceable. Never use equipment marked as unserviceable or U/S or
which has had the mains plug cut off.
 Safety • 13

Many devices operate from mains power or have a built in trans-

former and/or AC-DC converter. Additionally mains powered, power
supplies may be used. There are two major categories of power
supplies which adapt the standard mains supply (UK and Europe:
230 V at 50 Hz and USA: 115 V 60 Hz) to power other devices: low
EMF power supplies or extra high tension (EHT) supplies.
Devices which require a particularly large amount of power may
be connected to a special “three-phase” socket.
Low EMF power supplies are classed as those supplying up to
28 V AC or 40 V DC. At this (electric) potential difference, exposed
connectors can be used as this (electric) potential difference is gen-
erally classed as safe to touch. Examples of low EMF power sup-
plies are shown in Figure 2.1 and suitable exposed connectors are
shown in Figure 2.2. Hand built digital electronic circuits and most
apparatus will comfortably fall within the limit of a low EMF power
supply. Working with EMFs above these limits should be avoided if
at all possible.

2.3 HIGH VOLTAGES

Where there is a scientific need to use (electric) potential dif-

ferences higher than 28 V AC or 40 V DC, great care must be taken
to avoid anyone touching exposed contacts. If the device is mains
powered, this should have been built into the design of the device.
Sometimes an EHT power supply will be needed which may deliver
in the region of 5000 V (5 kV) or more. Special connection cables

Figure 2.1: Examples of simple low EMF power supplies. Usually the yellow outputs give AC.
The black (negative) and red (positive) outputs give DC.
14 • Physics Lab Experiments

Figure 2.2: Left: Low (electric) potential difference connectors with exposed metal contacts.
Right: High (electric) potential difference connectors with shielded metal contacts. The
shielding automatically moves back as the plug is connected into a socket. Both leads can
be piggy-backed to connect multiple leads to the same place.

Figure 2.3: Examples of high EMF (EHT) power supplies.

should be used which have shielded connectors to reduce the risk of

electrocution: see Figure 2.2.
No matter what form of power supply is connected to a device
it is always safest to turn off the supply before touching any metal
or “live” component. Special care should be taken with EHT power
supplies: they must not simply be switched off using a power switch
(on the power supply or plug socket). The (electric) potential dif-
ference should be slowly decreased to zero and a voltmeter (or volt-
age display built in to the power supply) should be used to ensure
the potential difference has reached zero before the power supply is
switched off. The risk of switching off an EHT incorrectly is the pos-
sibility that circuit elements or components (most likely a capacitor)
 Safety • 15

may still retain significant separated charge. This charge creates a

high potential difference which can cause a dangerously large cur-
rent to flow through you when any exposed wiring is touched (even
if the power supply is switched off and unplugged from the mains).

2.4 GAS CYLINDERS

Cylinders of gas provide a reliable and consistent supply of pure,

dry gas to an experiment. Common gases used in university experi-
ments include oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium, argon, and
hydrogen.
The use and movement of gas cylinders can be potentially dan-
gerous, although it can be done safely if the risks and dangers are
understood.
Gas cylinders should always be stored and used in an upright
position. They must always be secured so as they can’t fall over:

Figure 2.4: A bracket and belt anchoring a cylinder to the desk.

16 • Physics Lab Experiments

usually in a transport cart or using a chain or belt which securely

attaches the cylinder to a wall or table bracket: see Figures 2.4 and
2.5. Cylinders which are not secured may fall over and cause a crush-
ing injury to someone nearby. A further severe danger is that the
regulator may be sheared off, allowing gas to escape rapidly turning
the cylinder into a torpedo capable of major injury and penetrating
concrete walls [2].
Generally, cylinders not in use will be stored outside in a cage to
keep them secure. Great care should be taken if a gas cylinder must

Figure 2.5: A cart used to move gas cylinder. This cart has an extra set of wheels so the user
doesn’t have to support part of the weight of the cylinder while moving the cylinder.
 Safety • 17

be moved. Cylinders are heavy and have no “carrying handles”. They

should be strapped securely into a transport cart: see Figure 2.5.
Care should be taken when moving carts as they usually need to
tipped and part of the weight of the cylinder supported by the user’s
arms. Carts should be taken slowly and carefully over uneven floors
and doors should be propped open in advance.
Gas cylinders store gas under high pressure, commonly this is
around 230 bar. To reduce this pressure for use in an experiment a
regulator must be used. The regulator is attached to the outlet at the
top of the cylinder. Regulators for hydrogen and other flammable
fuel gases have a left handed thread on the nut, whereas regulators
for oxygen and inert gases have a right handed thread. Special care
should be taken to ensure that regulators for oxygen cylinders are
labeled as oil free: usually with a crossed out symbol of an oil can.
This reduces the risk of fire.
To fit a regulator to a cylinder begin by ensuring the regulator
is turned off by turning the regulator knob counterclockwise. Next

