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 i

Contemporary Issues in
End User Computing

M. Adam Mahmood, University of Texas at El Paso, USA

IDEA GROUP PUBLISHING

Hershey • London • Melbourne • Singapore
ii

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 iii

Advances in End User Computing

ISSN: 1537-9310

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iv

Contemporary Issues in
End User Computing

Table of Contents

Preface ....................................................................................................... vii

Section I: Web-Based End User Computing Tools and Technologies

Chapter I
Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity: An Audit Tool ......................... 1
Barbara Marcolin, University of Calgary, Canada
Nicole Coviello, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Roger Milley, Shell Canada Limited, Canada

Chapter II
The Impact of Personal Innovativeness on the Use of the Internet
Among Employees at Work ................................................................... 29
Tor J. Larsen, Norwegian School of Management, Norway
Øystein Sørebø, Buskerud University College, Norway

Chapter III
The Role of Internet Self-Efficacy in the Acceptance of Web-Based
Electronic Medical Records .................................................................. 54
Qingxiong Ma, Central Missouri State University, USA
Liping Liu, University of Akron, USA
 v

Chapter IV
The Effectiveness of Online Task Support vs. Instructor-Led
Training ...................................................................................................... 77
Ji-Ye Mao, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Bradley R. Brown, University of Waterloo, Canada

Section II: End User Computing Software Issues and Trends

Chapter V
A Comparison of Audio-Conferencing and Computer Conferencing
in a Dispersed Negotiation Setting: Efficiency Matters! ................ 10 1
Abbas Foroughi, University of Southern Indiana, USA
William C. Perkins, Indiana University, USA
Leonard M. Jessup, Washington State University, USA

Chapter VI
Software Use Through Monadic and Dyadic Procedure:
User-Friendly or Not-So-Friendly? ..................................................... 13 3
Gregory E. Truman, Babson College, USA

Chapter VII
Business Software Specifications for Consumers: Toward a
Standard Format ..................................................................................... 15 7
Shouhong Wang, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, USA

Chapter VIII
Perceptions of End Users on the Requirements in Personal
Firewall Software: An Exploratory Study ........................................... 17 4
Sunil Hazari, University of West Georgia, USA

Section III: End Users Characteristics and Learning

Chapter IX
The Changing Demographics: The Diminishing Role of Age and
Gender in Computer Usage .................................................................19 7
Michael B. Knight, Appalachian State University, USA
J. Michael Pearson, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,
USA
vi

Chapter X
Users Behaving Badly: Phenomena and Paradoxes from an
Investigation into Information Systems Misfit ................................. 21 6
Panagiotis Kanellis, Athens University of Economics
and Business, Greece
Ray J. Paul, Brunel University, UK

Chapter XI
Quality of Use of a Complex Technology: A Learning-Based
Model .......................................................................................................24 8
Marie-Claude Boudreau, the University of Georgia, USA
Larry Seligman, The University of Georgia, USA

Chapter XII
Learning from Patterns During Information Technology
Configuration .......................................................................................... 27 3
Keith S. Horton, Napier University, UK
Rick G. Dewar, Heriot-Watt University, UK

Chapter XIII
Learning to Use IT in the Workplaces: Mechanisms and
Masters ...................................................................................................29 2
Valerie K. Spitler, USA

About the Editor ....................................................................................32 4

About the Authors ................................................................................. 32 6

Index ........................................................................................................33 4
 vii

Preface

The present scholarly book is a collection of some of the best manuscripts

published in the Journal of Organizational and End User Computing
(JOEUC) during last year. This introduction is mainly a collection of abstracts
provided by the authors for their manuscripts. The book is divided into three
sections: Section I covers Web-based end user computing tools and technolo-
gies. Section II addresses end user computing software and trends. Section III
discusses end user characteristics and learning.
Section I consists of four chapters. Chapter I, written by Marcolin, Coviello,
and Milley, starts the section by introducing a Web-enabled Interactivity Self-
Evaluation tool (WISE). Two case studies are used to illustrate how managers
can use WISE to develop a thorough, easily communicated profile of their web-
enabled interactivity capabilities upon which competitive positioning assessments
can be made. The information generated by the audit process is intended to
help businesses enhance their interactive communication with Web site users in
a market-oriented manner.
Chapter II of this scholarly volume, penned by Larsen and Sørebø, examines
Internet use among employees. The results indicate that users perceive differ-
ences across various types of Internet use, although no clear distinction is found
between organizationally relevant use and personal use. The authors’ analyses
indicate that personal use is considerably lower than organizationally relevant
use of the Internet. Personal IT innovativeness was found to be the best pre-
dictor of organizationally relevant use of the Internet. Age contributed nega-
tively to the Internet use. Males appear to use the Internet more frequently
than females. Educational level had no impact on the Internet use.
In Chapter III, Ma and Liu, uses the technology acceptance model (TAM) to
examine the effect of Internet self-efficacy (ISE) on perceived usefulness (PU),
perceived ease of use (PEOU), and behavioral intention (BI) to accept a tech-
nology. The authors used a Web-based medical record system and 86 healthcare
viii

subjects to investigate the direct and indirect effects of ISE on PEOU, PU, and
BI. They found that, using hierarchical regressions, ISE explained 48% of the
variation in PEOU; ISE and PEOU together explained 50% of the variation in
PU; and the ISE, PEOU, and PU explained 80% of the variance in BI
In Chapter IV, Mao and Brown investigate the effectiveness of online task
support (the wizard type in particular) relative to instructor-led training. Also,
the underlying cognitive process in terms of the development of mental mod-
els is explored.
As stated earlier, Section II addresses end user computing software issues and
trends. It consists of four chapters: Chapters V, VI, VII, and VIII. In Chapter
V, Foroughi, Perkins, and Jessup compare audio conferencing and computer
conferencing in a dispersed negotiation setting. The authors claim that this set-
ting is becoming more and more important as businesses are becoming more
and more globalized. Using an empirical study of 128 undergraduate informa-
tion systems students, the authors established that efficiency aspects of audio
conferencing are higher than computer conferencing.
In Chapter VI, Truman empirically evaluates impacts of performance-enhanc-
ing software features on user performance. The author puts forth and empiri-
cally tests a proposition that states that dyadic procedure is associated with
higher levels of user performance when compared to monadic procedure. The
author finds that dyadic procedure may decrease the accuracy of users’ work.
Based on these results, the author questioned the utility and desirability of soft-
ware design features that are intended to improve user performance.
In Chapter VII, Wang contends that the commercial software industry does not
provide a standard format of software specifications for a software package
for consumers and, therefore, consumers are unable to judge as to whether
software specifications meet the target system requirements. The author pro-
poses a model of commercialized business software specifications for consum-
ers. It suggests that software packages need to provide specifications for con-
sumers in four aspects: business operations, user-computer interfaces, user-
perceived inputs and outputs, and business rules. Using an example, the author
demonstrates the implementation of the model.
In Chapter VIII, Hazari argues that the behavioral aspects related to maintain-
ing enterprise security have received little attention from researchers and prac-
titioners. The author identified seven behavioral variables from a review of the
information security literature. The author conducted an empirical study on the
aforementioned variables using students enrolled in a graduate business secu-
rity course. Based on a Q-sort analysis of these subjects in relation to seven
variables identified earlier, three distinct group characteristics emerged. Simi-
larities and differences between these groups are investigated and implications
of these results are discussed.
 ix

As also stated earlier, Section III addresses end user characteristics and learn-
ing. It consists of five chapters: Chapters V, VI, VII, and VIII. In Chapter IX,
Knight and Peason did not send us any information on the manuscript even
after repeated reminders. Nor did they send us the signed copyright form. Mehdi
and Jan will not to make a decision on this.
In Chapter X, Kanellis and Brunel uses Global Energy PLC (GE) from the
United Kingdom (UK) background to illustrate the vulnerability of information
systems in a turbulent environment caused by a series of deregulation of the
electricity industry in the UK. The structural changes GE had to go through,
because of these deregulations, had a disruptive effect on its enterprise infor-
mation systems, which were unable to adapt to the new and constantly emerg-
ing organizational realities. The authors use GE’s experiences to provide for a
rich description of the causes of misfit due to contextual change, and establish
the ability of a system to flex and adapt to the new environment.
In Chapter XI, Boudreau and Seligman contend that quality of use, instead of
the dichotomy of use vs. non-use, is appropriate for understanding the extent to
which a complex information technology is being utilized. The authors employed
an inductive case study of the implementation of a complex information tech-
nology that led to the development of a learning-based model of quality of use.
Evidence from the case study along with relationships from the literature are
provided to support the model. The model suggests the inclusion of factors
relating to training (either formal or informal), learning, and beliefs, their impact
on quality of use, and their change over time.
In Chapter XII, Horton and Dewar puts forth the idea of how people can be
assisted in learning from practice and how this knowledge can be used in con-
figuring information technology (IT) in organizations. The authors discuss the
use of Alexanderian patterns as a means of aiding such learning. The authors
then use a longitudinal empirical study that focuses upon practices surrounding
IT configuration to derive and discuss three patterns that focus on practices
surrounding IT configuration. They also talk about some potential dangers in
seeking to codify experience with a patterns approach.
In Chapter XIII, Spitler defines IT fluency first and then contends that it should
be an important concern for those who manage workers with jobs that require
IT use. The author acknowledges that training is definitely one mechanism to
build IT fluency. Using an interpretive case study of junior-level knowledge
workers, the author suggests that to use IT in their jobs, these workers relied
not only on formal training, but also on on-the-job learning through experimen-
tation; reading books, manuals and on-line help; and social interaction with their
peers. Interestingly, the author had identified different types of “master users”
who were indispensable for this learning to take place. The author then sug-
gested that managers and researchers interested in training users also devote
attention to these other mechanisms for learning, especially the “master user”
phenomenon.
x

Acknowledgments

I wish to recognize contributions made by reviewers and associate editors in

bringing this scholarly book to fruition. I thank them for their due diligence in
reviewing and critiquing the manuscripts included in this volume. My sincere
thanks to the authors for being highly responsive to the reviewers’ and associ-
ate editors’ comments and promptly meeting the deadlines imposed on them.
They have made outstanding contributions to this publication.

I express my special thanks to Grace Silerio at the Information and Decision

Sciences Department at the University of Texas at El Paso who was instru-
mental in keeping this project on track. Her effort and dedication to the project
are truly appreciated. I also thank Jan Travers and Michelle Potter at Idea
Group Inc. for their help towards this project.

