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AQA A Level Physics Your notes

Longitudinal & Transverse Waves

Contents
Progressive Waves
Longitudinal & Transverse Waves
Polarisation

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Progressive Waves
Your notes
Properties of Oscillations
A progressive wave is defined as:
A wave that transfers energy from one point to another without transferring the medium itself

Properties of a Progressive Wave

Displacement (x) of a wave is the distance of a point on the wave from its equilibrium position
It is a vector quantity; it can be positive or negative
Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of a particle in the wave from its equilibrium position
Wavelength (λ) is the distance between points on successive oscillations of the wave that are in phase
These are all measured in metres (m)

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Period (T) or time period, is the time taken for one complete oscillation or cycle of the wave
Measured in seconds (s)

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Your notes

Diagram showing the time period of a wave

Frequency (f) is the number of complete oscillations per unit time. Measured in Hertz (Hz) or s-1

Frequency-period equation
Speed (v) is the distance travelled by the wave per unit time
Measured in metres per second (m s-1)
The wave equation links the speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave
This is relevant for both transverse and longitudinal waves

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Your notes

The Wave Equation

The wave equation shows that for a wave of constant speed:
As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases
As the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases

The relationship between frequency and wavelength of a wave

Worked Example
The wave in the diagram below has a speed of 340 m s–1.

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Your notes

What is the wavelength of the wave?

Answer:

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You may also see the wave equation be written as c = fλ where c is the wave speed. However, c is
often used to represent a specific speed the speed of light (3 × 108 m s–1). Only electromagnetic

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waves travel at this speed, therefore it’s best practice to use v for any speed that isn’t the speed of
light instead.
Your notes
Phase Difference
The phase difference between two waves is a measure of how much a point or a wave is in front or
behind another
This can be found from the relative positive of the crests or troughs of two different waves of the same
frequency
When the crests or troughs are aligned, the waves are in phase
When the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another, they are in antiphase
The diagram below shows two waves with the same wavelength and frequency, but they are not in
phase
The green wave reaches the same point in the cycle (e.g. a peak) earlier than the purple wave — it is
shifted to the left
This means the green wave leads the purple wave by ¼ λ

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Two waves ¼ λ out of phase

In contrast, the purple wave is said to lag behind the green wave by ¼ λ Your notes
Phase difference is measured in fractions of a wavelength, degrees or radians
The phase difference can be calculated from two different points on the same wave or the same point
on two different waves
The phase difference between two points can be described as:
In phase is 360o or 2π radians
In anti-phase is 180o or π radians

Worked Example
Plane waves on the surface of water at a particular instant are represented by the diagram below.

The waves have a frequency of 2.5 Hz. Determine:

a) The amplitude
b) The wavelength
c) The phase difference between points A and B
Answer:

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Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When labelling the wavelength and time period on a diagram:
Make sure that your arrows go from the very top of a wave to the very top of the next one
If your arrow is too short, you will lose marks
The same goes for labelling amplitude, don’t draw an arrow from the bottom to the top of the
wave, this will lose you marks too.

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Longitudinal & Transverse Waves

Your notes
Defining Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points
There are two types of waves:
Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves
Each type of wave can be distinguished by its direction of vibration relative to its direction of travel

Transverse Waves
A transverse wave is defined as:
A wave in which the particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of the wave travel (and energy
transfer)
Transverse waves show areas of crests (peaks) and troughs

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Diagram of a transverse wave

Examples of transverse waves are: Your notes
Electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, visible light, UV
Vibrations on a guitar string
Transverse waves can be shown on a rope
Transverse waves can be polarised

Longitudinal Waves
A longitudinal wave is defined as:
A wave in which the particles oscillate parallel to the direction of the wave travel (and energy transfer)
Longitudinal waves show areas of compressions and rarefactions
Compressions are regions of increased pressure
Rarefactions are regions of decreased pressure

Diagram of a longitudinal wave

Examples of longitudinal waves are:

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Sound waves
Ultrasound waves Your notes
Longitudinal waves can be shown on a slinky spring
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised
Energy is transmitted through the wave
The particles in the medium vibrate as they are given energy
The compressions cause the nearby particles to also vibrate with more energy
This produces a compression further along in the medium

A wavelength on a longitudinal wave is the distance between two compressions or two rarefactions

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The definitions of transverse and longitudinal waves are often asked as exam questions so ensure
you have them memorised!