Figure 2.6: A gas regulator. This one is for oxygen only: the knob is labeled and the crossed
out symbol of an oil can is present in the pressure gauges.
18 • Physics Lab Experiments

check the screw threads on the cylinder and regulator are in good
condition. With closed eyes, blow into the cylinder head to remove
any dust.
Then place the regulator above the thread and using a spanner,
turn the nut (clockwise from above for right handed threads) until
the nut will not turn any further. Do not use excessive force.
To obtain gas, ensure the knob is turned fully counterclockwise (the
off position). Use the cylinder key to turn the spindle (see Figure 2.7)
fully counterclockwise (the on position). The pressure gauge now gives
a reading, indicating the contents of the cylinder. As gas is used the pres-
sure reading will decrease: an empty cylinder will read approximately
zero when the spindle is open. A quick check for leaks in the regulator
can be made. Gas leaking rapidly will make a hissing noise. Slowly turn
the regulator knob clockwise (to the on position) to obtain the gas. The
second gauge indicates the delivery pressure of the gas. The further the
knob is turned clockwise the higher the delivery pressure.
To close down a gas cylinder when the experiment is finished
turn the regulator knob fully counterclockwise to the off position.
Use the cylinder key to move the spindle fully clockwise to the
off position.
Next turn the knob clockwise to remove any gas in the regulator.
This prevents damage to the diaphragm in the regulator. The pres-
sure gauge will now read zero. Finally turn the knob fully counter-
clockwise again.
To remove the regulator when the cylinder is empty and needs
changing follow the instructions in the paragraph above to close
down a gas cylinder. Then unscrew (counterclockwise from above

Figure 2.7: Left: A gas cylinder key. Right: The spindle on a gas bottle.
 Safety • 19

for a right handed thread) the nut using a spanner. The regulator
should now be free. It is vital that the spindle is fully turned off
(turned fully clockwise) before starting to unscrew the nut. This pre-
vents gas escaping rapidly from the cylinder potentially causing the
torpedo effect described earlier.
Note carefully that the spindle is off when turned fully clockwise
where as the regulator is off when turned fully counterclockwise.
Compressed gases are graded by their purity which is usually
expressed as a percentage, for example: 99 % or 99.999 %. How-
ever this is often re-expressed in terms of the number of nines:
99 % becomes 2N (corresponding to 2 nines) and 99.999 % becomes
5N (corresponding to 5 nines). A further variation is 99.95 % which
becomes 3N5 (corresponding to 3 nines and then a five).
In the EU, the colors of cylinders of some gases are becoming
standardized following the new standard EN 1089-3. Colors for cyl-
inders of the most common gases are given in Table 2.3.

2.5 VACUUM PUMPS

Vacuum pumps are used to remove air or other gases from a

sealed container. Depending on the pressure required different
types of pump are used. Commonly used pumps include a simple
wine-saver hand pump, a rotary pump, a diaphragm pump, a diffu-
sion pump, or a turbo pump.

Table 2.3: Compressed gas cylinder colors.

20 • Physics Lab Experiments

The primary danger when using a vacuum pump to reduce the

pressure inside a container is that the container walls fail and the
container implodes. Wall pieces may then rebound off each other
and fly outwards causing injury. It is usual for glass or plastic pres-
sure vessels (such as bell jars) to be surrounded by a mesh cage or
a safety screen to provide some protection in the event of an implo-
sion.
The magnitude of the force acting on a container under vacuum
can be demonstrated with a used soft drinks can. A small amount of
water is placed in the bottom of the empty can which is then heated.
Once the water is boiling and the can contains steam, the can is then
rapidly turned upside down with the opening submerged in water
to seal the can. The water rapidly cools and the steam condenses
reducing the pressure in the can causing it to fold inwards. A reduc-
tion of pressure of around 30 mbar (to around 970 mbar) in the can
is sufficient to cause it to implode.

2.5.1 PRESSURE UNITS

Most pumps or vacuum systems will have a pressure gauge to

measure the pressure achieved. The gauge may read in a variety of
units so it is important to be aware of how to inter-convert units. The
SI unit of pressure is the N/m2 derived from the equation P=F/A.
1 N/m2 is identical to 1 Pascal, abbreviated to 1 Pa. Other common
units for pressure include the atmosphere (atm), the Torr (which is
equivalent to mm of Mercury) and the pound per square inch (psi).
Conversion factors between these units are shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Conversion factors for common pressure units.

 Safety • 21

Figure 2.8: A vacu-vin hand pump.

Figure 2.9: A rotary pump.

22 • Physics Lab Experiments

2.5.2 HAND PUMPS AND VACU-VINS

A hand pump or vacu-vin is primarily designed for removing air

from bottles of wine, thus preserving an opened bottle of wine for
longer (see Figure 2.8). When the appropriate pressure is reached
this is indicated by the device with a “click”. Only rarely do these
have a built in pressure gauge, but typically they will achieve a pres-
sure of around 400 mbar before the “click”. Inside the vacu-vin a
piston compresses air from the vessel being evacuated and forces it
out through a valve.