M. Adam Mahmood
University of Texas at El Paso, USA
 xi

Section I:

Web-Based
End User Computing
Tools and Technologies
xii
 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 1

Chapter I

Assessing
Web-Enabled
Interactivity:
An Audit Tool
Barbara Marcolin, University of Calgary, Canada

Nicole Coviello, University of Auckland, New Zealand

Roger Milley, Shell Canada Limited, Canada

Abstract
As business models evolve to integrate technology with organizational
strategy and marketing, the application of Web technology to facilitate
end-user interactions, or what we call Web-enabled interactivity, has become
increasingly important to customer relationships. This article develops and
introduces the Web-enabled Interactivity Self-Evaluation tool (referred to
as WISE). Two case studies are used to illustrate how managers can use
WISE to develop a thorough, easily communicated profile of their Web-
enabled interactivity capabilities upon which competitive positioning
assessments can also be made. The information generated by the audit
process is intended to help firms enhance their interactive communication
with Web site users in a market-oriented manner.

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
2 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

Background
As business models evolve to integrate technology with organizational strategy
and marketing, the application of Web technology to facilitate end-user interac-
tions, or what we call Web-enabled interactivity, is increasingly important to
customer relationship management. Perhaps not surprisingly, recognition of the
power of online interaction has been paralleled by growing interest in understand-
ing end-user online behavior (e.g., Hodkinson & Kiel, 2003; Koufaris, 2002), user
perceptions of Web site quality (Wang & Tang, 2003), and user satisfaction with
Web sites (Huizingh & Hoekstra, 2003; McKinney, Yoon, & Zahedi, 2002; Otto,
Najdawi, & Caron, 2000). For example, Otto et al. (2000) examine customer
perceptions of Web site download time and their satisfaction regarding site
content, format, graphics, ease of use, and responsiveness.
While such research has generated useful insights to a new phenomenon, we
believe that it is equally important to assess firm behavior on the Web particularly
in terms of organizational efforts to facilitate interactivity with Web site users.
This is because the interactive communication process provides the organization
with a market-oriented mechanism to uncover and satisfy customer needs. As
argued by Min, Song, and Keebler (2002) and Trim (2002), the firm that utilizes
tools such as the Web to generate, disseminate, and respond to market informa-
tion will benefit from improved business performance and enhanced competitive
advantage. It is notable, therefore, that in spite of increasing interest in customer-
focused research and Web site interactions, as well as the implicit need to be
market-oriented in Web site development, we are unable to identify any tool
specifically designed to help managers assess their Web site in the context of the
processes surrounding interactive communication and market orientation. Rather,
tools directed toward internal (managerial) analysis have been focused on either
the general functional quality of the Web site (Evans & King, 1999; Selz &
Schubert, 1997) or on a more focused topic such as identifying and measuring
factors influencing Internet purchases in terms of customer objectives (Torkzadeh
& Dhillon, 2002). To link site design with performance, Agarwal and Venkatesh
(2002) and Palmer (2002) also examine Web site usability by measuring issues
ranging from site content and navigation to the customization and responsiveness
possibilities of the site or the extent to which emotional responses are triggered
through site use. Again however, while these studies have usefully advanced the
variety of metrics available for e-business research (see Straub, Hoffman,
Weber, & Steinfield, 2002a, 2002b for a review), their conceptual underpinnings
lie outside interactive communication and market orientation.
The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to introduce a diagnostic audit tool that
provides organizations with a mechanism for systematically assessing the Web-
enabled interactivity of their site, based on the underlying principles related to

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 3

interactive communication and market orientation. Specifically, we develop and

introduce the Web-enabled Interactivity Self-Evaluation tool (referred to as
WISE), in the context of the three critical components of customer interaction:
(1) addressing the customer, (2) gathering information from the customer, and
(3) responding to the customer. It therefore encourages managers to focus on
the firm’s interactive communication with end-users in a way that facilitates the
implementation of a market-oriented approach to e-business activities. The
application of WISE is designed to provide a basis for comparative assessments
of Web-enabled interactivity relative to competitor or benchmark organizations
and the tracking of changes in Web-enabled interactivity over time. WISE
therefore provides information to help managers with various strategic decisions
regarding the use of Web technology in creating customer relationships.
As a background to developing and applying the tool, we first provide a brief
summary of the nature of Web technology as it pertains to customer relation-
ships. This leads to a discussion linking the principles of interactive communica-
tion with Web technology. Finally, we discuss the relevance of market orientation
in a Web-enabled environment.

What is the Nature of “Web Technology” in

Customer Relationships?

At a minimum, a Web site consists of a home page, but more likely, it also includes
a series of other branching pages. Consequently, the site can involve various
degrees of complexity for both the firm and the customer. For example, if a
business posts a single Web page to promote its offer, the site serves as an
advertisement and will require few resources to implement and maintain. Web
site complexity increases, however, if the business wants to offer more function-
ality to its real and potential customers. For instance, to facilitate all stages of the
buy-sell process, the system infrastructure could be expanded to include security
mechanisms and backend integration for ordering and invoicing capabilities. For
sites that foster personalization and community-based knowledge, sophisticated
mechanisms for capturing, analyzing, and responding to individual customer
preferences are also required (Guay & Ettwein, 1998; Lüdi, 1997; Scharl &
Brandtweiner, 1997). Thus, the more relational a firm wants to be with its
customers and the more functionality a firm wants with respect to buying, selling,
and forming communities, the more complicated the site’s technological infra-
structure and supporting operations. Also important is that the Web environment
is inherently a two-way medium that requires both input and cooperation from the
customer (Hoffman & Novak, 1996). This forces the firm to understand issues
related to technology-based interaction with buyers in terms of being able to

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
4 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

remember and utilize their browsing and buying behavior. Consequently, Web
technology is instrumental in enabling interactive communication between a firm
and its customers. Given Gammack and Hodkinson’s (2003) arguments that the
quality of interaction will determine end-user behavior on Web sites, it is
therefore important to understand and manage the process of interactive
communication.

What Does It Mean to Have

“Interactive Communication?”

At a theoretical level, communication through the Web is inherently interactive

because it involves being able to address each buyer as an individual, being able
to gather (and sometimes remember) that individual’s input, and then being able
to respond to the individual using their input (Deighton, 1996). While Deighton
(1996, p. 151) views such interactivity as “…a tool that allows good marketing
to become good conversation,” we argue that interactive communication is a
process that allows the firm to uncover and satisfy customer needs as they are
expressed in the Web environment.
As shown in the left-hand side of Figure 1, the first stage in interactive
communication is being able to address the individual. As expanded upon in the
right-hand side of Figure 1, there are two aspects of the “Address” stage: (1)
attracting buyers to the site and (2) engaging them once they are there (Parson,
Zeisser, & Waitman, 1998). Attracting buyers to the Web site from within the
Web environment is facilitated by having links from other sites (e.g., banner
advertising, affiliate sites), while attracting buyers from outside the Web
environment relies on traditional advertising and word-of-mouth to promote the
Web site address or a URL (Agarwal & Venkatesh, 2002). Once at the Web site,
the site’s navigational design and systems influence the business’s ability to
engage the user by guiding him or her to content and functions (Fleming, 1998;
Parsons et al., 1998). The Web site can also include communication links such
as e-mail or relay chat that start interactive cycles where the buyer communi-
cates with the firm through the Web medium (Hoffman & Novak, 1996). This is
an important phase in the interactive communication process as research on
human computer interactions suggests that customized navigational functionality
must be done well, as partial efforts cause more problems than they solve (Kim,
Lee, Han, & Lee, 2002; Lim, Benbasat, & Ward, 2000; Thuring, Hanneman, &
Haake, 1995).
The second stage in interactive communication involves gathering and remem-
bering the individual’s input. As highlighted in Figure 1, there are two broad
categories of input in the “Gather” stage: (1) manual input from the buyer and

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 5

Figure 1. Stages of interactive communication and related Web-enabled

operations

Interactive Communication Dimensions of Web-enabled

Stages Operations

From within the Web

Address the Attracting Buyers to
individual the Site From outside the Web

Engaging Buyers with Navigational Design

Uncover needs… the Site Communication Links

Click-based Input
Gather and Manual Input
remember input Form-based Input
from the Unique Identifier
individual System-Generated
Input Database Retrieval

Satisfy needs…
Information Timing of Response
Agreement
Respond to the Personalization
individual using Settlement
their input Background/
After-Sales
Human Process
Community

(2) system-generated input, both of which allow the organization to learn about
customers (Parsons et al., 1998) while establishing dialogue (Berthon, Pitt, &
Watson, 1996). The most basic form of manual input is the “click” on a hyper-
link where behavioral data can be logged or remembered for later analysis.
Manual input can also consist of that captured in forms, dropdown boxes,
Internet telephone, or video conferencing. In contrast, system-generated input
may or may not be known to the individual. For example, a unique identifier such
as a “cookie” can be passed back and forth between the Web browser and the
server without the buyer’s knowledge, and database updates/retrievals can be
completed through this identifier. As the customer begins to actively input data
to the site, the Web site must be both internally stable and externally secure (Kim
et al., 2002) in order to reduce frustration and risk perceptions.
The third stage of interactive communication refers to how a business directly
responds to individual buyers by using their input that was previously gathered
and remembered at the Web site. In effect, the “Respond” stage represents what

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
6 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

is ultimately offered to buyers. That offering is often available in real-time at the

Web site or is initiated as a delayed response such as the delivery of product or
a response to an e-mail (Lincke, 1998). The degree of personalization in response
can also vary greatly (Lincke, 1998; Parsons et al., 1998), with content and
functionality delivered in a manner that is either the same for everyone or
modified to reflect individual preferences and experiences as well as status and
uniqueness (Holland & Menzel Baker, 2001). The response stage can also
trigger a secondary background process where human intervention and action is
involved (e.g., a Web site order initiates a telephone call from personnel for order
clarification).
One approach to conceptualizing what is offered to buyers is to frame the
“Respond” stage in the context of what we call the “buy-sell/community”
process. Drawing on the arguments of Selz and Schubert (1997) and Lincke
(1998), part of this process captures the exchange relationship between the
buyer and the seller and can be broadly described as: (1) providing general
information with the intention of facilitating a match between the buyer’s needs
and different offerings, (2) agreeing on terms of sale such as pricing, availability,
and method of payment, (3) settling the transaction through exchange of money
for goods or services, and (4) after-sales support activities involving the
exchange of information (e.g., for product support), money (e.g., a rebate), or
goods (e.g., product returned on warranty). Beyond these four stages, Armstrong
and Hagel (1996) suggest that online communities are instrumental in facilitating
the buy-sell process. Thus, we follow Selz and Schubert (1997) in suggesting that
the “Respond” stage also includes the capture, analysis, and use of data for the
creation of customer “community” and community knowledge as discussed by
Lüdi (1997) and Peppers and Rogers (1997). In these communities, “…partici-
pants are encouraged to interact with one another to engage consumers in a
specific transaction that can be informed by the input of other members of the
community” (Armstrong & Hagel, 1996, p. 135). Such activities are also
considered to encourage “site stickiness” (Holland & Menzel Baker, 2001, p.
39).
Overall, the Web environment embodies interactive communication and as such,
requires input from the user. This input can be interpreted as an expression of
buyer needs. Satisfying those needs depends on the firm’s ability to gather and
interpret user input and to respond either in real-time or by initiating delayed
processes. In doing so, the organization can foster interactive cycles of uncov-
ering and satisfying individual buyer needs within the context of the buy/sell
process and online community development. As such, Web-enabled operations
can be designed to reflect the three stages of interactive communication shown
in Figure 1. Importantly, this process of uncovering and satisfying buyer needs
parallels the activities underpinning a firm’s market orientation.