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Examples of Transverse Waves & Longitudinal Waves

Energy is transferred through moving oscillations or vibrations Your notes

This can be demonstrated visually using ropes or springs

Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

The oscillations, or vibrations, can be perpendicular or parallel to the direction of wave travel:
Waves which oscillate in a perpendicular direction are transverse waves
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Waves which oscillate in a parallel direction are longitudinal waves

Examples of transverse waves are:
Your notes
Electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, visible light, UV
Vibrations on a guitar string
Waves on a string
Seismic (S) waves
Examples of longitudinal waves are:
Sound waves
Ultrasound waves
Waves through a slinky coil
Seismic (P) waves

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Polarisation
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Polarisation
Polarisation is when:
Particle oscillations occur in only one of the directions perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation
Polarisation can only occur in transverse waves
This is because transverse waves oscillate in any plane perpendicular to the propagation direction
When transverse waves are polarised, this means:
Vibrations are restricted to one direction
These vibrations are still perpendicular to the direction of propagation / energy transfer
The difference between unpolarised and polarised waves is shown in the diagram below:

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Your notes

Diagram showing the displacement of unpolarised and polarised transverse waves

Longitudinal waves (e.g. sound waves) cannot be polarised
This is because they oscillate parallel to the direction of travel
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Waves can be polarised through a polariser or polarising filter

This only allows oscillations in a certain plane to be transmitted Your notes

Diagram showing an unpolarised and polarised wave travelling through polarisers

Diagram A shows:
Only unpolarised waves can be polarised
Diagram B shows:

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When a polarised wave passes through a filter with a transmission axis perpendicular to the wave,
none of the wave will pass through
Light can also be polarised through reflection, refraction and scattering Your notes
Investigating Light Intensity with Two Polarisers
If an unpolarised light source is placed in front of two identical polarising filters, A and B, with their
transmission axes parallel:
Filter A will polarise the light in a certain axis
All of the polarised light will pass through filter B unaffected
In this case, the maximum intensity of light is transmitted

When both polarisers have the same transmission axis, the intensity of the transmitted light is at its
maximum
As the polarising filter B is rotated anticlockwise, the intensity of the light observed changes
periodically depending on the angle B is rotated through
When A and B have their transmission axes perpendicular to each other:
Filter A will polarise the light in a certain axis
This time none of the polarised light will pass through filter B
In this case, the minimum intensity of light is transmitted

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Your notes

When one of the polarisers is rotated through 90°, the intensity of the transmitted light drops to zero
The resulting graph of the light intensity with angle, as the second polariser is rotated through 360°,
looks as follows:

Graph showing how the intensity of the transmitted beam varies with the angle between the
transmission axes of the two polarisers

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In real life, the intensity of the unpolarised electromagnetic wave reduces after it passes through a
polarising filter
Your notes

Worked Example
Which statement below describes a situation in which polarisation should happen?
A. Radio waves pass through a metal grid
B. Surface water waves are diffracted
C. Sound waves are reflected
D. Ultrasound waves pass through a metal grid
Answer:
Radio waves are transverse waves - they can be polarised by a metal grid so only the waves that
fit through the grid will be transmitted, therefore, A is correct
B cannot be correct as waves are not polarised when diffracted, but are polarised only when
reflected, refracted or scattered
C & D cannot be correct as polarisation only occurs for transverse waves, therefore, C & D can
be ruled out as sound and ultrasound are both longitudinal waves

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You may be expected to describe the intensity, or even draw the graph of intensity v angle, for light
with two polarisers, however, the good news is that you won't be expected to perform any
calculations (Malus's Law) in relation to this.

Applications of Polarisers
Polaroid Sunglasses
Polaroid sunglasses are glasses containing lens with polarising filters with transmission axes that are
vertically oriented
This means the glasses do not allow any horizontally polarised light to pass through

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Your notes

Polaroid sunglasses contain vertically oriented polarising filters which block out any horizontally
polarised light
When light is reflected from a reflective surface e.g. the surface of water or a wet road, it undergoes
partial plane polarisation
This means if the surface is horizontal, a proportion of the reflected light will oscillate more in the
horizontal plane than the vertical plane
Therefore, polaroid sunglasses are useful in reducing the glare on the surface of the water (or any
reflective surface) as the partially-polarised light will be eliminated by the polarising filter
As a result of this, objects under the surface of the water can be viewed more clearly

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Your notes

When sunlight reflects off a horizontal reflective surface, such as water, the light becomes horizontally
polarised. This is where polaroid sunglasses come in useful with their vertically aligned filter
Polaroid Photography
Polaroid cameras work in the same way as polaroid sunglasses
They are very useful for capturing intensified colour and reducing glare on particularly bright sunny
days
Polarising filters also enable photographers to take photos of objects underwater
This is because the light reflected on the surface of the water is partially polarised in the horizontal
plane
This glare is eliminated by the polarising lens
However, the light from the underwater object is refracted by the surface of the water, not
reflected, so it is not plane-polarised
Therefore, the light from the underwater object is more intense than the glare and shows up much
more brightly in the photo

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Your notes

As well as giving a cool look to photographs, polaroid filters are extremely useful for reducing glare in
photos and snapping pictures of objects underwater
Polarisation of Radio & Microwave Signals
Radio and television services are broadcast either horizontally-polarised or vertically-polarised
Therefore, the reception aerial needs to be mounted flat (horizontal), or on its side (vertical),
The particular orientation of an aerial will depend on the transmitter it is pointing towards and the
polarity of the services being broadcast

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Your notes

Broadcasting towers always transmit either vertically or horizontally polarised signals. This is why
aerials must be positioned accordingly otherwise they won't pick up the TV signal correctly

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