2.5.3 DIAPHRAGM PUMP

Diaphragm pumps consist of a vibrating diaphragm which com-

presses air from the experiment and forces it out through a valve.
Typically they achieve a pressure of around 20 mbar.

2.5.4 ROTARY PUMP

Rotary pumps are the work horse pump of the physics lab. They
provide a cheap, reliable way to achieve a vacuum down to a pres-
sure of around 0.1 mbar. A two stage rotary pump consists of two
rotary pumps in series and will produce a vacuum of around 0.001
mbar = 1×10−3 mbar. Figure 2.9 shows a rotary pump.
The pump consists of a vane projecting from a cylinder rotating
eccentrically which compresses air and forces it out through a valve.
Rotary pumps have oil inside. This is a special type of oil which has a
very low vapor pressure i.e., it produces very little vapor. If it did not
have a low vapor pressure it could not be used as the oil vapor would
pollute the vacuum the pump was trying to produce. Despite the
low vapor pressure tiny droplets (i.e., a mist) of oil from the pump
can be carried away by the air it exhausts. This is more of a concern
when the pumping flow rate is high or the pump is run for pro-
longed periods of time or in a confined space/small room. There are
 Safety • 23

statutory limits on the amount of oil mist permissable in air and so

rotary pumps are usually fitted with an oil mist filter.
Some pumps have an anti-suck provision built in. If not, oil will
be sucked from inside the vacuum pump back into the experiment.
To prevent this the experiment must be isolated from the pump by
closing a valve before the pump is switched off. Air should then be
allowed into the pump using the air inlet valve. The experiment can
be brought back to atmospheric pressure when needed using a sepa-
rate air inlet valve in the experiment: if the air inlet valve on the
pump is used oil will be sucked into the experiment.

2.5.5 DIFFUSION PUMP

In a diffusion pump molecules of gas are swept away by jets of

oil vapor. The exhaust must be connected to a rotary pump: that is, a
diffusion pump must be backed by a rotary pump. Diffusion pumps
have a high displacement rate even at low pressures and so will reach
low pressures despite minor leaks. They can achieve a pressure of
around 1×10−4 mbar.

2.5.6 TURBOMOLECULAR PUMP

A turbomolecular pump (see Figure 2.10) contains a rapidly

spinning turbine which repeatedly collides with gas molecules
imparting momentum, directing the molecules towards the exhaust.
The exhaust must be connected to a rotary pump: that is a turbomo-
lecular pump must be backed by a rotary pump and can achieve a
minimum pressure of around 1×10−8 mbar.
To prevent the turbine blades becoming damaged due to too
many collisions with gas molecules, turbomolecular pumps should
not be turned on until the rotary backing pump has achieved a pres-
sure of at least 9×10−3 mbar. Care must be taken when switching off
a turbomolecular pump. Air should not admitted to the system until
the turbo pump has slowed to 25–50 % of its maximum revolutions
24 • Physics Lab Experiments

Figure 2.10: A turbomolecular pump backed with a rotary pump.

 Safety • 25

per minute. This may take a considerable time of the order of

15–30 minutes. Air should then be admitted very slowly through the
special air inlet valve.

2.6 CRYOGENICS

Cryogenics refers to the production of very low temperatures in

the laboratory. Rather than using a refrigerator such as you might
find in a kitchen, in the physics lab liquid cryogens are generally
preferred. This is because of their simplicity, relatively low cost and
the complex nature of cryogen free coolers.
Common liquid cryogens are nitrogen and helium. These ele-
ments are gases at room temperature and pressure, however can be
cooled and liquified. Often cryogens are produced off site by a spe-
cialist company and purchased by a university. Liquid cryogens pro-
vide a simple reliable method to cool other objects to very low and
stable temperatures. It is likely that liquid nitrogen and dry ice will
feature early on in many undergraduate courses and so this section
begins by discussing how these can be used safely. Liquid helium
will also feature in some undergraduate laboratories and so this will
be mentioned briefly.
No written publication or instructions can never be a substitute
for proper training by a university before any cryogenic liquids are
used. This ensures that the student is aware of all the dangers specific
to the equipment and setting in which they will be using cryogens.

2.6.1 LIQUID NITROGEN

At atmospheric pressure nitrogen boils at 77 K (196°C) and it

has a latent heat of vaporization of 200 kJ/kg. In its liquid form it
is a clear, colorless liquid. Nitrogen freezes creating nitrogen ice at
63 K (210°C). By reducing the pressure of the gas above a container
of liquid nitrogen with a rotary vacuum pump it is possible to freeze
nitrogen. Figure 2.11 shows the phase diagram for Nitrogen.
26 • Physics Lab Experiments

Figure 2.11: Phase diagram for Nitrogen. Nitrogen is a gas at STP (standard temperature
and pressure).