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 7

What is the Relevance of “Market Orientation” in a

Web-Enabled Environment?

Being market-oriented requires a firm to possess certain capabilities for uncov-

ering and satisfying customer needs, both now and in the future. Firms accom-
plish this through participating in a range of activities to generate, disseminate,
and respond to market intelligence (Kohli & Jaworski, 1990). Traditionally, firms
generate market intelligence by collecting information from customers, suppliers,
competitors, and government through market research, competitor analysis,
participating in tradeshows, and so forth. Disseminating that intelligence is the
second step and involves information exchange through interpersonal contact or
organizational systems and processes. This might include cross-functional
meetings, management information reports and e-mail, or simple hall talk. Finally,
responding to market intelligence requires the firm to interpret and use the
information generated and disseminated in earlier steps to plan and create a
meaningful market offer for customers.
Both the interactive communication and market orientation processes represent
how businesses can interact with their customers. On one hand, the interactive
communication created by Web-enabled operations (i.e., Web-enabled
interactivity) often occurs in real-time. It is always at the individual buyer level
and is mediated by information technology. In the context of Web-enabled
interactivity, market intelligence relates to the buyer’s input at the Web site,
whether it is gathered implicitly through “clicks” or expressed explicitly through
typed, audio, or video means. In contrast, classic market orientation activities
generally pertain to planning and implementation efforts and are bound by
organizational processes and human involvement. Thus, market intelligence
pertains to more general buyer needs or characteristics, and anything that
impinges upon the buyer, such as competitive activity or government regulation.
However, both Web-enabled interactivity and market orientation are cycles of
market interaction that can be linked through the collection of Web-based market
intelligence that is used in planning and implementation activities. This is
represented in the integrated model of “Web-enabled Market Orientation”
shown in Figure 2.
As suggested in Figure 2, managing Web-enabled interactivity in a market-
oriented manner involves a cycle of continuous change. This represents the idea
that Web-enabled marketing efforts should proceed through “thoughtful experi-
mentation” (Parsons et al., 1998, p. 42) with information gathered from Web-
enabled operations viewed as a form of market intelligence used in market
planning activities. These in turn may result in changes to Web-enabled
operations. As such, Web-enabled interactivity contributes to the firm’s market
orientation efforts, and an enhanced market orientation will reinforce Web-

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8 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

Figure 2. Conceptual link between Web-enabled interactivity and market

orientation

Web-enabled Interactivity Market Orientation

(IT-mediated, real-time) (Organization-bound, longer term)

Address the Background:

individual Web-enabled
operations

Web-enabled
Intelligence Generate market
intelligence
Gather and
remember input
from the Background: Uncover needs…
individual Web-enabled
operations

Disseminate market
intelligence

Respond to the
individual using Satisfy needs…
their input Background:
Web-enabled
operations
Respond to market
intelligence

Changes to Web-enabled Interactivity

enabled interactivity. For managers then, it is relevant to understand that there

is a relationship between interactive communication and market orientation and
that market-oriented interactive communication is created by Web-enabled
operations. As a consequence, it becomes important to be able to assess the
nature and level of Web-enabled interactivity on their sites. This led to the
development of a tool for this purpose: WISE.

WISE: A Tool for Auditing Web-Enabled Interactivity

The WISE tool is comprised of 88 items across the three stages of the interactive
communication process — a process that contributes to the market orientation
of the organization (see Appendix for items). To allow for ease in data collection
and analysis, categories are used to group different items within each of the three
stages (e.g., the “manual input” category of the “Gather” stage). Furthermore,

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 9

the “Respond” stage includes indicators to highlight items related to a personal-

ized offering, a delayed IT response (such as system-generated e-mail), or a
background process involving humans (such as sending out hard copy informa-
tion or delivering product). 1
WISE and its various criteria were initially developed by drawing on the existing
literature pertaining to the interactive communication stages and their related
Web-enabled operations (previously discussed). To refine the original theory-
based criteria, a series of case studies were developed whereby extended depth
interviews were combined with content analysis of Web sites. The refinement
process began with seven B2C firms that varied in size, product offering, and
Web site complexity. This was followed by an assessment of the tool’s broader
application for B2B operations using six additional case studies representing
firms of different size, markets served, and products offered. The overall
process, therefore, involved 13 case sites. As it was necessary to allow for WISE
to accommodate inapplicable criteria without impacting the integrity of the
evaluation process or results, the tool was refined through iterative content
analysis, which involved pattern-identification and matching techniques until
each test site’s functionality was fully represented. This approach to building
WISE reflects the essence of comparative case study research as outlined by
Eisenhardt (1989) and Yin (1989). It also reflects Parasuraman and Zinkhan’s
(2002) arguments that qualitative methods such as those used here are useful in
gaining a deeper understanding of e-business phenomena.
The process of auditing the firm’s Web-enabled interactivity by using WISE was
developed through the case research process. The primary activity involves
answering a series of questions using data from a range of accessible sources.
The seven steps in WISE are:

1. Examine the firm’s Web-enabled operations by making direct observations

of Web site content and HTML. Use this initial review to identify which
items require adaptation and/or deletion. Record all observations on the
WISE score sheet, and indicate which items are found on the site.
2. Incorporate participant observation data generated from search engine
results and active interaction with the Web site. Add these observations to
the WISE score sheet.
3. Interview key personnel to fill any gaps on the WISE score sheet, and probe
for further detail and explanation.Key personnel will generally come from
marketing, information systems or information technology, Web strategy,
and corporate strategy.
4. Throughout the process, acquire additional documents such as Web site
statistics and marketing materials for further insight regarding the firm’s
Web-enabled interactivity.

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10 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

5. Go back to key informants and external resources to gather more informa-

tion, clarify findings, and fully complete the WISE process.
6. Tabulate and summarize these results in the appropriate format (in time,
over time, relative to other sites, etc.).
7. Discuss the results relative to strategic objectives and planning decisions.

How are WISE Scores Calculated?

As described, information is gathered to complete the WISE tool through Web

site observation, interaction, and interviews with company personnel. When an
outcome is observed on the tool, a value of 1 is assigned for that item. If it is not
observed, a value of 0 is assigned. This approach follows Kim et al. (2002) and
Karayanni and Baltas (2003) in that the attributes relate to objective features of
the Web site, and as such, their presence (or absence) can be assessed with
minimal, if any, ambiguity. The absolute and relative (%) scores are calculated
for each category and included in the summary row for each stage. The firm’s
scores are then graphically illustrated allowing for information to be quickly and
easily conveyed to managers. Of note, if a criterion is considered inapplicable to
a business, it will receive an “N/A,” and the scoring procedure is adjusted by
reducing the total number of items evaluated. Overall, the final WISE score
indicates the extent to which various Web-enabled operations are present at the
time of a firm’s evaluation and not how well the operations work.

WISE in Action: Profiling Companies

To illustrate how the tool exposes the level and nature of a firm’s Web-enabled
interactivity, two company profiles are now presented, drawn from the 13 cases
that were used to build the WISE tool. This maximally different comparison was
chosen to illustrate the applicability of WISE across industries, a crucial first step
in instrument development.
The first profile is that of GROCER, an organization operating out of two large
cities in Canada with two grocery stores, two restaurants, and a wine store.
GROCER employs approximately 200 personnel and is positioned as a provider
of high quality goods and services. As such, emphasis is placed on using the best
supplies, ingredients, and techniques for preparing food. GROCER also main-
tains a philosophy of educating customers on how to handle, prepare, and enjoy
food at home. In this regard, GROCER provides cooking classes and publishes
recipes, entertaining tips, product information, and nutritional guides.

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 11

The GROCER Web site was launched in 1998 with two major objectives. First,
the site was seen as a communications tool for educating GROCER’s business
and consumer markets about the company, its philosophy of quality, and about
food in general. Second, the Web site was seen as a revenue-generating vehicle
for capturing orders for its grocery store in one city and catering orders for its
two restaurants. Grocery orders come primarily from the consumer market, and
catering pertains primarily to corporate clients.
In contrast to GROCER, BANK is a government-owned commercial bank that
serves the Canadian small business community. It is a complementary lender to
commercial financial institutions and also offers venture capital and consulting
services. BANK has a nationwide network of over 80 branches in addition to a
virtual branch that provides online services to loan clients. BANK considers e-
business a priority, and its Web site has been online since 1996. At that time, the
site’s primary role was to act as an agent for corporate communications.
However, a visitor to the current Web site will now find a substantial amount of
information on BANK’s various offers, and visitors can apply for financing
online, view account information, or send an e-mail to a branch representative.
BANK values customer relationships, and it views the Web as a mechanism for
extending and improving the level of customer service.

WISE Results for GROCER

The Appendix presents the WISE score sheet in detail, with one column
indicating results specific to GROCER. As graphically illustrated in Figure 3,
GROCER had 43 observed items out of a total of 88, or 49% of the total criteria.
This number is used to gauge the size and complexity of GROCER’s Web-
enabled operations. On its own, the result suggests a low level of Web-enabled
interactivity; however, this number is not particularly revealing. Further insight
is offered if the observations are assessed for each of the three stages of
interaction. For example, Figure 3 also shows that 50% of the “Address” stage
criteria were observed. For the “Gather” stage, GROCER scored 69%, and it
received 44% for the “Respond” stage. Therefore, GROCER seems strongest
at gathering and remembering buyer input, followed by its ability to direct buyers
to the site and once there, aiding them in using the site and accessing staff.
GROCER’s lowest score is with respect to the information and shopping
functionality available to buyers — an interesting result given the retail nature of
the business.
Further interpretation of these results involves drawing upon more detailed
observations for explanation. In doing so, the Dimensions column in the Appendix
can be used as a descriptive guide. For example, GROCER’s “Address” results
(50%) reveal that the Web site has a help facility, a standard page design, a menu

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12 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

Figure 3. GROCER’s WISE results

- Grocer -
Estimate of Overall
Interactivity
Percent of Items 100% Overall Interactivity
Observed
75% Broken into 3 Stages…
49
50%
25%
0%
Interactivity
Not Observed 45
Observed 43
Total Items

- Grocer -
Interactivity by Stage

100%
Percent of Items

69
75% % Respond Stage Broken into
Observed

44
50%
% Response Capabilities…
50%

25%

0%
1. Address 2. Gather 3. Respond
Not Observed 6 4 35
Observed 6 9 28
Stage of Interaction

- Grocer -
Response Capabilities
100%
Percent of Items Observed

75%
50% 50%
45%
50% 36% 33%

25%

0%
1. Information 2. Agreement 3. Settlement 4. AfterSales 5. Community

Not Observed 9 7 7 6 6
Observed 9 4 7 5 3
Stage of Buy/Sell & Community

system, and a logon screen. However, GROCER scored only one out of four in
“getting to the Web site,” and that criterion reflected links to GROCER’s Web
site, links provided free through other companies. Once on the site, the
“communication links” pertain to mechanisms for fostering communication
between buyers and grocery store staff. For GROCER, there is evidence of an
e-mail link, but no evidence of real-time communication via chat, audio, or video
capabilities. GROCER also has a help/FAQ facility available, and navigation is

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 13

facilitated through a menu system and standardized page design. A logon screen
with password is also available. However, there is no site map or ability to
customize navigational information.
With respect to the “Gather” stage (69%), several methods of manual and
system-generated input are found on the GROCER site. For example, GROCER
gathers and uses input from the buyer during each session or visit. The Web site
also remembers aspects of a given visit by using forms for user input (such as
a personal account, grocery order form, saved grocery lists), and records session
and navigational information that is later aggregated and reported. The retrieval
of previously stored data specific to the user is enabled through the use of a login
screen. This capturing and remembering of information at the Web site indicates
that GROCER facilitates a certain level of IT-mediated dialogue with buyers. At
the same time, there is no evidence of a “cookie” being employed as the user
navigates through the content, and the unique ID for the user is not integrated
with transactions or personal information captured outside of the Web site.
Finally, GROCER’s component scores for the “Respond” stage are: General
Information (50%), Agreement (36%), Settlement (50%), After-Sales (45%),
and Community (33%). Thus, GROCER’s strongest score is for General
Information and Settlement. For example, the General Information functionality
of the site provides buyers with information on GROCER’s background,
philosophy, locations, products, and services. Similarly, the Settlement capabili-
ties of the site are functional in the sense that customers in City A can search
for grocery items, place them in a “shopping cart,” and collect payment
information. The Web site also serves as a conduit for passing payment
information to a store clerk, who then processes the payment off-line with a
POS/database system. There is also evidence of After-Sales functionality in that
buyers can update their personal accounts, view past online transactions, and
modify their “saved grocery list.” The Web site is not fully utilized for customer
self-service, however, as it lacks functionality to help buyers access their user
IDs or passwords if forgotten.
The two weakest “Respond” components for GROCER are Agreement and
Community — the former a necessary step to precede Settlement, and the latter
key in fostering a broader set of relationships. For example, the capabilities of
the Web site that address the Agreement component pertain to product pricing,
pickup/delivery terms, a secure link, and a brief statement about confidentiality
of personal information. The Agreement criteria not observed includes product
availability, warranty/return policy, a privacy policy, an explanation of security
concepts, and personalization of the pricing and terms. Finally, while there is
evidence that GROCER fosters Community by providing several types of
information of broad interest (recipes, meal plans, and newsletters), and there is
also an attempt to better understand the customer through use of a customer
survey form, there is no evidence of using transactional data to identify

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14 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

community-based buyer buying behavior. Nor is there evidence of promotions or

incentives being used to lure customers back to the site. Consequently, GROCER’s
efforts to foster a sense of community primarily consist of providing static
information of potential interest to its customers.

What Does This Mean for GROCER’s

Web-Enabled Interactivity?

At first glance, the overall results for GROCER seem to be low at 49%, with
particular weaknesses pertaining to the “Address” and “Respond” stages. For
example, according to GROCER’s Web site statistics, one concern is the
minimal traffic attracted to the site from external links (6%). External links are
mainly from its Web site developer (which lists GROCER as a client), and
general tourism and consumer-related sites, which could generate traffic but
have not tapped the broader market. Listing their Web site through search
engines, banner advertising, or affiliate programs with other companies would
therefore increase the impact in the “Address” stage. In fact, the choice to “not”
do this was an early strategic decision, with GROCER’s marketing manager
stating a preference for targeting existing customers rather than attracting
buyers outside their geographic jurisdiction. In recent times, however, customer
feedback has shown that customers are frustrated in their efforts to find
GROCER’s Web site using search engines, and GROCER is now working to
register its URL.
This is, however, only one potential modification to the Web-enabled operations
that could improve GROCER’s “Address” score. Other possibilities include adding
a site map, revenue-based affiliated links, or personalized navigation information.
At the same time, GROCER may decide that based on corporate objectives and
resource considerations, a score within the 50-60% range is optimal, and modifi-
cations (and the associated investment costs) are not warranted.
Turning to the “Respond” category again, the component scores appear to be
low, although the basic objectives of the organization are met. The General
Information section actually supports both of GROCER’s site objectives by
educating buyers and initiating the buy/sell process for those buyers considering
a purchase. The Web site’s Settlement capabilities also support the objective of
generating revenue online. Similarly, the After-Sales capabilities support the
objective of selling groceries online; the Agreement component supports the
objective of generating revenue online by giving buyers basic information to
facilitate agreement to make a purchase; and the Community function helps meet
the objective of educating customers. Thus, while individual component scores
might be enhanced through modifications to the Web-enabled operations (e.g.,
by including online payment to improve Settlement functionality), GROCER’s

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 15

management might determine that the 100% score is not necessarily optimal.
Ideally, such a decision would reflect both corporate objectives and buyer
requirements.

WISE Results for BANK

To effectively apply WISE to BANK, we recognized that five “Respond”

category items are “not applicable” for this B2B service provider. For example,
BANK does not sell promotional items (#34), and information on inventory (#45)
and merchandise return policy (#47) are not applicable to this business. Also, the
site does not sell goods to the public, thus there is no reason for the firm to include
shopping carts (#55) or accept credit card payment online (#60). Thus, BANK’s
Web-enabled interactivity is assessed using 83 items (rather than 88) as shown
in the Appendix.
As exemplified earlier with GROCER in Figure 3, BANK’s results could be
summarized in a tabular format. For the purposes of illustration in this chapter,
however, Figure 4 presents BANK’s results together with those of GROCER in
a graphical format. This comparison, using maximally different organizations,
highlights how WISE outcomes can be compared across firms. Normally, such
comparisons might be relative to key competitors but could also use other
organizations of interest. For example, BANK might benchmark its Web site
against that of an accounting firm or management consultancy if both, like
BANK, target the small business community. BANK could also compare its own
audit performance over time.
Overall, BANK scores 63% using WISE. The “Address” stage shows 50% of
the items being observed, with 54% for “Gather” and 67% for “Respond.”
Therefore, BANK’s patterns are quite different from GROCER’s as it has a
higher total score, with its strongest score in the “Respond” category, followed
by “Address,” and then “Gather.”
The key points flowing from the results of the “Address” stage are that BANK
is diligent in registering for search engines. As well, it ensures that it has
hyperlinks strategically placed on appropriate sites. While it does not presently
purchase banner advertising on the Web, additional information shows that e-
mail addresses and the company’s URL appear on all business cards and
promotional material, including print advertising. At the same time, BANK does
not have Internet phone, video, or chat capability. It utilizes traditional telephone,
e-mail, and face-to-face contact as primary communications methods. This
perhaps reflects its focus on personal customer relationships rather than more
arms-length electronic ones. When navigating around BANK’s Web site, there
is a site-map to help visitors; however, no help facility or FAQ section is available
to explain the site.

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16 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

Figure 4. Graphical comparison of GROCER and BANK

Web-enabled Interactivity
- Total Observations -

Percent of Observations

100%
63%
Overall Interactivity
80%
60% 49%

Broken Into 3 Stages…

40%
20%
0%
Grocer Bank

Business

- Web-enabled Interactivity -
by Stage of Interaction

100% 50% 54% 67%

80%
Perce nt
of 60%
Obse rv ations
40% 50% 69%
20% Bank
44%
0%
Grocer Respond Stage Broken Into
Address
Gather Response Capabilities…
Respond

- Web-enabled Interactivity -
Respond Stage by Buy/Sell & Community

100%
90%
80%
76% 78%
70% 75%
Percent
of 60% 64%
Observations 50%
40%
30% 33%
50%
20%
10% 36% 50%
45%
0% 33% Bank
Gen. Info.

Grocer
Agreement

Settlement

After-Sales

Community

The “Gather” stage results show a 54% score, mostly reflecting the fact that
there are numerous forms through which users can manually enter information.
Information is entered for a buyer call-back request, online loan applications, and
account information viewing. At this time the site does not accept manual input

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 17

for searching for information or Internet phone/video/chat discussions with

personnel. Information is logged as buyers enter the site and navigate around,
and some data is passed back to the account viewing option. However, no non-
Web-based information is used in these exchanges, although discussions with
BANK’s key informants indicate they plan to incorporate this function. At this
time, BANK chooses not to use cookies, although it has used them in the past.
The “Respond” stage shows a score of 67%. As seen in the Appendix and Figure
4, of the five “Respond” components, the first three (General Information,
Agreement, and Settlement) all score over 75%. After-sales is slightly lower at
64%, followed by 33% for Community.
For General Information, BANK provides visitors with a very informative Web
site. Detailed information is available about the company’s history, philosophy,
and products, and contact information is readily apparent. Further research
shows, however, that personalized promotions are not employed on the Web site.
Regarding Agreement, the site provides buyers with general information on
pricing, terms, privacy, and security. Secure exchanges are used at this point.
Personalized pricing to an individual online is not provided as it can be facilitated
through the Settlement processes. The results for the Settlement category show
that BANK’s Web site facilitates opening an account online and checking the
status of Web-based accounts in a highly secure environment. Personnel are also
available to take an order via telephone, e-mail, or face-to-face contact. Account
representatives frequently initiate calls to buyers to discuss questions or particu-
lars of financing.
The After-Sales phase of the “Respond” section shows that BANK employs
communication mechanisms that reinforce its strategy of personal relationship
banking. Telephone, e-mail, and face-to-face meetings are used, and customers
can view past Web-based transactions online. Although after-sales service is
available by telephone, e-mail, or an online form, customers cannot view external
transactions, update past transaction information, update their personal informa-
tion, or receive after-sales service via Internet phone, video, or chat options.
The Community score is clearly the weak link for BANK (33%), although
BANK actively promotes its community involvement and customizes its Web
site to each region. For example, a visitor can click on a specific city and be
transported to a page that lists local events and discusses BANK’s involvement
in the community. Survey forms are also provided to collect feedback, and the
site contains success stories and testimonials from satisfied clients. However,
BANK solicits these testimonials for use as a marketing tool, and so they are
perhaps a biased perspective on BANK’s offerings. Hence, community aspects
are more of a one-way communication to the customer and not the more
engaging two-way customer exchanges (e.g., no chat, no online e-mail newslet-
ter).

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18 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

What Does This Mean for BANK’s

Web-Enabled Interactivity?