Due to its high latent heat of vaporization and relatively low

cost it is commonly used to cool objects in the physics laboratory.
It will be stored in a Dewar flask (named for the Scottish scientist
James Dewar 1842–1923) which is essentially a large vacuum flask
of the type used for hot drinks: see Figure 2.13. If a vacuum flask
intended for food use is used it is vital the screw top is not used as
this will lead to a build up of pressure as the nitrogen evaporates
and a possible explosion. For easy access to small quantities it may
be temporarily stored in a polystyrene or neoprene bucket: see Fig-
ure 2.12.
It is reasonably safe to use in the laboratory provided there is
some understanding of the dangers it poses and simple safety proce-
dures are followed.
The primary danger is the cooling and freezing of parts of the
human body. However, if liquid nitrogen comes into gentle contact
 Safety • 27

Figure 2.12: A neoprene plastic bucket for storing liquid nitrogen.

with skin it rapidly evaporates forming a layer of nitrogen gas which

protects the body from any further contact with the liquid as well as
insulating the body from the coldness of the liquid. This is called the
Leidenfrost effect and can also be seen if water is spilt on a hot elec-
tric cooker plate. Thus it is perfectly safe to dip fingers into liquid
nitrogen for a short time (less than 1 second) while being careful to
avoid touching any container holding the nitrogen. It is also possible
to pour liquid nitrogen over hands or other parts of the body pro-
vided it is not poured from a significant height nor allowed to collect
in the cup of hands, pockets, sleeves, cuffs, or shoes. Liquid which
collects in clothing will be in contact with the body for a long period
of time and could lead to severe cold burns.
This possibility of collection of liquid absolutely rules out the
use of gloves when handling liquid nitrogen. Vitally however, solid
objects, especially metal, cooled by liquid nitrogen should never be
touched with bare hands: thick gloves (suede gardening gloves or
special cryogenic gloves may be appropriate) must always be worn.
Bare hands will stick to cold objects (rather than follow the recoil
28 • Physics Lab Experiments

Figure 2.13: Liquid Nitrogen Dewars. Left: a 25 liter “onion” Dewar with a cart Right: a 10
liter Dewar.

reaction experienced when hot objects are touched) and present the
danger severe cold burns.
Care should be taken to avoid splashes of liquid nitrogen enter-
ing the eyes especially when pouring liquid nitrogen from one con-
tainer to another and so wearing goggles may be appropriate. Open
shoes or sandals must be avoided by all those working in the same
room as liquid nitrogen is used.
A further danger presented by liquid nitrogen is asphyxiation.
When a liquid turns into a gas it expands significantly (remember
the diagrams showing the particles in a solid, liquid, gas drawn
Other documents randomly have
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Les sentiers
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Title: Les sentiers dans la montagne

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LES SENTIERS

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 MAURICE MAETERLINCK

LES SENTIERS
DANS LA MONTAGNE
QUINZIÈME MILLE

PARIS
BIBLIOTHÈQUE-CHARPENTIER
EUGÈNE FASQUELLE, ÉDITEUR
11, RUE DE GRENELLE, 11

1919
Tous droits réservés.

Copyright in the United States of America by Dodd, Mead and Co, Inc., 1919. All
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OUVRAGES DE MAURICE MAETERLINCK

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IL A ÉTÉ TIRÉ DE CET OUVRAGE

20 exemplaires numérotés sur papier du Japon;

80 exemplaires numérotés sur papier de Hollande

LES SENTIERS
DANS LA MONTAGNE
 I
LA PUISSANCE DES MORTS

Dans un petit livre qui est une sorte d'étrange chef-d'œuvre: la

Ville enchantée, une romancière anglaise, Mrs Oliphant, nous montre
les morts d'une ville de province qui tout à coup, indignés de la
conduite et des mœurs de ceux qui habitent la cité qu'ils fondèrent,
se révoltent, envahissent les maisons, les rues et les places
publiques, et sous la pression de leur multitude innombrable, toute-
puissante quoique invisible, refoulent les vivants, les poussent hors
des portes, et faisant bonne garde, ne leur permettent de rentrer
dans leurs murs qu'après qu'un traité de paix et de pénitence a
purifié les cœurs, réparé les scandales et assuré un avenir plus
digne.
Il y a sans nul doute sous cette fiction, qui nous semble poussée
un peu loin, parce que nous ne voyons que les réalités matérielles et
éphémères, une grande vérité. Les morts vivent et se meuvent
parmi nous beaucoup plus réellement et plus efficacement que ne le
saurait peindre l'imagination la plus aventureuse. Il est fort douteux
qu'ils restent dans leurs tombes. Il paraît même de plus en plus
certain qu'ils ne s'y laissèrent jamais renfermer. Il n'y a sous les
dalles où nous les croyons prisonniers qu'un peu de cendres qui ne
leur appartiennent plus qu'ils ont abandonnées sans regrets et dont,
probablement, ils ne daignent plus se souvenir. Tout ce qui fut eux-
mêmes demeure parmi nous. Sous quelle forme, de quelle façon?
après tant de milliers, peut-être de millions d'années, nous ne le
savons pas encore, et aucune religion n'a pu nous le dire avec une
certitude satisfaisante, bien que toutes s'y soient évertuées; mais on
peut, à de certains indices, espérer de l'apprendre.
*
* *

Sans considérer davantage une vérité puissante mais confuse

qu'il est pour l'instant impossible de préciser ou de rendre sensible,
tenons-nous à ce qui n'est pas contestable. Comme je l'ai dit
ailleurs, quelle que soit notre foi religieuse, il est en tout cas un lieu
où nos morts ne peuvent pas périr, où ils continuent d'exister aussi
réellement et parfois, plus activement que lorsqu'ils étaient dans la
chair: c'est en nous que se trouve cette vivante demeure et ce lieu
consacré qui pour ceux que nous avons perdus devient le paradis ou
l'enfer selon que nous nous rapprochons ou nous éloignons de leurs
pensées et de leurs vœux.
Et leurs pensées et leurs vœux sont toujours plus hauts que les
nôtres. C'est donc en nous élevant que nous irons à eux. Nous
devons faire les premiers pas; ils ne peuvent plus descendre, tandis
qu'il nous est toujours possible de monter; car les morts, quels qu'ils
aient été dans leur vie, deviennent meilleurs que les meilleurs
d'entre nous. Les moins bons, en dépouillant leur corps, ont
dépouillé ses vices, ses petitesses, ses faiblesses qui abandonnent
bientôt notre mémoire aussi; et l'esprit seul demeure qui est pur en
tout homme et ne peut vouloir que le bien. Il n'y a pas de mauvais
morts, parce qu'il n'y a pas de mauvaises âmes. C'est pourquoi, à
mesure que nous nous purifions, nous redonnons la vie à ceux qui
n'étaient plus et transformons en ciel notre souvenir qu'ils habitent.
*
* *

Et ce qui fut toujours vrai de tous les morts, l'est bien davantage
aujourd'hui que les meilleurs seuls sont choisis pour la tombe. Dans
la région que nous croyons souterraine, que nous appelons le
royaume des ombres et qui est en réalité la région éthérée et le
royaume de la lumière, il y a eu des perturbations aussi profondes
que celles que nous avons éprouvées à la surface de notre terre. Les
jeunes morts l'ont envahie de toutes parts; et, depuis l'origine de ce
monde, ne furent jamais aussi nombreux, aussi pleins de force et
d'ardeur. Alors que dans le cours habituel des années, le séjour de
ceux qui nous quittent ne recueille que des existences lasses et
épuisées, il n'en est pas un seul dans cette foule incomparable qui,
pour reprendre l'expression de Périclès, «ne soit sorti de la vie au
plus fort de la gloire». Il n'en est pas un seul qui ne soit, non pas
descendu mais monté vers la mort, tout couvert du plus grand
sacrifice que l'homme puisse faire à une idée qui ne peut pas mourir.
Il faudrait que tout ce que nous avons cru jusqu'à ce jour, tout ce
que nous avons tenté d'atteindre par delà nous-mêmes, tout ce qui
nous a élevés au point où nous sommes, tout ce qui a surmonté les
mauvais jours et les mauvais instincts de la nature humaine, n'eût
été qu'illusions et mensonges, pour que de tels hommes, un tel
amas de mérite et de gloire, fussent réellement anéantis, à jamais
disparus, à jamais inutiles et sans voix, à jamais sans action, sur un
monde auquel ils ont donné la vie.
*
* *

Il est à peine possible qu'il en soit ainsi au point de vue de la

survivance extérieure des morts; mais il est absolument certain qu'il
en est autrement au point de vue de leur survivance en nous-
mêmes. Ici rien ne se perd et personne ne périt. Nos souvenirs sont
aujourd'hui peuplés d'une multitude de héros frappés dans la fleur
de leur âge et toute différente de la pâle cohorte alanguie de
naguère, presque uniquement composée de malades et de vieillards
qui déjà n'étaient plus avant que de quitter la terre. Il faut nous dire
que maintenant, dans chacune de nos maisons, dans nos villes
comme dans nos campagnes dans le palais comme dans la plus
sombre chaumière, vit et règne un jeune mort dans l'éclat de sa
force. Il emplit d'une gloire qu'elle n'eût jamais osé rêver, la plus
pauvre, la plus noire demeure. Sa présence constante, impérieuse et
inévitable, y répand et y entretient une religion et des pensées qu'on
n'y connaissait point, consacre tout ce qui l'environne, force les yeux
à regarder plus haut et l'esprit à ne plus redescendre, purifie l'air
qu'on y respire, les propos qu'on y tient et les idées qu'on y
rassemble; et de proche en proche, comme jamais on n'en avait eu
d'exemple aussi vaste, ennoblit, anoblit et relève tout un peuple.
*
* *