Overall, Web-based initiatives seem to be more of a priority at BANK than at

GROCER. The key purpose of the Web-based operations is to facilitate
customer interaction, thus increasing BANK’s service level. BANK also utilizes
the Web to increase its visibility. However, Web-based initiatives are used as a
support channel at BANK, and they are not vital to the operations. Indeed,
information generated through the WISE interview process confirmed that
BANK’s operations are quite successful at establishing and maintaining per-
sonal relationships through other channels (e.g., phone, e-mail, face-to-face),
and the Web site is primarily an extension of that personal contact.
While it is important that BANK not lose sight of its goal of maintaining personal
relationships with buyers, several features to further enhance customer service
are being discussed. These include the addition of a help/FAQ section, allowing
visitors to register for an e-mail newsletter, and allowing customers to view
external transactions, update past transactions, and update personal information.
BANK might also consider incorporating a pre-screening function into its Web
site, allowing the status of non-Web-based orders to be accessed online, offering
personalized rates online, and opening chat features. However, the value of
these suggestions may be minimal as the account manager and client are in
constant contact while an application is being processed, and such modifications
may undermine the personal contact within BANK’s relationship banking
philosophy.

Discussion
If a firm has or seeks an Internet presence, understanding the issues surrounding
the creation of Web-enabled interactivity is fundamentally important. As dis-
cussed in the literature, e-business success is a function of a number of factors
including having both an e-business strategy and a champion (Golden, Hughes,
& Gallagher, 2003), as well as technology expertise and knowledge (Savin &
Silberg, 2000). However, using the Web-enabled Interactivity Self-Evaluation
tool presented here can help firms understand possible gaps in Web site design
or an imbalance across the three stages of interactive communication. For
example, in the case examples presented here, GROCER focused their Web-
enabled operations internally and neglected the early stages of the Address stage
and the later community segments of the Respond stage.

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 19

WISE is designed as a self-evaluation audit tool for any company interested in

auditing their internal Web-enabled operations. Some firms will find all 88 items
relevant. Others, like BANK, will require simple adaptations to the tool.
Regardless, using WISE provides managers with a basis for discussion around
targeted or optimal score levels for their organization, given broader objectives
and related strategic decisions. This broader context is important because
functional and technological integration increases as the WISE score increases.
By extension, higher scores reflect higher costs and complexities of operations.
Thus, every organization needs to determine a WISE target score appropriate to
their situation and competitive context.
Related to this, once an appropriate WISE score is determined, managers can
adjust various aspects of their firm’s Web-enabled operations. This will contrib-
ute to an enhanced market orientation by improving market intelligence. Simi-
larly, an enhanced market orientation will lead to improvements in Web-enabled
interactivity. Thus, the two processes are self-reinforcing. This notion is
illustrated using the GROCER case (see Figure 5), where the three stages

Figure 5. Illustrative example using GROCER

E.g. of mechanisms… Grocer’s Grocer’s

Real-time: has standardized Web-enabled Market
Web page, navigation, log Interactivity Orientation
on
Background: has e-mail,
help/FAQ facility Address the
individual e.g., conducts ad hoc
analysis through testing and
Uncover needs…
E.g. of mechanisms… use of Web site statistics;
analyzes customer feedback
Real-time: records session Gather and Web-enabled Generate
Intelligence: market and experience with site.
and navigational information remember input
Background: logs personal from the Web statistics,
intelligence
account data, grocery order individual Customer feedback, Uncover needs…
form, aggregate visit Direct experience
Satisfy needs… +
information WISE audit Disseminate e.g., through integrated
for all 3 operations within business,
Respond to the stages
market
intelligence and cross-functionally with
individual using
external IS/IT supplier.
E.g. of mechanisms… their input Satisfy needs…

Real-time: offers general

background information and Respond to
product and services list, market e.g., plans changes to
allows buyers to update intelligence technical operations, Web
accounts, view past site content, marketing
transactions Changes to Web-enabled Interactivity planning and design.
Background: sends
newsletter, transmits
payment information to POS
system
Technical Operations (e.g., Web site technical redesign, redesign of e-mail handling
processes)
Website Content (e.g., new content, product/price updates, technical fixes)
Marketing Planning and Design (e.g., Web site marketing plan, put URL in search engines)

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20 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

contributing to Web-enabled interactivity facilitate market orientation by gener-

ating market intelligence for the organization. For example, the WISE results
previously discussed for GROCER identify both existing strengths in interactive
communication and opportunities for development. As also identified through the
WISE interview process, GROCER already conducts ad hoc analysis of the data
generated by its Web site and generates customer feedback on the site through
a survey and general e-mail. Therefore, by combining the WISE results with
existing efforts to generate market intelligence, GROCER can begin to identify
possible changes to their Web-enabled operations. That intelligence would then
be disseminated through periodic meetings between GROCER’s president and
marketing manager, and its external IS/IT developer (including the project
manager, site designer, programmers, production artist, etc.). Based on such
discussions, GROCER, together with their external developer, could determine
a response to enhance GROCER’s Web-enabled interactivity by making changes
to technical operations, Web site content and design, and marketing planning
decisions. These interventions can later be tracked and possibly compared to
other sites by a future application of WISE. Consequently, using WISE is a first
step in an iterative planning process that encourages market orientation based on
a detailed audit encompassing all the stages of interactive communication.

Other Uses of WISE

To implement WISE as we have discussed here requires access to key

informants and internal information if all three stages of the tool are to be used
fully. We have, however, also found WISE to be a useful mechanism for
conducting comparative audits of specific stages of the interactive communica-
tion process. For example, a firm’s results for the “Respond” stage can be
benchmarked against publicly available sites to compare and contrast the firm’s
buy-sell/community process with that of competitors or other organizations of
interest. If the firm has multiple Web-enabled operations across different
business units, WISE can also be used to compare different internal operations.
Importantly, it became clear in the development process of WISE that managers
valued its easy-to-use nature and its ability to provide an objective and structured
review of the firm’s Web-enabled interactivity. Indeed, one informant com-
mented that, “without the tool as a guide, reviewing our Web site becomes a
daunting task mired by the reviewer’s subjectivity.” Managers also found the
WISE process useful in generating thought and discussion around the firm’s
Web-enabled operations and their efforts to be market-oriented in a Web
environment.

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 21

Ways to Adapt WISE

Implementation of WISE allows a firm to generate a baseline assessment of its

Web-enabled interactivity, and the “baseline” characteristic might be considered
one limitation to the tool. That is, the WISE criteria are evaluated using 0/1
(absent/present) scoring, and this does not allow for shades of gray in assess-
ment. Some managers might, therefore, prefer to include a weighting mechanism
within the scoring process, as this would allow for WISE to suit a firm’s specific
strategic and/or tactical emphasis as it regards interactive communication. Of
note, while some might suggest that the “absent-present” scoring mechanism
might be improved with the use of a five-point scale, for example, such scales
are considered less appropriate for the objective attributes assessed by WISE,
and more appropriate for measures of perception or satisfaction with a Web site.
A second limitation is that the WISE tool does not seek to capture buyer views
or experiences. Rather, it was developed to audit internally managed operations.
Consequently, some firms might choose to adapt WISE by either complementing
the core tool with a matched set of buyer-focused questions to capture user
experiences (to allow for gap analysis) or using WISE alongside other evaluation
tools that focus on capturing end-user perceptions (e.g., a more traditional
assessment of customer satisfaction with Web site quality).

Future Research
Future research on WISE can be undertaken in a multitude of ways to support
and extend the current work. The conceptual foundations for WISE are drawn
from the existing literature in interactive communication, marketing, and infor-
mation systems. As we continue to see research integrating these fields, the
conceptual base for WISE could be more fully developed by focusing on specific
concepts underlying the assessment process. For example, in terms of the
address, gather, and respond concepts, researchers might focus on enhancing
our understanding and measurement of the real-time buy-sell/community pro-
cess or personalized interactions. Other emphases could be on the corresponding
organizational generation, dissemination, and response processes touched by the
interactive customer environments or how feedback loops affect technical
operations, Web site content, and marketing planning and design. Ideally, further
conceptual refinement would be balanced with empirical data, and implementa-
tion of WISE can provide a first step in this process.
Methodologically, the measurements in WISE can be extended from the yes/no
assessments toward incorporating weights (as discussed previously). The

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permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
22 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

influence of omitted and added items also needs to be considered, since the
meaning of the overall score is determined in relation to the set of items used.
Ultimately, common sets of questions will emerge over time to form comparison
bases, extending the understanding of Web-interactivity within these boundaries
of use. Future research should also seek to move beyond the case method that
was employed for this stage of research. While the use of comparative cases
was deemed necessary to build a context-free tool, important insight would be
obtained if data were collected from many firms in select industries. For
example, this would allow WISE to incorporate built-in benchmarks that are
industry specific.
Finally, future research might focus on refining the WISE process for application
within a given firm. For example, a firm can have multiple Web sites catering to
different markets. Research could assess how well the tool adapts to those
situations and how it should accommodate (for instance) a main Web site that
branches into different sites based on market segment. In addition, given
business now uses Web technology for a variety of operations, researchers might
question how the tool could be adapted for other contexts. Examples include
those in the business-to-employee domain such as procurement sites (e.g., online
catalogues for ordering) or HR administration sites.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Rebecca Giffen, Liena Kano, and Connie Van
der Byl for their assistance in data collection and analysis. They also thank the
three JOEUC reviewers, an associate editor, and Mo Adam Mahmood for their
helpful commentary.

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Endnote
1
All of the dimensions shown in Figure 1 are represented in the WISE tool,
with the exception of “From outside the Web” in the “Address” stage. This
category is largely associated with mechanisms outside the Web environ-
ment and was difficult to operationalize in the tool because of the varied and
uncontrolled ways by which a customer might know the URL.