De pareils morts ont une puissance aussi profonde, aussi féconde

et moins précaire que la vie. Il est terrible que cette expérience ait
été faite, car c'est la plus impitoyable et la première en masses aussi
énormes que l'humanité ait subie; mais à présent que l'épreuve est
passée, on en recueillera bientôt les fruits les plus inattendus. On ne
tardera pas à voir s'élargir les différences et diverger les destinées
entre les nations qui ont acquis tous ces morts et toute cette gloire
et celles qui en furent privées, et l'on constatera avec étonnement
que celles qui ont le plus perdu sont celles qui ont gardé leur
richesse et leurs hommes. Il est des pertes qui sont des gains
inestimables et des gains où se perd l'avenir. Il est des morts que les
vivants ne sauraient remplacer et dont la pensée fait des choses que
les corps ne peuvent accomplir. Il est des morts dont l'élan dépasse
la mort et retrouve la vie; et nous sommes presque tous à cette
heure les mandataires d'un être plus grand, plus noble, plus grave,
plus sage et plus vivant que nous. Avec tous ceux qui
l'accompagnent, il sera notre juge, s'il est vrai que les morts pèsent
l'âme des vivants et que de leur sentence dépend notre bonheur. Il
sera notre guide et notre protecteur; car c'est la première fois depuis
que l'histoire nous révèle ses malheurs que l'homme sent planer au-
dessus de sa tête et parler dans son cœur une telle multitude de tels
morts.
 II
MESSAGES D'OUTRE-TOMBE

Sir Oliver Lodge est un illustre physicien anglais, un des savants

les plus considérables de ce temps. Il est en outre l'un des chefs les
plus anciens et les plus actifs de la célèbre Society for Psychical
Research, fondée en 1882, qui depuis trente-sept ans s'applique à
étudier avec une rigueur scientifique irréprochable, tous les
phénomènes merveilleux, inexplicables, occultes et surnaturels qui
ont toujours troublé et troublent encore l'humanité. A côté de ses
travaux scientifiques, dont je ne parle pas, n'ayant pas qualité pour
les juger, il est l'auteur de livres extrêmement remarquables; entre
autres: l'Homme et l'Univers, l'Éther de l'Espace, la Survivance
humaine, où les spéculations métaphysiques les plus hautes et les
plus hardies sont sans cesse contrôlées par le bon sens le plus
prudent, le plus avisé, le plus inébranlable.
Sir Oliver Lodge, qui est donc ensemble un philosophe et un
savant positif et pratique, rompu aux méthodes scientifiques qui ne
lui permettent pas aisément de s'égarer, qui est en un mot l'un des
cerveaux les mieux équilibrés qu'on puisse rencontrer, est convaincu
que les morts ne meurent pas et peuvent communiquer avec nous.
Il a essayé de nous faire partager cette conviction dans son livre: la
Survivance humaine. Je ne crois pas qu'il y ait complètement réussi.
Il nous donne, il est vrai, un certain nombre de faits extraordinaires,
mais qui peuvent, à la rigueur, s'expliquer par l'intervention
inconsciente d'intelligences autres que celles des morts. Il ne nous
apporte pas la preuve irréfragable, comme le serait, par exemple, la
révélation d'un incident, d'un détail, d'une connaissance à tel point
inconnue de tout être vivant, qu'elle ne pourrait provenir que d'un
esprit qui n'est plus de ce monde. Accordons du reste qu'une telle
preuve est, comme il le dit, aussi difficile à concevoir qu'à fournir.