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permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
26 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

Appendix

WISE Tool Applied to GROCER and BANK

Stage Dimensions Question Grocer Bank Item

Getting to the URL is registered in search engines. 0 1 #1

Web site (from Hyper-links appear on other sites for free (e.g., Associations). 1 1 #2
within the Web Purchased banner advertising appears on other sites. 0 0 #3
environment) Revenue-based affiliated links appear on other sites (e.g., joint
0 0 #4
ventures).
Comm. E-mail contact or input form is available on the site. 1 1 #5
1.
Links 0 0
Address Internet phone/video/chat is available on the site. #6
Within
A site map visually depicts layout of the site. 0 1 #7
the
A help facility or FAQ is available to explain the use of the site. 1 0 #8
Web Naviga-
tional Page design is standardized throughout the Web site. 1 0 #9
site
Design Navigation is facilitated through a menuing system. 1 1 #10
Some navigational information is customized to the user. 0 0 #11
A logon screen with password is available. 1 1 #12
6/12 6/12
1. Address Consumer: Total Number of Items Observed:
50% 50%
Basic hyperlink “click” is accepted (i.e., at least one link available). 1 1 #13
Personal ID and password is required for authentication. 1 1 #14
Manual Manual input is in a form for searching information (e.g., read-only). 1 0 #15
Input from Manual input is in a form for recording information (e.g., account). 1 1 #16
User Manual input involves phone/video/chat with personnel. 0 0 #17
Manual input is through e-mail. 1 1 #18
Sessional information is logged as the user enters the site. 1 1 #19
2. Sessional information is logged as the user navigates the site. 1 1 #20
Gather Cookies (unique identifiers) are used upon entering the Web site. 1 0 #21
System-
Cookies (unique identifiers) are used while user navigates site. 0 0 #22
Generated
Input Database links to user’s previous Web-based data. 1 1 #23
Database links to user’s previous non-Web-based data. 0 0 #24
Hyperlinks from other sites exist with embedded search parameter. 0 0 #25
2. Gather Input: Total Number of Items Observed: 9/13 7/13
69% 54%

continued on following page

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 Assessing Web-Enabled Interactivity 27

3.
Personalize “P” – criteria where information is personalized to the user
Respond to Delay “D” – criteria where an IT-mediated delayed response is generated
Input Background “B” – criteria where a secondary process is initiated; likely involving humans
Company/corporate information explains the business. 1 1 #26
Copyright insignia is apparent. 1 1 #27
Statement about copyright and intellectual property is available. 0 1 #28
Product/service information can be accessed without search facility. 1 1 #29
Product/service information can be accessed with a search facility. 1 1 #30
Information is provided on how to use the products/services. 1 1 #31
Information is provided on where the products/services are available. 1 1 #32
Information is provided on how to purchase/acquire “core”
1 1 #33
products/services.
Information is provided on how to purchase/acquire “promotional”
0 n/a #34
3.1 products.
Respond— Information is provided on how to contact business personnel for
1 1 #35
General information.
Infor- Homepage reflects up-to-date information. 0 1 #36
mation B Site facilitates product/service information sent later in hard copy. 0 1 #37
B Personnel communicate information via Internet phone/video/chat. 0 0 #38
B Site conveys phone number/e-mail for general inquiries. 1 1 #39
Site conveys some information in more than one language. 0 1 #40
P Site personalizes promotion based on captured preferences. 0 0 #41
P Site personalizes promotion based on previous purchases. 0 0 #42
P Site personalizes promotion based on browsing behavior. 0 0 #43
9/18 13/17
3.1 Respond—General Information Total:
50% 76%
General pricing information (e.g., standard prices) is available. 1 1 #44
General information on product/service availability (e.g., inventory) is
0 n/a #45
available.
General delivery/access terms (e.g., charges, timing, and location) are
1 1 #46
available.
General terms such as warranty/returns policy, and so forth are
0 n/a #47
available.
3.2 Provides a brief statement about privacy/confidentiality (e.g., one
1 1 #48
Respond— sentence).
Agreement Provides a privacy policy with details about information usage. 0 1 #49
Provides a trademark to an independent privacy policy association (e.g.,
0 0 #50
certificate authority, trust network).
Link between user’s browser and the Web site server is secure. 1 1 #51
Information to explain security concepts to users is available online. 0 1 #52
B Site facilitates mail-out of agreement information (e.g., quote). 0 1 #53
P Site personalizes/adjusts terms (e.g., pricing) to the individual. 0 0 #54
3.2 Respond—Agreement Total: 4/11 7/9
36% 78%

continued on following page

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 28 Marcolin, Coviello, & Milley

Mechanism is available for online purchase (e.g., shopping cart). 1 n/a #55
B Personnel take consumer order through Internet phone/video/chat. 0 0 #56
B Personnel are available via standard phone to take order. 0 1 #57
B Web site order initiates call from personnel to clarify order. 1 1 #58
B Site accepts order via e-mail or form; to be processed outside Web. 0 1 #59
Site settles payment directly online (e.g., use of e-cash/credit card). 0 n/a #60
P Site facilitates opening a personal account online. 1 1 #61
3.3.Respond—
P Status of Web-based orders can be accessed online (e.g., invoice). 1 1 #62
Settlement
P Status of non-Web orders can be accessed online (e.g., invoice). 0 0 #63
Site distributes some products online (if it is digitally based). 0 1 #64
B Site facilitates distributing product off-line (physical means). 1 1 #65
D Delivery/invoicing/receipt documents are sent online (e.g., e-mail). 0 0 #66
P Delivery/invoicing/receipt documents are available on the site. 1 1 #67
D Delivery/invoicing/receipt documents are sent off-line (e.g., mail). 1 1 #68
7/14 9/12
3.3. Respond—Settlement Total:
50% 75%
General support information for products/services is available. 1 1 #69
B Support Information is sent “off-line” because of sale. 0 1 #70
D Support Information is sent “online” via e-mail because of sale. 0 1 #71
P User can access past Web-based transactions/receipts online. 1 1 #72
P User can access past external transactions/receipts online. 0 0 #73
3.4 P User can update past transaction information online (e.g., opt-out). 0 0 #74
Respond— P User can update personal account information online (e.g., address). 1 0 #75
After-Sales User can gain online access to ID or password if forgotten (can use e-
0 1 #76
mail).
B Personnel provide after-sales service via Internet phone/video/chat. 0 0 #77
B Personnel provide after-sales service via standard phone. 1 1 #78
D Personnel provide after-sales service via e-mail. 1 1 #79
5/11 7/11
3.4 Respond—After-Sales Total:
45% 64%
Promotional incentives exist to encourage customers back to the site. 0 0 #80
B Ancillary information of community interest is available online. 1 1 #81
D User can register for e-mail (e.g., newsletter) of community interest. 1 0 #82
D User input on core offering is recorded for public viewing. 0 0 #83
3.5
Users can “chat” directly among themselves. 0 0 #84
Respond—
Community User survey/input forms are available. 1 1 #85
Users can “chat” with or hear from individuals of interest. 0 0 #86
P Site personalizes promotion based on community data. 0 1 #87
Discussion group/news group information can be accessed on the site. 0 0 #88
3/9 3/9
3.5 Respond—Community Total:
33% 33%
28/63 39/58
3. Respond Using Input: Total Number of Items Observed:
44% 67%
Total Number of Items Observed: 43 52

Total Number of Applicable Items: 88/88 83/88

Grand Total
Percentage of Total Items Observed: 49% 63%

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 Internet Among Employees at Work 29

Chapter II

The Impact of Personal

IT Innovativeness
on Use of the Internet
Among Employees
at Work
Tor J. Larsen, Norwegian School of Management, Norway

Øystein Sørebø, Buskerud University College, Norway1

Abstract

Examining Internet use among employees, this research investigated the

theoretical proposition that personal IT innovativeness will positively
impact the use of novel computer technologies. The research model included
the individual traits of age, gender, experience with IT, and educational
level. The article discusses the categories of organizationally relevant
versus personal use of the Internet. Using a questionnaire, data was
collected from 328 respondents in one organization. The results indicated
that users perceive structural differences across various types of Internet
use areas, although no clear support for a distinction between
organizationally relevant and personal use was found. Additionally, the

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30 Larsen & Sørebø

analyses indicated that personal use is considerably lower than

organizationally relevant use of the Internet. However, employees may not
distinguish clearly between these two categories. Personal IT innovativeness
was the best predictor of organizationally relevant use of the Internet. Age
contributed negatively to Internet use. Males appear to use the Internet
more frequently than females. Educational level had no impact on Internet
use.

Introduction
A recurring theme within the domain of end-user computing is explaining
differences in individual computer use patterns among employees (DeLone &
McLean, 1992; Harris, 2000; Powell & Moore, 2002; Seddon, 1997). Recently,
Internet usage has emerged as an area of particular importance (Otto, Najdawi,
& Caron, 2000; Stanton, 2002). Because of the recent dot-com bubble collapse
and numerous e-commerce failures, one would expect the Internet to have less
importance to individual users. However, in addition to some dot-com successes,
private and public institutions are developing an increasing number of Internet
services. Employees of large organizations are active users, and their use is
expected to grow (Charlton, Gittings, Leng, Little, & Neilson, 1998; Roberts,
2000). Research addressing differences in personal Internet use patterns has
relevance.
Based on the view that change is key, a series of studies has investigated the
effect of personal information technology (IT) innovativeness on the use of
novel technologies. Studies addressing personal IT innovativeness often differ
from research using the technology acceptance model (Chau, 2001) because the
impacts of attitude, beliefs, and intention on behavior (i.e., use) are not the focus.
Rather, personal IT innovativeness has been viewed as a trait that in its own
right may explain use. Hence, the present research builds on the theoretical
assumption that personal IT innovativeness is positively related to the use of
novel technologies regardless of usage area.
The samples used in previous studies addressing personal IT innovativeness
are users (in general) of the World Wide Web (Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000),
online shoppers (Limayem, Khalifa, & Frini, 2000), academicians (Pajo, 2000),
and adolescents (Wolfrandt & Doll, 2001). The overall interpretation is that
personal IT innovativeness has a positive impact on Internet use, yet the
relationship between personal IT innovativeness and Internet use among the
broad population of employees in business organizations has not been directly
investigated.

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 Internet Among Employees at Work 31

The argument that the present fast-changing business environment requires

constant innovation efforts also applies to individual employees. The concept of
innovation covers a wide range of issues (Damanpour, 1991; Robey & Boudreau,
2000). Clearly, personal IT innovativeness is only a small element within the
larger issue of innovation in organizational settings. It has also been argued that
there is a difference between change and innovation (Katz & Kahn, 1978;
Larsen, 1993). According to these authors, an innovation effort would impact a
large part of, if not the entire, organization. Change activities are defined as
individual actions taken where the objective is limited to improvements in the
individual’s own job situation.
However, an information technology that offers a large degree of freedom with
regard to its use may leave the responsibility of its use to individual users. In this
regard, the degree of personal IT innovativeness may play a role. Obviously
other socioeconomic characteristics may explain use (Brancheau & Wetherbe,
1990; Rogers, 1983). For these reasons, the present research project focused on
the following research question: What are the relationships among employees’
degree of personal IT innovativeness, other socioeconomic factors, and the use
of the Internet at work?

Theory, Hypotheses, and

Research Model
IT use (also denoted system use or utilization) is one of the most frequently
applied concepts of IS-success (e.g., Seddon, 1997; Straub, Limayem, &
Karahanna-Evaristo, 1995). Among information systems (IS) researchers, there
is a widespread belief that use of IT affects white-collar performance (Davis,
1989; Thompson, Higgins, & Howell, 1991). However, as Guthrie and Gray
(1996) and Markus (1994) have observed, IT can be utilized in both appropriate
and inappropriate ways. Ineffective or inappropriate use often prevents or
undermines positive impacts (Markus, 1994). For example, indiscriminate use of
the Internet for personal matters may result in reduced job performance.
Because the Internet can be employed for multiple purposes, the issue has been
raised that organizations must promote appropriate or organizationally relevant
Internet use2 (Spar & Bussgang, 1996). Conversely, it has also been argued that
employees should be allowed to spend time on non-productive tasks since any
experience in computer use may increase a person’s computer literacy and
general ability to take advantage of IT (Guthrie & Gray, 1996).
Based on the work by Guthrie and Gray and Markus, in this research Internet use
was conceptualized as a construct including both organizationally relevant and

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permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
32 Larsen & Sørebø

personal use, with use of the Internet as a vehicle for business information search
being an example of the former, and use of the Internet for personal banking
being an example of the latter. Organizations would obviously promote Internet
use that is business related. Consequently, many organizations have established
policies that limit or prohibit personal Internet use. Because the information
found on the Internet frequently is not organized into clear categories, distin-
guishing between organizationally relevant and personal Internet use may not be
straightforward (e.g., reading news, browsing, and locating home pages).
Personal banking and shopping products are examples of personal use. Organi-
zations may not want employees to spend hours on these. Yet, organizations may
encourage employees to explore new technologies and new possibilities. Hence,
limited personal use of the Internet at work may not be seen as synonymous with
inappropriate use. Because of this, employees may not perceive a clear
distinction between organizationally relevant and personal use.
In summary, in situations where limited personal Internet use occurs and the
organization does not explicitly forbid it or implicitly encourages it to some
degree, it may be difficult for employees to differentiate between organization-
ally relevant and personal Internet use. Also, the information found on the
Internet is quite often not presented in clear categories. Hence, the present
research anticipated that active Internet users are more active across usage
areas than less active users. The argumentation leads to the following hypoth-
esis:

H1.a: Use of the Internet among employees will not exhibit structural
differences across Internet usage areas.

It is reasonable to expect that personal Internet use occurs in most organizations

and, at least in part, is indistinguishable from organizationally relevant use. As
indicated above, reading business news may be a typical example of use that
mixes organizationally relevant and personal Internet use. However, shopping
and banking are strong personal use candidates, but even these two usage areas
may have organizational relevance. For example, filing a business travel com-
pensation request may require access to personal bank and credit card informa-
tion. Although personal Internet use may be structurally consistent across usage
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humble offering to the gods removed all impurities, social and
religious.
The Bolarum Dacoitee committed in 1837 is such an excellent
illustration of the system adopted by the Sanseeas that no apology
need be offered for the length of the narrative, as given to Captain
Malcolm ten years afterwards by one of the Dacoits actually engaged
in it.
"From this place (Sadaseopath) I and four others came on to
Hyderabad, where we looked about us for five days, but finding
nothing likely to suit our purpose, we went to Bolarum, and took up
our quarters at a buneeya's (tradesman's) shop in the village of
Alwal, close to the cantonments. In the cantonments we soon
discovered a respectable looking shop, which appeared well suited
for a Dacoitee. Early one morning I took fifty shuhr-chelnee rupees
with me and went to the shop, where I found the owner transacting
business. I asked him to exchange the shuhr-chelnee for bagh-
chelnee rupees, and when I had agreed to give him one pice
discount on each rupee, he went and unlocked one of two large-
sized boxes, which I saw in an inner room, and out of which he took
the money I required. I also noticed some silver horse-furniture
hanging upon a peg on the wall, and in a niche a dagger and a pair
of pistols." "Having thus obtained all the information I required as to
the exact spot where the property was likely to be found, I next
examined the position of the different guards likely to interrupt us in
the act of breaking into the house. I found that a guard of eighteen
men was stationed at the chowrie (police station) some distance off,
and that a sentry was posted at night at a place where four streets
met, close to the shop I had reconnoitred. From the latter I feared
no opposition, as he could easily be overpowered, and we calculated
upon breaking into the house before the chowrie-guard could turn
out and come to the rescue of the banker."
"I then returned to my comrades, with whom I remained for two
days, making ourselves acquainted with all the localities about the
place, the roads leading from it, and in fact with everything that
might be of use to us in the enterprise we were about to undertake.
Among other things, we learnt that after gun-fire, or eight o'clock,
the guard had orders to stop all parties entering the cantonments,
and we therefore determined to commence operations before that
hour."
"We then returned to Sadaseopath (forty miles distant), and on
relating the result of our proceedings to the gang, it was determined
to risk a Dacoitee on the Sowar's house at Bolarum. Our next
proceeding was to convey as secretly as possible to the vicinity of
that place sufficient arms and axes to answer our purpose; these
were made up into bundles and entrusted to four men, who
proceeded in the night time to Puttuncherroo, and on the following
night, a couple of hours before daybreak, we reached a small nullah
(ravine) behind the mosque near Bolarum, where the axes and
spears were carefully buried in the sand. The rest of our party in the
meantime struck their camp, and, leaving the high road, made to the
village of Tillapoor, about eight or nine miles from the fort of
Golcondah."
"The gang chosen for the Dacoitee consisted of twenty-four able
men, under Rungelah Jemadar and myself, and left Tillapoor about
ten o'clock in the forenoon, and, in small parties of two and three,
reached at twilight the spot where our arms were concealed. We
then procured some oil from the shop in the cantonments, and,
about half-past seven or nearly eight o'clock, we proceeded in
straggling order towards the shop about to be attacked, and which
we reached without being challenged by any one. The sentry posted
near the shop we were about to attack did not appear to suspect or
notice us; and the moment our mussal (torch) was lighted, he was
speared by Baraham Shah and Kistniah, while others commenced
breaking in the doors of the inner room, the outer partition of the
shop having been found open. Three bankers, whom we found
writing their accounts in the outer shop, rushed into the house and
disappeared. The lock of the door yielded to one blow from the axe
of Rungelah, and, on throwing down the planks of which it was
formed, we found the box which I had seen on a former occasion,
unlocked and open. Out of this we took sixteen bags full of money,
leaving four, which we were obliged to relinquish, as we were
pressed for time, and had not sufficient men at hand to remove
them. The whole place now was in a state of commotion and uproar;
and, as we drew off as fast as we could, we were followed by a
crowd of camp-followers and Sipahees, to the place where a number
of bullocks were picketed. We here struck into the paddy (rice)
fields, and across these our pursuers did not attempt to follow us. A
short distance from Bolarum, two of the bags broke, and the money
fell to the ground; and as it was dark, and we had no time to search
for it, we lost nearly 1,500 rupees." Nevertheless, they got off with
14,500 rupees, and with silver horse-furniture valued at £15 more.
The impossibility of guarding against these organized attacks by
large bodies of armed men, through the means of the ordinary
police, induced Lord Auckland in 1838 to appoint Captain Sleeman
commissioner for the suppression of Dacoitee, in addition to his
duties as General Superintendent of measures for the suppression of
Thuggee. The task was a difficult one. Not only were the Dacoits
protected and screened by the native princes, land owners, and
magistrates—their own numbers and determination rendered their
apprehension a matter of some danger. It was afterwards
ascertained that in 1839 there were no fewer than seventy-two
leaders south of the Jumna who could gather together 1,625
followers; and to the north of that river forty-six leaders, supported
by 1,445 men. In the Oude jungles were many powerful colonies,
who were usually warned by friendly Zemindars of the approach of
danger, and thus enabled to flee to less accessible fastnesses. On
one occasion 1,500 of them escaped into Nepaul where they
temporarily dispersed, to meet again at a given rendezvous. The
Commissioner himself aptly compared their colonies to a ball of
quicksilver, which, if pressed by the finger, will divide into many
smaller globules, all certain to come together again and cohere as
firmly as before. However, the constant alarms to which they were
now subjected, compelled them to conceal themselves in such
unhealthy spots that they were decimated by disease. In the
Goruckpore district a gang, consisting of ninety-four men and 280
women and children, suffered so much from this cause that they
voluntarily surrendered themselves. Others were hunted down from
one district to another, until in despair they yielded themselves
prisoners, or endeavoured to abandon their illegal vocation and
settle down to agricultural pursuits. Many of the prisoners, being
conditionally pardoned, were admitted into the police force, where
they distinguished themselves by their courage and intelligence. It is
a remarkable trait in the character of the Dacoits that they rarely
forfeited their word. If once they pledged themselves not to revert to
their former evil habits, there was little danger of a relapse. An
experimental colony was formed of the approvers and their families
near Moradabad, at a place called, de nomine facti, Buddukabad.
The result has been satisfactory, though the Dacoits usually
complained of the difficulty of confining their expenditure to the
comparatively small means furnished by honest industry. A Budduk,
they would say, cannot live on eight rupees a month (three rupees
being the wages of an ordinary labourer): he requires at least two
rupees a day, because he eats meat and takes large quantities of
ghee and rice, and loves liquor, and is addicted to polygamy. One of
them, who had been ten years in prison, being asked by Capt.
Ramsay if, in the event of his liberation, he would promise to amend
his life, shook his head and answered with a merry laugh:—"No, no,
that would never do. Why should I become an honest man—work
hard all day in the sun, rain, and all weathers, and earn—what?
Some five or six pice a day! We Dacoits lead very comfortable and
agreeable lives. When from home, which is generally only during the
cold season, we march some fourteen or sixteen miles a-day for,
perhaps, a couple of months, or say four, at the outside—commit a
Dacoitee and bring home money sufficient to keep us comfortable
for a year, or perhaps two. When at home we amuse ourselves by
shooting, or visiting our friends, or in any way most agreeable—eat
when we please, and sleep when we please—can, what you call an
honest man, do that?"
Another who had passed a like period within the gaol at Lucknow,
returned to Dacoitee a few months after his release. "I was then
young," said he, "and in high spirits—I had been confined with many
other old Dacoits—and in gaol I used to hear them talking of their
excursions, how they got 50,000 rupees here and 20,000 rupees
there; and I used to long for my release, that I might go on Dacoitee
and enjoy myself." The confessions of both these men would be
readily endorsed by many inmates of our own prisons. Evil
associations and the charms of a contraband career are equally
potent in Europe and in Asia. But among the natives of India the
profession of a Dacoit was not regarded as one of shame and
disgrace. Indeed, even the Commissioner avowed he could see little
difference, ethically, between expeditions in quest of plunder, and
those for the purpose of conquest; it was a question of degree, not
of principle. They themselves gloried in their calling. "Ours," they
said, "has been a Padshahee Kam (an imperial business); we have
attached and seized boldly the thousands and hundreds of
thousands that we have freely and nobly spent: we have been all
our lives wallowing in wealth and basking in freedom, and find it
hard to manage with a few copper pice a day we get from you." So
energetic, however, and persevering were the measures adopted for
the suppression of this "Padshahee Kam" that within a very few
years after their inauguration, there existed in the Upper Provinces
scarcely even the nucleus of a gang. The few who still remained at
liberty were known by name and personal appearance, and only
escaped apprehension by leading simple and inoffensive lives,
gaining their daily bread by their daily labour.
The task of suppression in the Lower Provinces has been attended
with so many peculiar difficulties, from the natural configuration of
the country, that Dacoitee can hardly yet be said to be extinguished.
But its days are numbered, and a marked diminution of cases is
observable every year. The apathy of their victims has, undoubtedly,
been one great cause of the impunity so long enjoyed by these
daring marauders. This reluctance to prosecute, though partly owing
to a well founded dread of incurring the vengeance of the comrades
of convicted Dacoits, is chiefly attributable to the repugnance felt by
all respectable natives to appear in Court even as complainants. The
tedious formalities of legal proceedings appear to them in the light
of studied annoyances, and their dignity is offended by the distrust
with which their statements are necessarily received. Perhaps, the
ancient mode of administering justice would be, after all, the most
efficacious, and certainly most in accordance with the native
character. The elders of the town, or village, seated at the gate, or
beneath the grateful shade of stately trees, and presided over by an
English gentleman conversant with their habits and language, and
possessed of tact, patience, and good sense, would probably
dispense more evenhanded justice than is obtained by all the costly
paraphernalia of courts of law founded on a totally different phase of
civilization. Be this as it may, enough has now been said to disprove
the vulgar allegation of indifference to the welfare of their fellow
subjects so flippantly and frequently urged against the Government
of the East India Company. And these are only two out of many
instances that might be adduced to show that their administration
has been one of continued and consistent progress. It is reserved for
posterity to admire the gratitude that seeks to reward the
annexation and improvement of a vast empire by maligning the
motives of those to whom this country is indebted for the brightest
gem in the imperial crown, vilipending their services, and depriving
them of power and patronage.
 The Mangs.
Some curious and interesting information has been furnished by
Captain C. Barr, of the Bombay Native Infantry, with regard to the
Mangs, or Kholapore Dacoits. It is needless to observe, that
Kholapore was one of the early divisions of the Mahratta empire, or
that it separated from the main body in 1729, under the auspices of
one of the younger branches of Sivajee's family. The Mangs occupied
the very lowest grade in the ladder of society—or, rather, they were
looked upon as outcasts, and quite beyond the pale of society. They
harboured in wilds and forests, and lived upon carrion, roots, and
wild fruits. Their real occupation, however, was that of border
robbers; and yet it was a source of pride among them that their
wives should remain ignorant of the nature of their pursuits. They
never robbed or defrauded one another; they even believed that the
spoliation of "the Gentiles" necessitated an expiation, which usually
assumed the form of a gift of a pair of shoes to a Brahman, and
alms to the poor. Experience had taught them the expediency of
employing a peculiar dialect—perhaps it was the original language of
their race. Their leader, or headman, was called the Naïk, and was
selected by the majority of votes for his skill in planning an
expedition, his bravery in carrying it out, and his integrity in the
division of the spoils. The office was, consequently, not hereditary;
but they so far believed in the efficacy of blood, as to allow
considerable weight for a father's merits. The Naïk's person and
property were alike inviolable. On all ceremonial occasions his
precedence was allowed; in disputes, his decision was final; and on
him devolved the duty of laying out plans for robberies. To every
band was attached an informer, who was also the receiver of the
stolen goods. These scoundrels generally pretended to be, and
perhaps were, bangle-sellers, dealers in perfume, goldsmiths,
jewellers, &c., &c. In this capacity they were admitted into women's
apartments, and so enabled to form a correct notion of the
topography of a house, and a shrewd guess as to the wealth of its
inmates. Their mode of conducting a Dacoitee was in all respects
similar to those already described. The only persons exempt from
their depredations were bangle-sellers and agricultural labourers,
who, in return, afforded them refuge and hospitality in the hour of
need. After a successful foray, each of the gang contributed one-
fourth of his share to the Naïk, towards the common fund for
defraying the expenses of preparation, absolution, and feasts of
triumph. The informer was not entitled to any specific sum; but, as
he enjoyed the privilege of pre-emption of the booty, his interests
are not likely to have been overlooked.
Like all barbarous tribes, and all persons addicted to criminal
practices, the Mangs were extremely superstitious. They never, for
instance, set out upon an expedition on a Friday. The new-born child
was bathed in a spot previously prepared for the purpose, and
baptized by the Brahman, in the name of the deity presiding over
that particular hour. In the family, however, and throughout life, the
neophyte sinner was known by some household name. Danger was
encountered at an early period of life. The mother and another
woman stood on opposite sides of the cradle, and the former tossed
her child to the other, commending it to the mercy of Jee Gopal, and
waited to receive it back in like manner, in the name of Jee Govind.
The Mangs usually married young in life. If a girl happened to hang
heavy on hand, she was married, at the age of puberty, to the deity.
In other words, she was attached as a prostitute to the temple of
the god Khundoba, or the goddess Yellania. Those belonging to the
service of the latter were wont, in the month of February, to parade
the streets in a state of utter nudity. It was customary, previous to a
secular marriage, for the parents of the bridegroom to ask for the
hand of the bride. A test of the aspirant's address was then
demanded. In one instance, the father of the maiden filled a silver
vessel with water up to the brim after carefully suspending it over
his head in bed, so that the slightest touch would be certain to
splash the water on to his face. The suitor, however, was not
daunted by the difficulty of the enterprise. Procuring some dry
porous earth, he employed it as a sponge, carefully applying it to the
surface of the water. Having thus reduced the level of the surface,
he cut the strings, carried off the vessel, and next morning claimed
his bride. The marriage ceremonies were by no means interesting,
except when a bachelor wooed a widow. In this case he was first
united to the asclepias gigantea, which was immediately
transplanted. Withering away and dying, it left him at liberty to
marry the charming widow. If a lady survived the sorrow caused by
the death of two or three husbands, she could not again enter the
holy state unless she consented to be married with a fowl under her
armpit—the unfortunate bird being afterwards killed to appease the
manes of her former consorts.
Each family had its household god, but all agreed in the common
worship of Davee, as the tutelar deity of the tribe. Their chief festival
was the Dusserah, on which day they usually set out on their
expeditions, armed with sword and shield, and iron crowbar.
Unhappily, the Mangs must be spoken of in the past tense. The
servants of the East India Company, actuated, no doubt, by
mercenary motives, have put an end to their depredations and
compelled them to resort to honest and common-place industry.
Thus are sentimentality and romance crushed at the India House.
 The Oothaeegeerahs
or