Le plus jeune des fils de Sir Oliver Lodge, nommé Raymond, né

en 1889, était ingénieur et s'engagea pour la durée de la guerre en
septembre 1914. Il fut envoyé en Belgique au commencement du
printemps de 1915, et le 14 septembre de la même année, devant
Ypres, tandis que la compagnie qu'il commandait quittait une
tranchée de première ligne, un éclat d'obus le frappait au flanc
gauche; et il mourait quelques heures après.
C'était, comme nous le montre une photographie, un de ces
jeunes et admirables soldats anglais, types parfaits d'une humanité
vigoureuse, fraîche, heureuse, innocente et splendide, dont la mort
semble d'autant plus cruelle et plus incroyable qu'elle anéantit plus
de force, d'espérances, de beauté.
Son père vient de lui consacrer un gros volume sous ce titre:
Raymond, or Life and Death; et chose d'abord assez déconcertante,
ce n'est pas, comme on s'y attendait, un livre de plaintes, de regrets,
de sanglots; mais le rapport précis, volontairement impassible,
presque heureux par moments, du savant qui refoule sa douleur
pour voir clair devant lui, lutte énergiquement contre l'idée de la
mort et regarde se lever l'aube d'un immense et très étrange espoir.
Je ne m'arrêterai pas à la première partie du volume qui s'attache
à nous faire connaître le jeune homme. On y trouve une quarantaine
de lettres écrites dans les tranchées, des témoignages de ses
compagnons d'armes qui l'adoraient, des détails sur sa mort, etc.
Ces lettres, soit dit en passant, sont charmantes, pittoresques et
d'un enjouement délicat et délicieux qui ne songe qu'à rassurer ceux
qui sont en sûreté. Je n'ai pas le temps de m'y attarder et ce n'est
pas ce qui nous intéresse ici.
Mais la seconde partie que Sir Oliver Lodge intitule: Supernormal
Portion, abandonne la vie qui s'agite à la surface de notre terre, et
nous introduit dans un monde tout différent.
Dès les premières lignes, l'auteur nous rappelle sa conviction, à
savoir, et en ses propres termes: «que non seulement la personnalité
persiste après la mort, mais que son existence continuée s'enlace à
la vie quotidienne beaucoup plus étroitement qu'on ne se l'imagine;
qu'il n'y a pas de véritable solution de continuité entre le mort et le
vivant; qu'en réponse aux demandes urgentes de l'affection, des
moyens de communication peuvent être établis par-dessus ce qui
semble être un gouffre et qu'en fait, comme Diotime le disait à
Socrate, dans le Symposium, l'amour jette un pont sur l'abîme».
Sir Oliver Lodge est donc persuadé que son fils quoique mort n'a
pas cessé d'exister et ne s'est pas éloigné de ceux qui l'aiment.
Raymond, en effet, onze jours après son décès, cherche déjà à
communiquer avec son père. On sait que ces communications, ou
soi-disant communications d'outre-tombe,—ne préjugeons pas pour
l'instant,—se font par l'intermédiaire d'un médium qui est ou se croit
inspiré ou possédé par le mort ou par un esprit familier qui parle au
nom du mort et rapporte ce que ce dernier lui révèle, soit de vive
voix, soit par l'écriture automatique ou encore, bien que très
rarement dans le cas qui nous occupe, par les tables parlantes. Mais
je passe sur ces préliminaires qui nous entraîneraient trop loin, pour
arriver tout de suite à la communication qui est, je pense, la plus
étonnante de toutes; et peut-être la seule qui ne soit pas explicable,
ou du moins qui soit le plus difficilement explicable, par l'intervention
des vivants.
Vers la fin du mois d'août 1915, c'est-à-dire peu de jours avant sa
mort, le jeune héros, qui se trouvait, comme nous l'avons vu, aux
environs d'Ypres, avait été photographié avec les officiers de son
bataillon, par un photographe ambulant. Le 27 septembre suivant,
au cours d'une séance avec le médium Peters, l'esprit qui parlait par
la bouche de celui-ci, dit tout à coup et textuellement: «Vous avez
plusieurs photographies de ce jeune homme. Avant son départ, on a
fait un bon portrait de lui, deux,—non, trois.—Deux où il est seul, et
un où il se trouve au milieu d'un groupe d'autres hommes. Il tient
beaucoup à ce que je vous dise cela. Sur l'une des épreuves vous
verrez sa canne.»
Or, à ce moment, dans l'entourage de Sir Oliver Lodge, on
ignorait absolument l'existence de ce groupe. On n'attacha du reste
pas grande importance à cette révélation; mais dans des séances
subséquentes, notamment le 3 décembre, avant l'arrivée des
épreuves, avant que personne les eût vues, les détails se précisent.
D'après les déclarations de l'esprit, il s'agit bien d'un groupe d'une
douzaine d'officiers, ou peut-être plus d'une douzaine, pris en plein
air, devant une sorte de hangar. (Le médium trace avec le doigt des
lignes verticales dans l'espace.) Les uns sont assis, les autres
debout, dans le fond. Raymond est assis, quelqu'un s'appuie sur lui.
Plusieurs épreuves ont été prises.
Le 7 décembre, les photographies arrivent à Mariemont,
résidence de Sir Oliver Lodge. Ce sont trois épreuves légèrement
différentes du même groupe de vingt et un officiers, sur trois rangs,
le dernier rang debout, les deux autres assis. Le groupe est pris
devant une sorte de hangar en planches, dont le toit présente des
lignes verticales très apparentes. Raymond est assis au premier
rang; à ses pieds, se trouve la canne dont on avait parlé dans la
première révélation, et, détail extrêmement frappant, dans tout le
groupe, il est le seul sur l'épaule de qui, dans deux épreuves,
quelqu'un appuie la main, et dans la troisième, la jambe.
Cette manifestation est une des plus remarquables qu'on ait
obtenues jusqu'ici, parce qu'elle exclut presque entièrement toute
ingérence télépathique, c'est-à-dire toute communication de
subconscient à subconscient, parmi les personnes présentes à la
séance, qui toutes ignoraient absolument l'existence des
photographies. Si l'on se refuse à admettre l'intervention du mort,—
qui ne doit, j'en conviens, être admise qu'à la dernière extrémité,—il
faut, pour expliquer la révélation, supposer que le subconscient du
médium ou de l'un des assistants, à travers les dédales et les déserts
immenses de l'espace et parmi des millions d'âmes étrangères, se
soit mis en rapport avec le subconscient d'un des officiers ou des
personnes qui avaient vu ces épreuves dont rien ne faisait
soupçonner l'existence. C'est possible, mais tellement hasardeux,
tellement prodigieux, que la survivance et l'intervention du défunt,
sembleraient presque, en l'occurence, moins surnaturelles et plus
vraisemblables.

Je n'entrerai pas dans le détail de nombreuses séances qui

précédèrent ou suivirent celle-ci, et n'entreprendrai pas non plus de
les résumer. Il faut, pour en partager l'émotion, lire les procès-
verbaux qui reproduisent fidèlement ces étranges dialogues des
vivants et des morts. On a l'impression que l'enfant qui n'est plus se
rapproche chaque jour de la vie et s'entretient de plus en plus
aisément, de plus en plus familièrement avec tous ceux qui l'ont
aimé avant les ténèbres de la tombe. Il rappelle à chacun mille petits
incidents oubliés. Il demeure parmi les siens, comme s'il ne les avait
jamais quittés. Il est toujours présent et prêt à leur répondre. Il se
mêle si bien à toute leur existence que personne ne songe à le
pleurer. On l'interroge sur sa situation, on lui demande où il est, ce
qu'il est, ce qu'il fait. Il ne se fait pas prier; il se déclare d'abord
étonné de l'invraisemblable réalité de ce monde nouveau. Il y est
très heureux, il se reforme, se condense, pour ainsi dire, et se
ressaisit peu à peu. L'existence de l'intelligence et de la volonté,
débarrassée du corps, est plus libre, plus légère, plus étendue, plus
diffuse, mais se continue à peu près pareille à ce qu'elle était dans la
chair. Le milieu n'est plus physique mais spirituel; et c'est une
transposition sur un autre plan plutôt que la rupture, le
bouleversement de fond en comble, les transformations inouïes que
nous nous plaisons à imaginer. Après tout, n'est-ce pas assez
plausible, et n'avons-nous pas tort de croire que la mort change
tout, du jour au lendemain, et qu'il y ait, entre l'heure qui précède le
décès et celle qui la suit, un abîme subit et inconcevable? Est-ce
conforme aux habitudes de la nature? Le principe de vie que nous
portons en nous, et qui sans doute ne peut s'éteindre, est-il à ce
point modifié et opprimé par notre corps, qu'au sortir de celui-ci, il
devienne, en un clin d'œil, tout à fait différent et méconnaissable?
Mais il faut que j'abrège; il faut même, pour ne pas dépasser les
bornes de cette étude, que je néglige deux ou trois révélations
moins frappantes que celle de la photographie, mais qui n'en sont
pas moins assez étranges.
Évidemment, ce n'est pas la première fois que de telles
manifestations se produisent; mais celles-ci sont vraiment d'une
qualité plus haute que celles qui encombrent plusieurs volumes des
Proceedings. Apportent-elles la preuve que nous demandons? Je ne
le crois pas; mais cette preuve péremptoire sera-t-on jamais à même
de nous la fournir? Que peut faire l'esprit désincarné qui veut établir
qu'il continue d'exister? S'il nous parle des incidents les plus secrets,
les plus intimes d'un passé commun, nous lui répondons que c'est
nous, en nous-mêmes, qui retrouvons ces souvenirs. S'il entend
nous convaincre par la description de son monde d'outre-tombe,
tous les tableaux les plus sublimes, les plus inattendus qu'il en
pourrait tracer, ne valent rien comme preuve, n'étant pas
contrôlables. Si nous lui demandons de s'attester par une prédiction
de l'avenir, il nous avoue qu'il ne le connaît pas beaucoup mieux que
nous; ce qui est assez vraisemblable, attendu qu'une telle
connaissance supposerait une sorte d'omniscience et partant
d'omnipotence qui ne doit pas pouvoir s'acquérir en un instant. Il ne
lui reste donc que les petites échappées, les précaires
commencements de preuve du genre de ceux que nous trouvons ici.
Ce n'est pas suffisant, j'en conviens, puisque la psychométrie, c'est-
à-dire une manifestation de clairvoyance analogue, entre
subconsciences vivantes, donne des résultats presque aussi
étonnants. Mais ici comme là, ces résultats montrent tout au moins
qu'il y a autour de nous des intelligences errantes, déjà affranchies
des lois étroites et pesantes de l'espace et de la matière, qui parfois
savent des choses que nous ne savons pas ou ne savons plus.
Émanent-elles de nous, ne sont-elles que des manifestations de
facultés encore inconnues; ou sont-elles extérieures, objectives et
indépendantes de nous? Sont-elles seulement vivantes au sens où
nous l'entendons pour nos corps, ou appartiennent-elles à des corps
qui ne sont plus? C'est ce que nous ne pouvons pas encore décider;
mais il faut convenir que dès qu'on admet leur existence, qui n'est
plus guère contestable, il est bien moins difficile d'accepter qu'elles
appartiennent à des morts.
En tout cas, si de telles expériences ne démontrent pas, de façon
péremptoire, que les morts peuvent directement, manifestement et
presque matériellement se mêler à notre existence et rester en
contact avec nous, elles prouvent qu'ils continuent de vivre en nous
beaucoup plus ardemment, plus profondément, plus
personnellement, plus passionnément qu'on ne l'avait cru jusqu'ici;
et c'est déjà bien plus qu'on n'osait espérer.
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