Professional Thieves.
In the year 1851 it was accidentally discovered that the British
territories had long been infested with gangs of thieves from the
Banpoor States. These Sunoreahs, or Oothaeegeerahs, who
extended their depredations into the very heart of Calcutta, had
carried on their vocation with impunity for many generations. Their
existence was well known, however, to the native authorities, from
whom they received protection and encouragement. The head man
of each village was ex officio chief of the Sunoreahs, and kept a
registry of the various "nals," or gangs under his own jurisdiction—
usually from seven to ten in number. In Tehree they were estimated
at 4,000, in Banpoor at 300, and in Dutteeah also at 300. There
were in all twelve villages occupied by them, presided over by a
Government officer, whose duty it was to act as umpire in all
disputes arising out of the division of spoils.
Shortly after the Dusserah festival the chiefs of each village repaired
to their favourite Brahman priest to ascertain in what direction they
were to bend their steps. This having been duly indicated, together
with the auspicious day and hour, they started off in a body to some
place of considerable note. Here the gang, consisting, probably, of
fifty or sixty men, was subdivided into parties of ten or twelve, and
detached to adjacent towns and villages, while the leader, with a
strong party, remained at the point of separation. Hither they all
returned in the month of July; and, if their joint exertions had
produced fifty or sixty rupees for each man, they then hastened
home to prepare their fields for the summer crop. But should fortune
have proved unfavourable they again took to the road, while their
leader alone hastened back to the village laden with plunder for their
respective families. The office of Mookeea, or leader, was hereditary,
and, in default of male issue, descended to females. If among the
booty there happened to be any object of peculiar elegance or value,
it was ceremoniously presented to the chief of the state. Thus, the
head of the Tehree Government acknowledged a present of two
valuable pearl nose ornaments, by bestowing on the thief a grant of
land, rent free, in perpetuity; and the Rajah of Banpore was known
to have accepted two handsome watches and a pair of arm
ornaments. There was no mystery in the disposal of their stolen
goods. These were openly sold in the market places and bazaars at
half their value, and, during the absence of the Sunoreahs on their
thieving expeditions, the village money-lender unhesitatingly
supplied their families with whatever they might require. Of course,
care was taken never to commit any depredations within the
territories of their protectors and patrons.
The Sunoreahs had "chounees," or depôts in all parts of India,
where they could always find a ready sale for their effects. Near
Calcutta their head quarters were at the serai of the Rajah of
Burdwan, whose ostentatious hospitality oftentimes maintained as
many as 200 of them. Though usually possessed of ample means,
they never scrupled to accept alms with the Byragees, or religious
mendicants at Burdwan. No matter how widely they might have
roamed from their native villages, they always found ready
purchasers for their pilferings, and they themselves easily recognised
each other by means of a peculiar "bolee," or slang.
When their proceedings first became known to Major P. Harris,
Superintendent of Chundeyree, that officer immediately addressed
the Rajah of Banpoor on the subject, and elicited from him a most
naïve and characteristic reply, the following extract from which well
exemplifies the native notions of morality and good government:—
"I have to state that from former times these people following their
profession, have resided in my territory and in the states of other
native princes; and they have always followed this calling, but no
former kings, or princes or authority have ever forbidden the
practice; therefore these people for generations have resided in my
territory and the states of other princes; proceeding to distant
districts, to follow their occupation, robbing by day for a livelihood
for themselves and families, both cash, and any other property they
could lay hands on. In consequence of these people stealing by day
only, and that they do not take life, or distress any person, by
personal ill-usage, and that they do not break into houses, by
digging wells or breaking door-locks, but simply by their smartness
manage to abstract property; owing to such trifling thefts I looked
on their proceedings as petty thefts, and have not interfered with
them. As many States as there may be in India, under the protection
of the British Government, there is not one in which these people
are not to be found, and it is possible that in all other States who
protect them, the same system is pursued towards them as in my
district; and besides, these people thieving only by day, the police
officers in the British territories are not expected to exert
themselves, the loss having occurred simply through the owner's
negligence. Owing to this circumstance, your friend looking on their
transgressions as trifling, I have not caused my police to interfere
with them. The British Government, who issue orders to all the
native powers in India, have never directed the system of Sunoreahs
to be stopped. From this I conclude that their offence is looked upon
by the British Government, as trifling; and probably this is the
reason that neither the British Government, nor any other authority,
have ever directed me to stop their calling; and on this account,
from property that they have brought home, and I have heard that it
suited me, or that they themselves, considering the article to be a
curiosity from a distant province, have presented to me through my
servants; thus, viewing the offence as trifling, that there was no
owner to the property, I received it from them, and gave them a
trifle in return."
 LONDON:
LEWIS AND SON, PRINTERS, 21, FINCH LANE, CORNHILL.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A POPULAR
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